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Ibraheem Q. The Role of Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2) in Colorectal Cancer Progression: Correlation With Clinicopathological Features and Impact on Cellular Processes. Cureus 2024; 16:e61941. [PMID: 38978899 PMCID: PMC11229389 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.61941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a prevalent and deadly disease characterized by significant molecular complexity. Matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2) has been implicated in cancer progression due to its role in extracellular matrix degradation, yet comprehensive studies linking MMP2 expression to CRC progression and its molecular mechanisms remain needed. Methodology This study involved 90 CRC patients, with tumor and adjacent normal tissues analyzed via immunohistochemistry (IHC) to assess MMP2 expression. The human CRC cell line SW480 was treated with an MMP2 inhibitor, ARP100, and evaluated for changes in cell migration, invasion, proliferation, and apoptosis using various assays, including MTT, wound-healing, transwell, caspase activity, and western blot analysis. Results High MMP2 expression was significantly associated with advanced tumor stages, lymph node involvement, and metastasis in CRC patients. Compared to normal tissues, MMP2 expression was markedly higher in cancerous tissues. Inhibition of MMP2 in SW480 cells resulted in reduced migration, invasion, and proliferation, and induced apoptosis, evidenced by increased caspase 3 and 9 activities and higher levels of cleaved caspase proteins. Conclusion Elevated MMP2 expression is correlated with advanced CRC and aggressive tumor characteristics. MMP2 inhibition can suppress CRC cell invasiveness, migration, and proliferation while promoting apoptosis, suggesting its potential as a therapeutic target in CRC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qais Ibraheem
- Department of Anatomy, Biology and Histology, College of Medicine, University of Duhok, Duhok, IRQ
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2
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Ali E, Trailin A, Ambrozkiewicz F, Liška V, Hemminki K. Activated Hepatic Stellate Cells in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Their Role as a Potential Target for Future Therapies. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232315292. [PMID: 36499616 PMCID: PMC9741299 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232315292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a global healthcare challenge, which affects more than 815,000 new cases every year. Activated hepatic stellate cells (aHSCs) remain the principal cells that drive HCC onset and growth. aHSCs suppress the anti-tumor immune response through interaction with different immune cells. They also increase the deposition of the extracellular matrix proteins, challenging the reversion of fibrosis and increasing HCC growth and metastasis. Therapy for HCC was reported to activate HSCs, which could explain the low efficacy of current treatments. Conversely, recent studies aimed at the deactivation of HSCs show that they have been able to inhibit HCC growth. In this review article, we discuss the role of aHSCs in HCC pathophysiology and therapy. Finally, we provide suggestions for the experimental implementation of HSCs in HCC therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esraa Ali
- Laboratory of Translational Cancer Genomics, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Alej Svobody 1665/76, 32300 Pilsen, Czech Republic
| | - Andriy Trailin
- Laboratory of Translational Cancer Genomics, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Alej Svobody 1665/76, 32300 Pilsen, Czech Republic
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +420-377-593-862
| | - Filip Ambrozkiewicz
- Laboratory of Translational Cancer Genomics, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Alej Svobody 1665/76, 32300 Pilsen, Czech Republic
| | - Václav Liška
- Laboratory of Cancer Treatment and Tissue Regeneration, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Alej Svobody 1665/76, 32300 Pilsen, Czech Republic
- Department of Surgery University Hospital and Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Alej Svobody 80, 32300 Pilsen, Czech Republic
| | - Kari Hemminki
- Laboratory of Translational Cancer Genomics, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Alej Svobody 1665/76, 32300 Pilsen, Czech Republic
- Department of Cancer Epidemiology, German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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3
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Buettner JM, Sowoidnich L, Gerstner F, Blanco-Redondo B, Hallermann S, Simon CM. p53-dependent c-Fos expression is a marker but not executor for motor neuron death in spinal muscular atrophy mouse models. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:1038276. [DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.1038276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The activation of the p53 pathway has been associated with neuronal degeneration in different neurological disorders, including spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) where aberrant expression of p53 drives selective death of motor neurons destined to degenerate. Since direct p53 inhibition is an unsound therapeutic approach due carcinogenic effects, we investigated the expression of the cell death-associated p53 downstream targets c-fos, perp and fas in vulnerable motor neurons of SMA mice. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) of SMA motor neurons revealed c-fos RNA as a promising candidate. Accordingly, we identified p53-dependent nuclear upregulation of c-Fos protein in degenerating motor neurons from the severe SMNΔ7 and intermediate Smn2B/– SMA mouse models. Although motor neuron-specific c-fos genetic deletion in SMA mice did not improve motor neuron survival or motor behavior, p53-dependent c-Fos upregulation marks vulnerable motor neurons in different mouse models. Thus, nuclear c-Fos accumulation may serve as a readout for therapeutic approaches targeting neuronal death in SMA and possibly other p53-dependent neurodegenerative diseases.
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4
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Fakhri S, Moradi SZ, Nouri Z, Cao H, Wang H, Khan H, Xiao J. Modulation of integrin receptor by polyphenols: Downstream Nrf2-Keap1/ARE and associated cross-talk mediators in cardiovascular diseases. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 64:1592-1616. [PMID: 36073725 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2118226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
As a group of heterodimeric and transmembrane glycoproteins, integrin receptors are widely expressed in various cell types overall the body. During cardiovascular dysfunction, integrin receptors apply inhibitory effects on the antioxidative pathways, including nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-Kelch like ECH Associated Protein 1 (Keap1)/antioxidant response element (ARE) and interconnected mediators. As such, dysregulation in integrin signaling pathways influences several aspects of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) such as heart failure, arrhythmia, angina, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, platelet aggregation and coagulation. So, modulation of integrin pathway could trigger the downstream antioxidant pathways toward cardioprotection. Regarding the involvement of multiple aforementioned mediators in the pathogenesis of CVDs, as well as the side effects of conventional drugs, seeking for novel alternative drugs is of great importance. Accordingly, the plant kingdom could pave the road in the treatment of CVDs. Of natural entities, polyphenols are multi-target and accessible phytochemicals with promising potency and low levels of toxicity. The present study aims at providing the cardioprotective roles of integrin receptors and downstream antioxidant pathways in heart failure, arrhythmia, angina, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, platelet aggregation and coagulation. The potential role of polyphenols has been also revealed in targeting the aforementioned dysregulated signaling mediators in those CVDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajad Fakhri
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Seyed Zachariah Moradi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
- Medical Biology Research Center, Health Technology Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Zeinab Nouri
- Student Research Committee, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Hui Cao
- Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Universidade de Vigo, Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Ourense, Spain
| | - Hui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, China-Canada Joint Lab of Food Science and Technology (Nanchang), Key Laboratory of Bioactive Polysaccharides of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Haroon Khan
- Department of Pharmacy, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan, Pakistan
| | - Jianbo Xiao
- Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Universidade de Vigo, Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Ourense, Spain
- International Research Center for Food Nutrition and Safety, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
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5
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Gao W, Peng W, Ji X, Zhu D, Chen J, Feng J, Yu Y, Duan L, Duan Y. Expression of recombinant Schistosoma japonicum protein rSjE16 and its effects on LX-2 cells in vitro. J Int Med Res 2021; 48:300060520972228. [PMID: 33350335 PMCID: PMC7758674 DOI: 10.1177/0300060520972228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective The activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) is a key event in schistosome-induced liver fibrosis. Previous studies have shown that soluble egg antigens and the recombinant P40 protein from Schistosoma japonicum eggs inhibit HSC activation. In the present study, we observed the direct effect of the S. japonicum recombinant (r)SjE16 protein on HSCs. Methods The sequence of SjE16 was analyzed by bioinformatics. Then western blotting, quantitative PCR, and MTT assays were performed to observe the effects of rSjE16 on HSCs. Results The SjE16 protein has no signal peptide or transmembrane region. rSjE16 significantly inhibited expression levels of α-smooth muscle actin and collagen I protein in LX-2 cells. rSjE16 also significantly increased the expression levels of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8, and enhanced the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, MMP-9, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ in LX-2 cells. LX-2 cell viability was not inhibited by rSjE16. Conclusion rSjE16 may be involved in the progression of HSC activation via a complex molecular mechanism, which requires further study to fully understand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenxi Gao
- Laboratory Center of Economics and Management School, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.,Department of Medical Informatics, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenxia Peng
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.,Department of Medical Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Xingpei Ji
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Dandan Zhu
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinling Chen
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinrong Feng
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Yu
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Lian Duan
- Department of Medical Informatics, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yinong Duan
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
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6
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Matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy. Exp Eye Res 2021; 205:108500. [PMID: 33617849 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2021.108500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy (FECD) is characterized by a progressive loss of corneal endothelial cells (CECs) and an abnormal accumulation of extracellular matrix in Descemet's membrane leading to increased thickness and formation of excrescences called guttae. Extracellular matrix homeostasis is modulated by an equilibrium between matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their endogenous tissue inhibitors (TIMPs). This study aimed to investigate MMPs and TIMPs profile in FECD, taking into account cell morphology. Populations of FECD and healthy CECs were cultured and their conditioned media collected for analysis. The presence of proteases in the conditioned media was studied using a semi-quantitative proteome profiler array, and MMPs levels were assessed using quantitative assays (ELISA and quantitative antibody array). MMP activity was determined by zymography and fluorometry. The expression pattern of the membrane type 1-MMP (MT1-MMP, also known as MMP-14) was examined by immunofluorescence on ex vivo FECD and healthy explants of CECs attached to Descemet's membrane. Finally, MMPs and TIMPs protein expression was compared to gene expression obtained from previously collected data. FECD and healthy CEC populations generated cultures of endothelial, intermediate, and fibroblastic-like morphology. Various MMPs (MMP-1, -2, -3, -7, -8, -9, -10, and -12) and TIMPs (TIMP-1 to -4) were detected in both FECD and healthy CECs culture supernatants. Quantitative assays revealed a decrease in MMP-2 and MMP-10 among FECD samples. Both these MMPs can degrade the main extracellular matrix components forming guttae (fibronectin, laminin, collagen IV). Moreover, MMPs/TIMPs ratio was also decreased among FECD cell populations. Activity assays showed greater MMPs/Pro-MMPs proportions for MMP-2 and MMP-10 in FECD cell populations, although overall activities were similar. Moreover, the analysis according to cell morphology revealed among healthy CECs, both increased (MMP-3 and -13) and decreased (MMP-1, -9, -10, and -12) MMPs proteins along with increased MMPs activity (MMP-2, -3, -9, and -10) in the fibroblastic-like subgroup when compared to the endothelial subgroup. However, FECD CECs did not show similar behaviors between the different morphology subgroups. Immunostaining of MT1-MMP on ex vivo FECD and healthy explants revealed a redistribution of MT1-MMP around guttae in FECD explants. At the transcriptional level, no statistically significant differences were detected, but cultured FECD cells had a 12.2-fold increase in MMP1 and a 4.7-fold increase in TIMP3. These results collectively indicate different, and perhaps pathological, MMPs and TIMPs profile in FECD CECs compared to healthy CECs. This is an important finding suggesting the implication of MMPs and TIMPs in FECD pathophysiology.
