1
|
Snead AA, Tatarenkov A, Avise JC, Taylor DS, Turner BJ, Marson K, Earley RL. Out to sea: ocean currents and patterns of asymmetric gene flow in an intertidal fish species. Front Genet 2023; 14:1206543. [PMID: 37456662 PMCID: PMC10349204 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2023.1206543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Passive dispersal via wind or ocean currents can drive asymmetric gene flow, which influences patterns of genetic variation and the capacity of populations to evolve in response to environmental change. The mangrove rivulus fish (Kryptolebias marmoratus), hereafter "rivulus," is an intertidal fish species restricted to the highly fragmented New World mangrove forests of Central America, the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and Florida. Mangrove patches are biological islands with dramatic differences in both abiotic and biotic conditions compared to adjacent habitat. Over 1