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Meurer SK, Karsdal MA, Weiskirchen R. Advances in the clinical use of collagen as biomarker of liver fibrosis. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2020; 20:947-969. [PMID: 32865433 DOI: 10.1080/14737159.2020.1814746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Hepatic fibrosis is the excessive synthesis and deposition of extracellular matrix including collagen in the tissue. Chronic liver insult leads to progressive parenchymal damage, portal hypertension, and cirrhosis. Determination of hepatic collagen by invasive liver biopsy is the gold standard to estimate severity and stage of fibrosis. However, this procedure is associated with pain, carries the risk of infection and bleeding, and is afflicted with a high degree of sampling error. Therefore, there is urgent need for serological collagen-derived markers to assess collagen synthesis/turnover. AREAS COVERED Biochemical properties of collagens, cellular sources of hepatic collagen synthesis, and regulatory aspects in collagen expression. Markers are discussed suitable to estimate hepatic collagen synthesis and/or turnover. Discussed studies were identified through a PubMed search done in May 2020 and the authors' topic knowledge. EXPERT OPINION Hepatic fibrosis is mainly characterized by accumulation of collagen-rich scar tissue. Although traditionally performed liver biopsy is still standard in estimating hepatic fibrosis, there is evidence that noninvasive diagnostic scores and collagen-derived neo-epitopes provide clinical useful information. These noninvasive tests are less expensive than liver biopsy, better tolerated, safer, and more acceptable to patients. Therefore, these tests will lead to dramatic changes in diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen K Meurer
- Institute of Molecular Pathobiochemistry, Experimental Gene Therapy and Clinical Chemistry (IFMPEGKC), RWTH University Hospital Aachen , Aachen, Germany
| | - Morten A Karsdal
- Nordic Bioscience, Fibrosis Biomarkers and Research , Herlev, Denmark
| | - Ralf Weiskirchen
- Institute of Molecular Pathobiochemistry, Experimental Gene Therapy and Clinical Chemistry (IFMPEGKC), RWTH University Hospital Aachen , Aachen, Germany
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Bestion E, Jilkova ZM, Mège JL, Novello M, Kurma K, Pour STA, Lalmanach G, Vanderlynden L, Fizanne L, Bassissi F, Rachid M, Tracz J, Boursier J, Courcambeck J, Serdjebi C, Ansaldi C, Decaens T, Halfon P, Brun S. GNS561 acts as a potent anti-fibrotic and pro-fibrolytic agent in liver fibrosis through TGF-β1 inhibition. Ther Adv Chronic Dis 2020; 11:2040622320942042. [PMID: 32728410 PMCID: PMC7366401 DOI: 10.1177/2040622320942042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Hepatic fibrosis is the result of chronic liver injury that can progress to
cirrhosis and lead to liver failure. Nevertheless, there are no
anti-fibrotic drugs licensed for human use. Here, we investigated the
anti-fibrotic activity of GNS561, a new lysosomotropic molecule with high
liver tropism. Methods: The anti-fibrotic effect of GNS561 was determined in vitro
using LX-2 hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and primary human HSCs by studying
cell viability, activity of caspases 3/7, autophagic flux, cathepsin
maturation and activity, HSC activation and transforming growth factor-β1
(TGF-β1) maturation and signaling. The contribution of GNS561
lysosomotropism to its anti-fibrotic activity was assessed by increasing
lysosomal pH. The potency of GNS561 on fibrosis was evaluated in
vivo in a rat model of diethylnitrosamine-induced liver
fibrosis. Results: GNS561 significantly decreased cell viability and promoted apoptosis.
Disrupting the lysosomal pH gradient impaired its pharmacological effects,
suggesting that GNS561 lysosomotropism mediated cell death. GNS561 impaired
cathepsin activity, leading to defective TGF-β1 maturation and autophagic
processes. Moreover, GNS561 decreased HSC activation and extracellular
matrix deposition by downregulating TGF-β1/Smad and mitogen-activated
proteine kinase signaling and inducing fibrolysis. Finally, oral
administration of GNS561 (15 mg/kg per day) was well tolerated and
attenuated diethylnitrosamine-induced liver fibrosis in this rat model
(decrease of collagen deposition and of pro-fibrotic markers and increase of
fibrolysis). Conclusion: GNS561 is a new potent lysosomotropic compound that could represent a valid
medicinal option for hepatic fibrosis treatment through both its
anti-fibrotic and its pro-fibrolytic effects. In addition, this study
provides a rationale for targeting lysosomes as a promising therapeutic
strategy in liver fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eloïne Bestion
- Genoscience Pharma, Marseille, France, IRD, MEPHI, IHU Méditerranée Infection, Aix Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Zuzana Macek Jilkova
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Research Center UGA/Inserm U 1209/CNRS 5309, La Tronche, France Université Grenoble Alpes, Faculté de médecine, France, Clinique Universitaire d'Hépato-gastroentérologie, Pôle Digidune, CHU Grenoble, France
| | - Jean-Louis Mège
- IRD, MEPHI, IHU Méditerranée Infection, Aix Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | | | - Keerthi Kurma
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Research Center UGA/Inserm U 1209/CNRS 5309, La Tronche, France Université Grenoble Alpes, Faculté de médecine, France, Clinique Universitaire d'Hépato-gastroentérologie, Pôle Digidune, CHU Grenoble, France
| | - Seyedeh Tayebeh Ahmad Pour
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Research Center UGA/Inserm U 1209/CNRS 5309, La Tronche, France Université Grenoble Alpes, Faculté de médecine, France, Clinique Universitaire d'Hépato-gastroentérologie, Pôle Digidune, CHU Grenoble, France
| | - Gilles Lalmanach
- INSERM, UMR1100, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires, Equipe «Mécanismes Protéolytiques dans l'Inflammation», Tours, France, Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Lise Vanderlynden
- INSERM, UMR1100, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires, Equipe «Mécanismes Protéolytiques dans l'Inflammation», Tours, France, Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Lionel Fizanne
- Laboratoire HIFIH, UPRES EA 3859, Université d'Angers, Angers, France
| | | | | | | | - Jérôme Boursier
- Laboratoire HIFIH, UPRES EA 3859, Université d'Angers, Angers, France
| | | | | | | | - Thomas Decaens
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Research Center UGA/Inserm U 1209/CNRS 5309, La Tronche, France Université Grenoble Alpes, Faculté de médecine, France, Clinique Universitaire d'Hépato-gastroentérologie, Pôle Digidune, CHU Grenoble, France
| | | | - Sonia Brun
- Genoscience Pharma, 10 Rue d'Iéna, Marseille, 13006, France
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Su CC, Ho WT, Peng FT, Gao CM, Jou TS, Wang IJ. Exploring a peptidomimetic approach of N-cadherin in modulating fibroblast growth factor receptor signaling for corneal endothelial regeneration. FASEB J 2020; 34:11698-11713. [PMID: 32654299 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201902525rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Endothelial rejection and a critical shortage of corneal transplants present an unmet medical need in corneal regeneration research area. Although basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) is a potent mitogenic factor for corneal ex vivo expansion, it is also a morphogen eliciting unfavorable endothelial-mesenchymal transition (EnMT) of corneal endothelial cells. A pharmacological reagent that retains the beneficial proliferative effect while lacking the EnMT effect of bFGF would be of great potential in corneal regeneration. In present study, we demonstrated that bFGF not only activated the canonical fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) tyrosine kinase pathway, but also further upregulated matrix metalloproteinase activity to cleave N-cadherin into N-terminus and C-terminus fragments, which activated the classical FGFR1 tyrosine kinase pathway and a cryptic β-catenin pathway to affect corneal proliferation and EnMT, respectively. We generated the synthetic peptides resembling a critical motif in the ectodomain of N-cadherin and found these peptides enhanced downstream proliferative signaling of FGFR1 but without seemingly EnMT effect. The potential of these peptides can be demonstrated on both ex vivo cell culture and in vivo rat cryo-injury model. Our study indicated this peptidomimetic approach of N-cadherin can stimulate corneal regeneration and offer a promising therapeutic option to treat corneal endothelial dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Chia Su
- Department of Ophthalmology, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C.,College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C
| | - Wei-Ting Ho
- Department of Ophthalmology, Far Eastern Memorial Hospital, New Taipei City, Taiwan R.O.C
| | - Fu-Ti Peng
- Department of Ophthalmology, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C
| | - Chia-Mao Gao
- Department of Ophthalmology, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C
| | - Tzuu-Shuh Jou
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C.,College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C.,Center of Precision Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C
| | - I-Jong Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C.,College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C
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The Many Roles of Cell Adhesion Molecules in Hepatic Fibrosis. Cells 2019; 8:cells8121503. [PMID: 31771248 PMCID: PMC6952767 DOI: 10.3390/cells8121503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 11/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibrogenesis is a progressive scarring event resulting from disrupted regular wound healing due to repeated tissue injury and can end in organ failure, like in liver cirrhosis. The protagonists in this process, either liver-resident cells or patrolling leukocytes attracted to the site of tissue damage, interact with each other by soluble factors but also by direct cell–cell contact mediated by cell adhesion molecules. Since cell adhesion molecules also support binding to the extracellular matrix, they represent excellent biosensors, which allow cells to modulate their behavior based on changes in the surrounding microenvironment. In this review, we focus on selectins, cadherins, integrins and members of the immunoglobulin superfamily of adhesion molecules as well as some non-classical cell adhesion molecules in the context of hepatic fibrosis. We describe their liver-specific contributions to leukocyte recruitment, cell differentiation and survival, matrix remodeling or angiogenesis and touch on their suitability as targets in antifibrotic therapies.
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11
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IDH2 deficiency exacerbates acetaminophen hepatotoxicity in mice via mitochondrial dysfunction-induced apoptosis. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2019; 1865:2333-2341. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2019.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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12
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Ayala P, Torres J, Vivar R, Meneses M, Olmos P, San Martin T, Borzone GR. Acute lung injury by gastric fluid instillation: activation of myofibroblast apoptosis during injury resolution. Respir Res 2018; 19:57. [PMID: 29631627 PMCID: PMC5891902 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-018-0763-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gastric contents aspiration in humans has variable consequences depending on the volume of aspirate, ranging from subclinical pneumonitis to respiratory failure with up to 70% mortality. Several experimental approaches have been used to study this condition. In a model of single orotracheal instillation of gastric fluid we have shown that severe acute lung injury evolves from a pattern of diffuse alveolar damage to one of organizing pneumonia (OP), that later resolves leaving normal lung architecture. Little is known about mechanisms of injury resolution after a single aspiration that could be dysregulated with repetitive aspirations. We hypothesized that, in a similar way to cutaneous wound healing, apoptosis may participate in lung injury resolution by reducing the number of myofibroblasts and by affecting the balance between proteases and antiproteases. Our aim was to study activation of apoptosis as well as MMP-2/TIMP-2 balance in the sub-acute phase (4-14 days) of gastric fluid-induced lung injury. METHODS Anesthesized Sprague-Dawley rats received a single orotracheal instillation of gastric fluid and were euthanized 4, 7 and 14 days later (n = 6/group). In lung tissue we studied caspase-3 activation and its location by double immunofluorescence for cleaved caspase-3 or TUNEL and alpha-SMA. MMP-2/TIMP-2 balance was studied by zymography and Western blot. BALF levels of TGF-β1 were measured by ELISA. RESULTS An OP pattern with Masson bodies and granulomas was seen at days 4 and 7 that was no longer present at day 14. Cleaved caspase-3 increased at day 7 and was detected by immunofluorescence in Masson body-alpha-SMA-positive and -negative cells. TUNEL-positive cells at days 4 and 7 were located mainly in Masson bodies. Distribution of cleaved caspase-3 and TUNEL-positive cells at day 14 was similar to that in controls. At the peak of apoptosis (day 7), an imbalance between MMP-2 activity and TIMP-2 expression was produced by reduction in TIMP-2 expression. CONCLUSIONS Apoptosis is activated in Masson body-alpha-SMA-positive and -negative cells during the sub-acute phase of gastric fluid-induced lung injury. This mechanism likely contributes to OP resolution, by reducing myofibroblast number and new collagen production. In addition, pre-formed collagen degradation is favored by an associated MMP-2/TIMP-2 imbalance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Ayala
- Department of Respiratory Diseases and Medical Research Center, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Marcoleta 350, piso 1, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jorge Torres
- Department of Respiratory Diseases and Medical Research Center, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Marcoleta 350, piso 1, Santiago, Chile
| | - Raúl Vivar
- Department of Respiratory Diseases and Medical Research Center, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Marcoleta 350, piso 1, Santiago, Chile
| | - Manuel Meneses
- Pathology Unit, Instituto Nacional del Tórax, Santiago, Chile
| | - Pablo Olmos
- Department of Diabetes and Nutrition, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Tamara San Martin
- Department of Respiratory Diseases and Medical Research Center, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Marcoleta 350, piso 1, Santiago, Chile
| | - Gisella R Borzone
- Department of Respiratory Diseases and Medical Research Center, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Marcoleta 350, piso 1, Santiago, Chile.
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Jose SP, Mohanan R, S S, S A, IM K. A novel powder formulation of coconut inflorescence sap inhibits alcoholic liver damage by modulating inflammatory markers, extracellular matrix metalloproteinase, and oxidative stress. J Food Biochem 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.12543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Svenia P. Jose
- Department of Biochemistry; St. Thomas College, Pala; Kottayam Kerala India
| | - Ratheesh Mohanan
- Department of Biochemistry; St. Thomas College, Pala; Kottayam Kerala India
| | - Sandya S
- Inorganic and Physical Chemistry; Indian Institute of Science; Bangalore Karnataka India
| | - Asha S
- Department of Biochemistry; St. Thomas College, Pala; Kottayam Kerala India
| | - Krishnakumar IM
- R&D Centre; Akay Flavours & Aromatics Pvt Ltd; Cochin Kerala India
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14
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Brea R, Motiño O, Francés D, García-Monzón C, Vargas J, Fernández-Velasco M, Boscá L, Casado M, Martín-Sanz P, Agra N. PGE 2 induces apoptosis of hepatic stellate cells and attenuates liver fibrosis in mice by downregulating miR-23a-5p and miR-28a-5p. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2018; 1864:325-337. [PMID: 29109031 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2017.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Revised: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs), small noncoding RNAs modulating messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein expression, have emerged as key regulatory molecules in chronic liver diseases, whose end stage is hepatic fibrosis, a major global health burden. Pharmacological strategies for prevention or treatment of hepatic fibrosis are still limited, what makes it necessary to establish a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying its pathogenesis. In this context, we have recently shown that cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression in hepatocytes restricts activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), a pivotal event in the initiation and progression of hepatic fibrosis. Here, we evaluated the role of COX-2 in the regulation of a specific set of miRNAs on a mouse model of CCl4 and bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced liver fibrosis. Our results provide evidence that COX-2 represses miR-23a-5p and miR-28-5p expression in HSC. The decrease of miR-23a-5p and miR-28-5p expression promotes protection against fibrosis by decreasing the levels of pro-fibrogenic markers α-SMA and COL1A1 and increasing apoptosis of HSC. Moreover, we demonstrate that serum levels of miR-28-5p are decreased in patients with chronic liver disease. These results suggest a protective effect exerted by COX-2-derived prostanoids in the process of hepatofibrogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Brea
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas (IIB) "Alberto Sols", CSIC-UAM, Arturo Duperier 4, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - O Motiño
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas (IIB) "Alberto Sols", CSIC-UAM, Arturo Duperier 4, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - D Francés
- Instituto de Fisiología Experimental (IFISE-CONICET), Suipacha 570, 2000 Rosario, Argentina
| | - C García-Monzón
- Liver Research Unit, Hospital Universitario Santa Cristina, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Princesa, Amadeo Vives 2, 28009 Madrid, Spain
| | - J Vargas
- Liver Research Unit, Hospital Universitario Santa Cristina, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Princesa, Amadeo Vives 2, 28009 Madrid, Spain
| | - M Fernández-Velasco
- Instituto de Investigación Hospital Universitario La Paz, IDIPAZ, Pedro Rico 6, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - L Boscá
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas (IIB) "Alberto Sols", CSIC-UAM, Arturo Duperier 4, 28029 Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Cardiovasculares (CIBERcv), Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - M Casado
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Cardiovasculares (CIBERcv), Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, IBV-CSIC, Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - P Martín-Sanz
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas (IIB) "Alberto Sols", CSIC-UAM, Arturo Duperier 4, 28029 Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Cardiovasculares (CIBERcv), Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain.
| | - N Agra
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas (IIB) "Alberto Sols", CSIC-UAM, Arturo Duperier 4, 28029 Madrid, Spain.
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15
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The stellate cell system (vitamin A-storing cell system). Anat Sci Int 2017; 92:387-455. [PMID: 28299597 DOI: 10.1007/s12565-017-0395-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Past, present, and future research into hepatic stellate cells (HSCs, also called vitamin A-storing cells, lipocytes, interstitial cells, fat-storing cells, or Ito cells) are summarized and discussed in this review. Kupffer discovered black-stained cells in the liver using the gold chloride method and named them stellate cells (Sternzellen in German) in 1876. Wake rediscovered the cells in 1971 using the same gold chloride method and various modern histological techniques including electron microscopy. Between their discovery and rediscovery, HSCs disappeared from the research history. Their identification, the establishment of cell isolation and culture methods, and the development of cellular and molecular biological techniques promoted HSC research after their rediscovery. In mammals, HSCs exist in the space between liver parenchymal cells (PCs) or hepatocytes and liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) of the hepatic lobule, and store 50-80% of all vitamin A in the body as retinyl ester in lipid droplets in the cytoplasm. SCs also exist in extrahepatic organs such as pancreas, lung, and kidney. Hepatic (HSCs) and extrahepatic stellate cells (EHSCs) form the stellate cell (SC) system or SC family; the main storage site of vitamin A in the body is HSCs in the liver. In pathological conditions such as liver fibrosis, HSCs lose vitamin A, and synthesize a large amount of extracellular matrix (ECM) components including collagen, proteoglycan, glycosaminoglycan, and adhesive glycoproteins. The morphology of these cells also changes from the star-shaped HSCs to that of fibroblasts or myofibroblasts.
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16
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Ferulic acid decreases cell viability and colony formation while inhibiting migration of MIA PaCa-2 human pancreatic cancer cells in vitro. Gene 2016; 576:476-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2015.10.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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17
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Piao RL, Xiu M, Brigstock DR, Gao RP. An immortalized rat pancreatic stellate cell line RP-2 as a new cell model for evaluating pancreatic fibrosis, inflammation and immunity. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int 2015; 14:651-9. [PMID: 26663014 DOI: 10.1016/s1499-3872(15)60415-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) play a critical role in the pathogenesis of pancreatic fibrosis and have emerging functions as progenitor cells, immune cells or intermediaries in pancreatic exocrine secretion. Increasing evidence has shown that desmin as an exclusive cytoskeleton marker of PSC is only expressed in part of these cells. This study was to establish a desmin-positive PSC cell line and evaluate its actions on pancreatic fibrosis, inflammation and immunity. METHODS The presence of cytoskeletal proteins, integrin α5β1 or TLR4, was determined by immunocytochemistry while the production of desmin, collagen I, MMP-1, MMP-2, TIMP-2, or CD14 was evaluated by Western blotting. The levels of desmin, collagen I, IL-1 and IL-6 mRNA were determined by real-time quantitative PCR. The secretion of cytokines was detected by ELISA. Cell function was assessed using adhesion, migration, or proliferation assays. RESULTS A stable activated rat PSC cell line (designated as RP-2) was established by RSV promoter/enhancer-driven SV40 large T antigen expression. RP-2 cells retained typical PSC properties, exhibited a myofibroblast-like phenotype and persistently produced desmin. The cells produced collagen I protein, matrix metalloproteinases and inhibitors thereof. RP-2 cells demonstrated typical PSC functions, including proliferation, adherence, and migration, the latter two of which occurred in response to fibronectin and were mediated by integrin α5β1. TLR4 and its response genes including proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, TNF-alpha) and chemotactic cytokines (MCP-1, MIP-1α, Rantes) were produced by RP-2 cells and activated by LPS. LPS-induced IL-1 or IL-6 mRNA expression in this cell line was fully blocked with MyD88 inhibitor. CONCLUSION RP-2 cells provide a novel tool for analyzing the properties and functions of PSCs in the pathogenesis of fibrosis, inflammation and immunity in the pancreas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong-Li Piao
- Department of Hepatic-biliary-pancreatic Medicine, the First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China.
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18
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Ho WT, Chang JS, Su CC, Chang SW, Hu FR, Jou TS, Wang IJ. Inhibition of Matrix Metalloproteinase Activity Reverses Corneal Endothelial-Mesenchymal Transition. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2015.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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19
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Duarte S, Baber J, Fujii T, Coito AJ. Matrix metalloproteinases in liver injury, repair and fibrosis. Matrix Biol 2015; 44-46:147-56. [PMID: 25599939 PMCID: PMC4495728 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2015.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 324] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Revised: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The liver is a large highly vascularized organ with a central function in metabolic homeostasis, detoxification, and immunity. Due to its roles, the liver is frequently exposed to various insults which can cause cell death and hepatic dysfunction. Alternatively, the liver has a remarkable ability to self-repair and regenerate after injury. Liver injury and regeneration have both been linked to complex extracellular matrix (ECM) related pathways. While normal degradation of ECM components is an important feature of tissue repair and remodeling, irregular ECM turnover contributes to a variety of liver diseases. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are the main enzymes implicated in ECM degradation. MMPs not only remodel the ECM, but also regulate immune responses. In this review, we highlight some of the MMP-attributed roles in acute and chronic liver injury and emphasize the need for further experimentation to better understand their functions during hepatic physiological conditions and disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Duarte
- The Dumont-UCLA Transplant Center, Division of Liver and Pancreas Transplantation, Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - John Baber
- The Dumont-UCLA Transplant Center, Division of Liver and Pancreas Transplantation, Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Takehiro Fujii
- The Dumont-UCLA Transplant Center, Division of Liver and Pancreas Transplantation, Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Ana J Coito
- The Dumont-UCLA Transplant Center, Division of Liver and Pancreas Transplantation, Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, United States.
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20
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Abstract
Hepatic stellate cells are resident perisinusoidal cells distributed throughout the liver, with a remarkable range of functions in normal and injured liver. Derived embryologically from septum transversum mesenchyme, their precursors include submesothelial cells that invade the liver parenchyma from the hepatic capsule. In normal adult liver, their most characteristic feature is the presence of cytoplasmic perinuclear droplets that are laden with retinyl (vitamin A) esters. Normal stellate cells display several patterns of intermediate filaments expression (e.g., desmin, vimentin, and/or glial fibrillary acidic protein) suggesting that there are subpopulations within this parental cell type. In the normal liver, stellate cells participate in retinoid storage, vasoregulation through endothelial cell interactions, extracellular matrix homeostasis, drug detoxification, immunotolerance, and possibly the preservation of hepatocyte mass through secretion of mitogens including hepatocyte growth factor. During liver injury, stellate cells activate into alpha smooth muscle actin-expressing contractile myofibroblasts, which contribute to vascular distortion and increased vascular resistance, thereby promoting portal hypertension. Other features of stellate cell activation include mitogen-mediated proliferation, increased fibrogenesis driven by connective tissue growth factor, and transforming growth factor beta 1, amplified inflammation and immunoregulation, and altered matrix degradation. Evolving areas of interest in stellate cell biology seek to understand mechanisms of their clearance during fibrosis resolution by either apoptosis, senescence, or reversion, and their contribution to hepatic stem cell amplification, regeneration, and hepatocellular cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan E Puche
- Division of Liver Diseases, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, New York, New York
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21
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van Swelm RPL, Kramers C, Masereeuw R, Russel FGM. Application of urine proteomics for biomarker discovery in drug-induced liver injury. Crit Rev Toxicol 2014; 44:823-41. [DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2014.931341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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22
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Dituri F, Serio G, Filannino D, Mascolo A, Sacco R, Villa E, Giannelli G. Circulating TGF-β1-related biomarkers in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and their association with HCC staging scores. Cancer Lett 2014; 353:264-71. [PMID: 25088578 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2014.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Revised: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 07/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
TGF-β1 was inversely correlated with E-cadherin but significantly correlated with VEGF. VEGF and AFP had a low coefficient value but statistically significant. A significant correlation was found between E-cadherin and MMP2. In conclusion, TGF-β and E-cadherin are inversely correlated in HCC patients' sera and not related to the BCLC classification nor survival but rather to the biological properties of the tumor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Dituri
- Department of Biomedical Science and Human Oncology, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Gabriella Serio
- Department of Biomedical Science and Human Oncology, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Doriana Filannino
- Department of Biomedical Science and Human Oncology, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Antonella Mascolo
- Department of Biomedical Science and Human Oncology, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Rodolfo Sacco
- Department of Gastroenterology, Pisa University Cisanello Hospital, Via Paradisa 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Erica Villa
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Modena & Reggio Emilia, Italy Via del Pozzo 71, 41124 Modena, Italy
| | - Gianluigi Giannelli
- Department of Biomedical Science and Human Oncology, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy.
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Salama H, Zekri ARN, Medhat E, Al Alim SA, Ahmed OS, Bahnassy AA, Lotfy MM, Ahmed R, Musa S. Peripheral vein infusion of autologous mesenchymal stem cells in Egyptian HCV-positive patients with end-stage liver disease. Stem Cell Res Ther 2014; 5:70. [PMID: 24886681 PMCID: PMC4097846 DOI: 10.1186/scrt459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2013] [Accepted: 05/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction We have assessed the utility of autologous mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) peripheral vein infusion as a possible therapeutic modality for patients with end-stage liver diseases. Methods Forty patients with post-hepatitis C virus (HCV) end-stage liver disease were randomized into two groups: Group 1 (GI): 20 patients who received granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) for 5 days followed by autologous MSCs peripheral-vein infusion and group 2 (GII): 20 patients who received regular liver-supportive treatment only (control group). Results In MSC-infused patients (GI), 54% showed near normalization of liver enzymes and improvement in liver synthetic function. Significant changes were reported in albumin (P = 0.000), bilirubin (P = 0.002), increased international normalized ratio (INR) (P = 0.017), prothrombin concentration (P = 0.029) and alanine transaminase (ALT) levels (P = 0.029), with stabilization of clinical and biochemical status in 13% of cases. None of the patients in GII showed any significant improvement. Hepatic fibrosis was assessed in GI by detection of procollagen IIIC peptide level (PIIICP) and procollagen III N peptide level (PIIINP). The pretreatment values of s-PIIICP and s-PIIINP were 9.4 ± 4.2 and 440 ± 189, respectively, with a decrease to 8.1 ± 2.6 and 388 ± 102, respectively, 3 months after MSC therapy. However, the difference was statistically nonsignificant (P = 0.7). A significant correlation coefficient was reported after 3 months between the s-PIIINP and prothrombin concentration (P = -0.5) and between s-PIIICP and ascites (P = 0.550). Conclusions First, autologous MSC infusion into a peripheral vein is as effective as the previously reported intrahepatic infusion. Second, MSCs have a supportive role in the treatment of end-stage liver disease, with satisfactory tolerability and beneficial effects on liver synthetic functions and hepatic fibrosis. Third, IV infusion of MSCs after G-CSF mobilization improves s-albumin within the first 2 weeks and prothrombin concentration and alanine Taransaminase after 1 month. According to the data from this current study and those previously reported by our group, we recommend further studies on patients’ infusion with pure CD133 and CD34 followed by IV infusion of in vitro-differentiated MSCs within 1 week and another infusion after 3 months. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01729221. Registered 17 November 2012.
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Birukawa NK, Murase K, Sato Y, Kosaka A, Yoneda A, Nishita H, Fujita R, Nishimura M, Ninomiya T, Kajiwara K, Miyazaki M, Nakashima Y, Ota S, Murakami Y, Tanaka Y, Minomi K, Tamura Y, Niitsu Y. Activated hepatic stellate cells are dependent on self-collagen, cleaved by membrane type 1 matrix metalloproteinase for their growth. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:20209-21. [PMID: 24867951 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.544494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Stellate cells are distributed throughout organs, where, upon chronic damage, they become activated and proliferate to secrete collagen, which results in organ fibrosis. An intriguing property of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) is that they undergo apoptosis when collagen is resolved by stopping tissue damage or by treatment, even though the mechanisms are unknown. Here we disclose the fact that HSCs, normal diploid cells, acquired dependence on collagen for their growth during the transition from quiescent to active states. The intramolecular RGD motifs of collagen were exposed by cleavage with their own membrane type 1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP). The following evidence supports this conclusion. When rat activated HSCs (aHSCs) were transduced with siRNA against the collagen-specific chaperone gp46 to inhibit collagen secretion, the cells underwent autophagy followed by apoptosis. Concomitantly, the growth of aHSCs was suppressed, whereas that of quiescent HSCs was not. These in vitro results are compatible with the in vivo observation that apoptosis of aHSCs was induced in cirrhotic livers of rats treated with siRNAgp46. siRNA against MT1-MMP and addition of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP-2), which mainly inhibits MT1-MMP, also significantly suppressed the growth of aHSCs in vitro. The RGD inhibitors echistatin and GRGDS peptide and siRNA against the RGD receptor αVβ1 resulted in the inhibition of aHSCs growth. Transduction of siRNAs against gp46, αVβ1, and MT1-MMP to aHSCs inhibited the survival signal of PI3K/AKT/IκB. These results could provide novel antifibrosis strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Akemi Kosaka
- From the Department of Molecular Target Exploration
| | | | | | | | | | - Takafumi Ninomiya
- Department of Basic Medical Science Department of Anatomy (1), Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, 060-8556 Sapporo, Japan
| | - Keiko Kajiwara
- From the Department of Molecular Target Exploration, the Translational Research Group, Hokkaido Laboratory, Molecular Therapeutics Department, Corporate Business Development Division, Nitto Denko Corporation, Hokkaido, 001-0021 Sapporo, Japan, and
| | - Miyono Miyazaki
- From the Department of Molecular Target Exploration, the Translational Research Group, Hokkaido Laboratory, Molecular Therapeutics Department, Corporate Business Development Division, Nitto Denko Corporation, Hokkaido, 001-0021 Sapporo, Japan, and
| | | | - Sigenori Ota
- From the Department of Molecular Target Exploration
| | | | - Yasunobu Tanaka
- From the Department of Molecular Target Exploration, the Translational Research Group, Hokkaido Laboratory, Molecular Therapeutics Department, Corporate Business Development Division, Nitto Denko Corporation, Hokkaido, 001-0021 Sapporo, Japan, and
| | - Kenjiro Minomi
- From the Department of Molecular Target Exploration, the Translational Research Group, Hokkaido Laboratory, Molecular Therapeutics Department, Corporate Business Development Division, Nitto Denko Corporation, Hokkaido, 001-0021 Sapporo, Japan, and
| | - Yasuaki Tamura
- the Faculty of Advanced Life Science, Hokkaido University, 001-0021 Sapporo, Japan
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S-adenosylmethionine inhibits the activated phenotype of human hepatic stellate cells via Rac1 and matrix metalloproteinases. Int Immunopharmacol 2014; 19:193-200. [PMID: 24495518 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2014.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2013] [Revised: 12/25/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the effects of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) on the proliferation, adhesion, migration, invasion and apoptosis of activated human hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and to explore the relevant potential mechanisms. METHODS Human HSCs LX-2 were cultured with SAM. The proliferation and adhesion were detected by CCK-8. Cell apoptosis rate were analyzed by flow cytometry, and cell migration and invasion were tested by the transwell assay. The expression of Rac1 and MMP-2 was identified by real-time PCR or Western blotting, and activated Rac1 was detected by GST pull-down assay. The activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9 was analyzed by substrate zymography. RESULTS The proliferation of LX-2 cells was inhibited by SAM, exhibiting a dose-dependent manner. Cell apoptosis rate induced by SAM was remarkably increased. SAM decreased the adhesion, migration and invasion of LX-2 cells. The expression and activation of Rac1 in LX-2 cells were significantly suppressed by SAM. In contrast, the activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9 was enhanced by SAM. SAM attenuated the up-regulated expression of Smad3/4 and Rac1 induced by TGF-β1. CONCLUSION SAM inhibits the proliferation, adhesion, migration and invasion of LX-2 cells in vitro probably via attenuating the expression and activation of Rac1 and up-regulating MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression, which possibly provide a molecular basis for potential application of SAM in the therapy of liver fibrosis.
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26
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Guan X, Bartlett JD. MMP20 modulates cadherin expression in ameloblasts as enamel develops. J Dent Res 2013; 92:1123-8. [PMID: 24067343 DOI: 10.1177/0022034513506581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinase-20 (enamelysin, MMP20) is essential for dental enamel development. Seven different MMP20 mutations in humans cause non-syndromic enamel malformations, termed amelogenesis imperfecta, and ablation of Mmp20 in mice results in thin brittle enamel with a dysplastic rod pattern. Healthy enamel formation requires the sliding movement of ameloblasts in rows during the secretory stage of development. This is essential for formation of the characteristic decussating enamel rod pattern observed in rodents, and this is also when MMP20 is secreted into the enamel matrix. Therefore, we propose that MMP20 facilitates ameloblast movement by cleaving ameloblast cell-cell contacts. Here we show that MMP20 cleaves the extracellular domains of the E- and N-cadherin adherens junction proteins, that both E- and N-cadherin transcripts are expressed at significantly higher levels in Mmp20 null vs. wild-type (WT) mice, and that in Mmp20 ablated mice, high-level ameloblast N-cadherin expression persists during the maturation stage of development. Furthermore, we show that E-cadherin gene expression is down-regulated from the pre-secretory to the secretory stage, while N-cadherin levels are up-regulated. This E- to N-cadherin switch supports epithelial migration in other tissues and may be an important event necessary for the ameloblasts to start moving in rows that slide by one another.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Guan
- Department of Mineralized Tissue Biology and Harvard School of Dental Medicine, The Forsyth Institute, 245 First Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
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van Swelm RP, Laarakkers CM, Kooijmans-Otero M, de Jong EM, Masereeuw R, Russel FG. Biomarkers for methotrexate-induced liver injury: Urinary protein profiling of psoriasis patients. Toxicol Lett 2013; 221:219-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2013.06.234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Revised: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 06/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Luo Z, Liu H, Sun X, Guo R, Cui R, Ma X, Yan M. RNA interference against discoidin domain receptor 2 ameliorates alcoholic liver disease in rats. PLoS One 2013; 8:e55860. [PMID: 23409069 PMCID: PMC3567027 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2012] [Accepted: 01/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Discoidin domain receptor 2 (DDR2) is involved in fibrotic disease. However, the exact pathogenic implications of the receptor in early alcoholic liver disease are still controversial. We constructed plasmid vectors encoding short-hairpin RNA against DDR2 to investigate its role in alcoholic liver disease in an immortalized rat hepatic stellate cell line, HSC-T6, and in rats by MTT, RT-PCR and western blot analyses; immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy. Alcohol-induced upregulation of DDR2 was associated with the expression of matrix metalloproteinase 2, the transforming growth factor β1 signaling pathway and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1; collagen deposition; and extracellular matrix remodeling. Inhibition of DDR2 decreased HSC-T6 cell proliferation and liver injury in rats with 10-week-induced alcoholic liver disease. DDR2 may have an important role in the pathogenesis of early-stage alcoholic liver disease. Silencing DDR2 may be effective in preventing early-stage alcoholic liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Luo
- Department of Geriatric Gastroenterology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Huimin Liu
- Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology of Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital of Qingdao University Medical College, Yantai, Shandong, China
| | - Xiaomeng Sun
- Department of Geriatric Gastroenterology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Rong Guo
- Department of Geriatric Gastroenterology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Ruibing Cui
- Department of Geriatric Gastroenterology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Xiangxing Ma
- Department of Radiology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
- * E-mail: address: (MY); (XM)
| | - Ming Yan
- Department of Geriatric Gastroenterology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
- * E-mail: address: (MY); (XM)
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Gao P, Xing AY, Zhou GY, Zhang TG, Zhang JP, Gao C, Li H, Shi DB. The molecular mechanism of microRNA-145 to suppress invasion-metastasis cascade in gastric cancer. Oncogene 2013; 32:491-501. [PMID: 22370644 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2012.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2011] [Revised: 01/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/22/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Invasion and metastasis are the major features of malignant tumors that are responsible for 90% of cancer-related deaths. Recently, microRNAs have been discovered to have a role in suppressing tumor metastasis. This study's aim was to clarify the roles of miR-145 in gastric carcinomas and its underlying molecular mechanism in regulating tumor metastasis. Here, we demonstrate a stepwise downregulation of miR-145 level in nontumorous gastric mucosa, primary gastric cancers and their secondary metastases. In vitro analysis of miR-145's ectopic expression and loss-of-function suggests that it suppresses gastric cancer cell migration and invasion. In vivo spontaneous metastasis and experimental metastasis assay further confirm its function in suppressing the invasion-metastasis cascade, including impairing local invasion and inhibiting hematogenous metastasis in gastric cancers. Furthermore, we identified a novel mechanism of miR-145 to suppress metastasis. N-cadherin (CDH2) was proved to be a direct target of miR-145, using luciferase assay and western blot. Re-expressing N-cadherin in miR-145-transfected cells reverses their migration and invasion defects. Although not a direct target of miR-145, matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9), but not MMP2, was also significantly decreased in miR-145-expressing cells. We suggest that miR-145 suppresses tumor metastasis by inhibiting N-cadherin protein translation, and then indirectly downregulates its downstream effector MMP9.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Gao
- Department of Pathology, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Shandong, PR China.
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Bartlett JD, Smith CE. Modulation of cell-cell junctional complexes by matrix metalloproteinases. J Dent Res 2012; 92:10-7. [PMID: 23053846 DOI: 10.1177/0022034512463397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The ameloblast cell layer of the enamel organ is in contact with the forming enamel as it develops into the hardest substance in the body. Ameloblasts move in groups that slide by one another as the enamel layer thickens. Each ameloblast is responsible for the formation of one enamel rod, and the rods are the mineralized trail that moving ameloblasts leave behind. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) facilitate cell movement in various tissues during development, and in this review we suggest that the tooth-specific MMP, enamelysin (MMP20), facilitates ameloblast movements during enamel development. Mmp20 null mice have thin brittle enamel with disrupted rod patterns that easily abrades from the underlying dentin. Strikingly, the Mmp20 null mouse enamel organ morphology is noticeably dysplastic during late-stage development, when MMP20 is no longer expressed. We suggest that in addition to its role of cleaving enamel matrix proteins, MMP20 also cleaves junctional complexes present on ameloblasts to foster the cell movement necessary for formation of the decussating enamel rod pattern. Therefore, inactivation of MMP20 would result in tight ameloblast cell-cell attachments that may cause maturation-stage enamel organ dysplasia. The tight ameloblast attachments would also preclude the ameloblast movement necessary to form decussating enamel rod patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Bartlett
- Department of Mineralized Tissue Biology, Forsyth Institute, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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Zhang Y, Dong J, He P, Li W, Zhang Q, Li N, Sun T. Genistein inhibit cytokines or growth factor-induced proliferation and transformation phenotype in fibroblast-like synoviocytes of rheumatoid arthritis. Inflammation 2012; 35:377-87. [PMID: 21792602 DOI: 10.1007/s10753-011-9365-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to study the effect of genistein on cytokines or growth factor-induced proliferation and transformation phenotype of rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes (RA-FLS). RA-FLS were primarily cultured. With respective stimulation of IL-1β, TNF-α, and EGF, genistein was applied to elucidate its effect on synoviocytes' growth number, cell proliferation assay, cell cycle using cell counts, (3)H-TdR incorporation and flow cytometry, the colony numbers under anchorage-independent condition, and the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in synovial fibroblasts. EGF, IL-1β, and TNF-α increased (3)H incorporation in RA-FLS, respectively. EGF augmented clone numbers of RA-FLS under anchorage-independent condition and not IL-1β and TNF-α. Genistein had an inhibitory role on cell number and (3)H-TdR incorporation of RA-FLS stimulated with IL-1β, TNF-α and EGF; genistein arrested the cell cycle at G(1) restriction point; genistein decreased colony numbers under anchorage-independent condition stimulated by EGF in serum condition. IL-1β or TNF-α increased expression of MMP-9 and MMP-2 in rheumatoid synoviocytes; EGF stimulated expression of MMP-9 but not of MMP-2; genistein suppressed production of MMP-9 more than MMP-2 induced by IL-1β or TNF-α; rMMP-9, rMMP-2, or their inhibitors had no effect on the (3)H-TdR incorporation of synovial cells. Erk1/2 inhibitor (PD098 059) had obvious inhibitory effect on the (3)H incorporation induced by TNF-α or IL-1β; inhibitors of JNK (SP600 125) had no significant effect on the (3)H incorporation. While pretreatment with PD098059 had no marked inhibitory effect on MMP-9 expression induced by TNF-α or IL-1β, SP600125 decreased significantly the MMP-9 expression induced by TNF-α or IL-1β. Neither PD098059 nor SP600 125 could inhibit the MMP-2 expression induced by TNF-α or IL-1β. Genistein inhibited IL-1β, TNF-α or EGF-induced proliferation and MMP-9 expression in fibroblast-like synoviocytes of rheumatoid arthritis; the proliferation of RA-FLS was mediated by Erk1/2 but not JNK activation, while JNK activation was involved in the signal transduction pathway leading to MMP-9 expression in rheumatoid synoviocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujun Zhang
- Clinical Institute of Molecular Biology, People's Hospital, Peking University, Beijing, China
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Hegazy SK, El-Bedewy M, Yagi A. Antifibrotic effect of aloe vera in viral infection-induced hepatic periportal fibrosis. World J Gastroenterol 2012; 18:2026-34. [PMID: 22563189 PMCID: PMC3342600 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v18.i17.2026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2011] [Revised: 02/20/2012] [Accepted: 02/26/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To investigate the anti-oxidative and anti-fibrotic effects of aloe vera in patients with liver fibrosis.
METHODS: Aloe vera high molecular weight fractions (AHM) were processed by patented hyper-dry system in combination of freeze-dry technique with microwave and far infrared-ray radiation. Fifteen healthy volunteers as the control group and 40 patients were included. The patients were randomly subdivided into two equal groups: the conventional group was treated with placebo (starch), and AHM group was treated with 0.15 gm/d AHM, both for 12 consecutive weeks. The patients were investigated before and after treatment. Serum activity of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), hyaluronic acid (HA), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and matrixmetalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) were determined. The reduced glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in liver were assayed and the expression of hepatic α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) was identified by immunohistochemistry.
RESULTS: At the start of the study, the hematoxylin and eosin staining revealed fibro-proliferated bile ductules, thick fibrous septa and dense inflammatory cellular infiltration in the patients before treatment. The use of AHM for 12 wk significantly ameliorated the fibrosis, inhibited the inflammation, and resulted in minimal infiltration and minimal fibrosis compared to the conventional group. The enzyme activities of the liver (ALT, AST and ALP) were attenuated after treatment in both groups, and the decrease in the AHM group was more significant as compared with the conventional group. Similar to the AST, the MDA levels were significantly higher before treatment, and were attenuated after treatment in both groups. In contrast, the hepatic glutathione content in the patients were decreased significantly in the AHM group compared to the controls. The serum levels of the fibrosis markers (HA, TGF-β and MMP-2) were also reduced significantly after treatment. The expression of α-SMA was modified in patients before and after treatment as compared with the normal controls. In the conventional group, there was only thin and incomplete parenchymal α-SMA positive septum joining the thickened centrilobular veins, while in the AHM group, few α-SMA positive cells were present in sinusoid and lobule after treatment.
CONCLUSION: Oral supplementation with AHM could be helpful in alleviating the fibrosis and inflammation of hepatic fibrosis patients.
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Lo YT, Tsai YH, Wu SJ, Chen JR, Chao JCJ. Ginsenoside Rb1 inhibits cell activation and liver fibrosis in rat hepatic stellate cells. J Med Food 2011; 14:1135-43. [PMID: 21895415 DOI: 10.1089/jmf.2010.1485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic hepatitis/cirrhosis is the eighth leading cause of death in Taiwan. Excess accumulated extracellular matrix produced by activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) is the major cause of liver fibrosis. Ginsenoside Rb1, the most active compound purified from ginseng, has been considered to be hepatoprotective. This study investigated the effects of ginsenoside Rb1 (98.8% purity) on activation, proliferation, and profibrotic factors in rat HSC-T6 cells under H₂O₂ oxidative stress. Rat HSC-T6 cells were activated by 10 nM H₂O₂ and then incubated with different concentrations of ginsenoside Rb1 (5, 10, 20, 40, and 80 μg/mL) for 24 hours. Medium containing 0.08% dimethyl sulfoxide or 5 mM N-acetyl-l-cysteine was used as a negative or positive control, respectively. The results showed that ginsenoside Rb1 at 5-40 μg/mL significantly reduced α-smooth muscle actin levels and at 5-80 μg/mL inhibited cell proliferation in HSC-T6 cells after induction with H₂O₂ (P<.05). Collagen secreted by HSC-T6 cells was decreased by ginsenoside Rb1 at 5-80 μg/mL (P<.05). Protein expression of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 was suppressed by ginsenoside Rb1 at 10-80 μg/mL (P<.05). In addition, mRNA expression of type I and III collagen, TGF-β1, and TIMP-1 was inhibited by ginsenoside Rb1 (10 and 80 μg/mL) (P<.05). Therefore, ginsenoside Rb1 exerted an antifibrotic effect on HSCs by inhibiting activation, proliferation, and expression of collagen, TGF-β1, MMP-2, and TIMP-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Ting Lo
- School of Nutrition and Health Sciences, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
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Burke JP, Cunningham MF, Sweeney C, Docherty NG, O'Connell PR. N-cadherin is overexpressed in Crohn's stricture fibroblasts and promotes intestinal fibroblast migration. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2011; 17:1665-73. [PMID: 21287659 DOI: 10.1002/ibd.21543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2010] [Accepted: 09/27/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intestinal fibroblasts mediate stricture formation in Crohn's disease (CD). Transforming growth factor-β₁ (TGF-β₁) is important in fibroblast activation, while cell attachment and migration is regulated by the adhesion molecule N-cadherin. The aim of this study was to investigate the expression and function of N-cadherin in intestinal fibroblasts in patients with fibrostenosing CD. METHODS Intestinal fibroblasts were cultured from seromuscular biopsies from patients undergoing resection for terminal ileal fibrostenosing CD (n = 14) or controls patients (n = 8). N-cadherin expression was assessed using Western blot and quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Fibroblasts were stimulated with TGF-β₁ and selective pathway inhibitors Y27632, PD98050, and LY294002 were used to examine the Rho/ROCK, ERK-1/2, and Akt signaling pathways, respectively. Cell migration was assessed using a scratch wound assay. N-cadherin was selectively overexpressed using a plasmid. RESULTS Fibroblasts from fibrostenosing CD express increased constitutive N-cadherin mRNA and protein and exhibit enhanced basal cell migration relative to those from directly adjacent normal bowel. Control fibroblasts treated with TGF-β₁ induced N-cadherin in a dose-dependent manner which was inhibited by Rho/ROCK and Akt pathway modulation. Control fibroblasts exhibited enhanced cell migration in response to treatment with TGF-β₁ or transfection with an N-cadherin plasmid. CONCLUSIONS Fibroblasts from strictures in CD express increased constitutive N-cadherin and exhibit enhanced basal cell migration. TGF-β₁ is a potent inducer of N-cadherin in intestinal fibroblasts resulting in enhanced cell migration. The TGF-β₁-mediated induction of N-cadherin may potentiate Crohn's stricture formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P Burke
- Department of Surgery, St. Vincent's University Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
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Menon R, Fortunato SJ, Yu J, Milne GL, Sanchez S, Drobek CO, Lappas M, Taylor RN. Cigarette smoke induces oxidative stress and apoptosis in normal term fetal membranes. Placenta 2011; 32:317-22. [PMID: 21367451 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2011.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2010] [Revised: 01/17/2011] [Accepted: 01/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Cigarette smoking and bacterial infections are two major risk factors associated with preterm prelabor rupture of membranes (pPROM). We hypothesized that exposure of fetal membranes to cigarette smoke extracts might induce oxidative stress (OS) and fetal membrane apoptosis, culminating in an alternate pathway to that commonly activated by infection. To test this, we characterized the production of prostanoids and biomarkers of apoptosis in normal term human fetal membrane explant cultures. Fetal membrane explants collected at term (from cesarean deliveries, not in labor) were stimulated with cigarette smoke extract (CSE) for 24 h. Two classes of prostanoids, F2-Isoprostane (F2-IsoP), a marker of OS and PGF2α, a classical uterotonin, were measured by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Western blot analyses of tissue lysates were performed to quantify the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl2 and actin (as a control). Fetal membrane apoptosis was detected by immunohistochemistry for active caspase 3 and confirmed by TUNEL staining for nuclear fragmentation. CSE exposure resulted in significantly more F2-IsoP production from fetal membranes (242.8 ± 79.3 pg/ml/mg of total membrane protein) compared to unstimulated controls (131.5 ± 53.1 pg/ml/mg; p < 0.0001). By contrast, PGF2α was not different in CSE vs. controls (1083 ± 527 vs. 1136 ± 835 pg/ml/mg of protein; p = 0.80). CSE-exposed tissues demonstrated a dose-dependent decrease in Bcl2 expression and increases in active caspase 3 and nuclear fragmentation in both amnion and chorion cells compared to controls. In summary, fetal membranes exposed to CSE manifest evidence of OS and apoptosis. The differential pattern of prostanoid production observed in this study supports the hypothesis that an alternate non-inflammatory pathway mediated by OS and apoptosis in pPROM may promote proteolysis resulting in membrane weakening and rupture.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Menon
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, 1518 Clifton Ave NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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Fowell AJ, Collins JE, Duncombe DR, Pickering JA, Rosenberg WMC, Benyon RC. Silencing tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) with short interfering RNA reveals a role for TIMP-1 in hepatic stellate cell proliferation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2011; 407:277-82. [PMID: 21300026 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2011.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2011] [Accepted: 02/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Myofibroblastic, activated hepatic stellate cells (HSC) play a pivotal role in the development of liver fibrosis through the secretion of fibrillar collagens and the tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 and -2. TIMPs are believed to promote hepatic fibrosis by inhibiting both matrix degradation and apoptosis of HSC. In other cell types, there is evidence that TIMP-1 has effects on proliferation, however the role of TIMPs in the regulation of HSC proliferation remains unexplored. Therefore, we have used short interfering RNA (siRNA) to investigate the effects of autocrine TIMP-1 and -2 on HSC proliferation. TIMP-1 and -2 siRNA were highly effective, producing peak target protein knockdown compared to negative control siRNA of 92% and 63%, respectively. Specific silencing of TIMP-1, using siRNA, significantly reduced HSC proliferation. TIMP-1 was localised in part to the HSC nucleus and TIMP-1 siRNA resulted in loss of both cytoplasmic and nuclear TIMP-1. Attenuated proliferation was associated with reduced Akt phosphorylation and was partially rescued by addition of recombinant TIMP-1. We have revealed a novel autocrine mitogenic effect of TIMP-1 on HSC, which may involve Akt-dependent and specific nuclear mechanisms of action. We suggest that TIMP-1 might promote liver fibrosis by means other than its previously described anti-apoptotic effect on HSC. Moreover, these findings, together with our previous reports and the emerging data from in vivo studies of TIMP inhibition, provide strong evidence that TIMP-1 is mechanistically central to liver fibrosis and an important potential therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Fowell
- Liver and Pancreas Group, University of Southampton, Division of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, UK.
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Theveneau E, Mayor R. Collective cell migration of the cephalic neural crest: The art of integrating information. Genesis 2011; 49:164-76. [DOI: 10.1002/dvg.20700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2010] [Revised: 11/30/2010] [Accepted: 12/04/2010] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Dechêne A, Sowa JP, Gieseler RK, Jochum C, Bechmann LP, El Fouly A, Schlattjan M, Saner F, Baba HA, Paul A, Dries V, Odenthal M, Gerken G, Friedman SL, Canbay A. Acute liver failure is associated with elevated liver stiffness and hepatic stellate cell activation. Hepatology 2010; 52:1008-16. [PMID: 20684020 DOI: 10.1002/hep.23754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Acute liver failure (ALF) is associated with massive short-term cell death, whereas chronic liver injury is accompanied by continuous cell death. Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) contribute to tissue repair and liver fibrosis in chronic liver injury, although their role in ALF remains unexplained. Twenty-nine patients (median age = 43 years, 17 females and 12 males) with ALF according to the Acute Liver Failure Study Group criteria were included. Upon the diagnosis of ALF and after 7 days, we determined liver stiffness (LS) with FibroScan, standard laboratory parameters, and serum levels of matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP-1), MMP-2, MMP-9, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 1 (TIMP-1), TIMP-2, hyaluronic acid, and markers of overall cell death (M65) and apoptosis (M30). Stellate cell activation and progenitor response were analyzed immunohistochemically in biopsy samples of 12 patients with alpha-smooth muscle actin (alpha-SMA), keratin-17, and keratin-19 staining, respectively. Cell death markers (M30 level = 2243 +/- 559.6 U/L, M65 level = 3732 +/- 839.9 U/L) and fibrosis markers (TIMP-1 level = 629.9 +/- 69.4 U/mL, MMP-2 level = 264 +/- 32.5 U/mL, hyaluronic acid level = 438.5 +/- 69.3 microg/mL) were significantly increased in patients versus healthy controls. This was paralleled by collagen deposition, elevated alpha-SMA expression, and higher LS (25.6 +/- 3.0 kPa). ALF was associated with ductular progenitor proliferation. CONCLUSION Our results demonstrate HSC activation and a progenitor response in ALF. Positive correlations between LS, the degree of liver cell damage, and the intensity of HSC activation suggest that fibrosis is a response to ALF in an attempt to repair damaged tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Dechêne
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
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Shen Q, Lee ES, Pitts RL, Wu MH, Yuan SY. Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 regulates matrix metalloproteinase-2-mediated endothelial barrier dysfunction and breast cancer cell transmigration through lung microvascular endothelial cells. Mol Cancer Res 2010; 8:939-51. [PMID: 20571065 PMCID: PMC5584073 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-09-0523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) have been implicated in multiple stages of cancer metastasis. Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2) plays an important role in regulating MMP-2 activity. By forming a ternary complex with pro-MMP-2 and its activator MMP-14 on the cell surface, TIMP-2 can either initiate or restrain the cleavage and subsequent activation of MMP-2. Our recent work has shown that breast cancer cell adhesion to vascular endothelial cells activates endothelial MMP-2, promoting tumor cell transendothelial migration (TEM(E)). However, the mechanism of MMP-2 regulation during TEM(E) remains unclear. In the current study, we present evidence that MMP-14 is expressed in both invasive breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-436) and lung microvascular endothelial cells (HBMVEC-L), whereas TIMP-2 is exclusively expressed and released from the cancer cells. The tumor cell-derived TIMP-2 was further identified as a major determinant of endothelial MMP-2 activity during tumor cell transmigration in the presence of MMP-14. This response was associated with endothelial barrier dysfunction because coculture of MDA-MB-231 or MDA-MB-436 with HBMVEC-L caused a significant decrease in transendothelial electrical resistance concomitantly with endothelial cell-cell junction disruption and tumor cell transmigration. Knockdown of TIMP-2 or inhibition of TIMP-2/MMP-14 attenuated MMP-2-dependent transendothelial electrical resistance response and TEM(E). These findings suggest a novel interactive role of breast cancer cells and vascular endothelial cells in regulating the TIMP-2/MMP-14/MMP-2 pathway during tumor metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Shen
- Division of Research, Department of Surgery, University of California at Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California 95817, USA
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Mas VR, Fassnacht R, Archer KJ, Maluf D. Molecular mechanisms involved in the interaction effects of alcohol and hepatitis C virus in liver cirrhosis. Mol Med 2010; 16:287-97. [PMID: 20386865 DOI: 10.2119/molmed.2009.00165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2009] [Accepted: 03/25/2010] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms by which alcohol consumption accelerates liver disease in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) are not well understood. To identify the characteristics of molecular pathways affected by alcohol in HCV patients, we fit probe-set level linear models that included the additive effects as well as the interaction between alcohol and HCV. The study included liver tissue samples from 78 patients, 23 (29.5%) with HCV-cirrhosis, 13 (16.7%) with alcohol-cirrhosis, 23 (29.5%) with HCV/alcohol cirrhosis and 19 (24.4%) with no liver disease (no HCV/no alcohol group). We performed gene-expression profiling by using microarrays. Probe-set expression summaries were calculated by using the robust multiarray average. Probe-set level linear models were fit where probe-set expression was modeled by HCV status, alcohol status, and the interaction between HCV and alcohol. We found that 2172 probe sets (1895 genes) were differentially expressed between HCV cirrhosis versus alcoholic cirrhosis groups. Genes involved in the virus response and the immune response were the more important upregulated genes in HCV cirrhosis. Genes involved in apoptosis regulation were also overexpressed in HCV cirrhosis. Genes of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of enzymes were upregulated in alcoholic cirrhosis, and 1230 probe sets (1051 genes) had a significant interaction estimate. Cell death and cellular growth and proliferation were affected by the interaction between HCV and alcohol. Immune response and response to the virus genes were downregulated in HCV-alcohol interaction (interaction term alcohol*HCV). Alcohol*HCV in the cirrhotic tissues resulted in a strong negative regulation of the apoptosis pattern with concomitant positive regulation of cellular division and proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria R Mas
- Hume-Lee Transplant Center, Division of Transplant, Department of Surgery, Virginia Commonwealth University Health System, Richmond, Virginia 23298-0057, USA.
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Biswas MHU, Du C, Zhang C, Straubhaar J, Languino LR, Balaji KC. Protein kinase D1 inhibits cell proliferation through matrix metalloproteinase-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 secretion in prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2010; 70:2095-104. [PMID: 20160036 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-09-4155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
We and others previously showed that protein kinase D1 (PKD1) is downregulated in several cancers including prostate; interacts with E-cadherin, a major cell adhesion epithelial protein; and causes increased cell aggregation and decreased motility of prostate cancer cells. In this study, we show that PKD1 complexes with beta3-integrin, resulting in activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) kinase-ERK pathway, which causes increased production of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9, that is associated with shedding of soluble 80 kDa E-cadherin extracellular domain. Interestingly, decreased cell proliferation following PKD1 transfection was rescued by MMP-2 and MMP-9 inhibitors and augmented by recombinant MMP-2 (rMMP-2) and rMMP-9 proteins, suggesting an antiproliferative role for MMPs in prostate cancer. Translational studies by in silico analysis of publicly available DNA microarray data sets show a significant direct correlation between PKD1 and MMP-2 expression in human prostate tissues. The study shows a novel mechanism for antiproliferative effects of PKD1, a protein of emerging translational interest in several human cancers, through increased production of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Helal Uddin Biswas
- Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
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Williams H, Johnson JL, Jackson CL, White SJ, George SJ. MMP-7 mediates cleavage of N-cadherin and promotes smooth muscle cell apoptosis. Cardiovasc Res 2010; 87:137-46. [PMID: 20139113 PMCID: PMC2883897 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvq042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Aims Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) apoptosis can lead to thinning of the fibrous cap and plaque instability. We previously showed that cell–cell contacts mediated by N-cadherin reduce VSMC apoptosis. This study aimed to determine whether matrix-degrading metalloproteinase (MMP)-dependent N-cadherin cleavage causes VSMC apoptosis. Methods and results Induction of human VSMC apoptosis using different approaches, including 200 ng/mL Fas ligand (Fas-L) and culture in suspension, caused N-cadherin cleavage and resulted in the appearance of a C-terminal fragment of N-cadherin (∼35 kDa). Appearance of this fragment during apoptosis was inhibited by 47% with the broad-spectrum MMP inhibitor BB-94. We observed retarded cleavage of N-cadherin after treatment with Fas-L in aortic mouse VSMCs lacking MMP-7. Furthermore, VSMC apoptosis, measured by quantification of cleaved caspase-3, was 43% lower in MMP-7 knockout mouse VSMCs compared with wild-type VSMCs following treatment with Fas-L. Addition of recombinant active MMP-7 increased the amount of N-cadherin fragment by 82% and augmented apoptosis by 53%. The involvement of MMP-7 was corroborated using human cells, where a MMP-7 selective inhibitor reduced the amount of fragment formed by 51%. Importantly, we observed that treatment with Fas-L increased levels of active MMP-7 by 80%. Finally, we observed significantly increased cleavage of N-cadherin, MMP-7 activity, and apoptosis in human atherosclerotic plaques compared with control arteries, and a significant reduction in apoptosis in atherosclerotic plaques from MMP-7 knockout mice. Conclusion This study demonstrates that MMP-7 is involved in the cleavage of N-cadherin and modulates VSMC apoptosis, and may therefore contribute to plaque development and rupture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Williams
- Bristol Heart Institute, University of Bristol, Bristol Royal Infirmary, Research Floor Level 7, Upper Maudlin St., Bristol BS2 8HW, UK
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Shapiro S, Khodalev O, Bitterman H, Auslender R, Lahat N. Different activation forms of MMP-2 oppositely affect the fate of endothelial cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2010; 298:C942-51. [PMID: 20071690 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00305.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Detachment of endothelial cells (ECs) from the extracellular matrix (ECM) is required not only for angiogenesis, but also for EC apoptosis. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 plays a major role in the degradation of the ECM, supporting an essential role for this enzyme in both survival (angiogenesis) and death of ECs. Our aim was to study these seemingly paradoxical effects of MMP-2. We rationalized that inhibiting apoptosis would drive MMP-2 toward a prosurvival activity, clarifying the mechanisms involved. By employing specific inhibitors to two major apoptotic pathways in ECs, caspases and p38 MAPK (p38), we demonstrated that they differently affected EC behavior as well as MMP-2 expression. The p38 pathway appears to enhance MMP-2 synthesis, its partial ("intermediate") and its full activation, probably via membrane type (MT)1-MMP, while caspases enhance MMP-2 synthesis and full activation but reduce MT1-MMP and MMP-2 intermediate form. Evaluation of the reciprocal influences of MMP-2 on ECs showed that the intermediate form supported survival and migration, and the fully active form led to cell death. In addition, a pro- and intermediate form-rich environment, even in the presence of the fully active form, exerted protective effects. Thus the seemingly conflicting effects of MMP-2 on EC survival may be explained by the ratio between the MMP-2 activation forms. A regulatory loop between active MMP-2 and p38 but not between MMP-2 and caspases was also observed, suggesting that MMP-2 is downstream to caspases where it serves as an "exterminator" molecule. Altogether, modification of caspase and p38 pathways, via changes of local MMP-2, affect survival and angiogenic steps in ECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Shapiro
- Immunology Research Unit, Carmel Medical Center, 7 Michal St., Haifa 34362, Israel
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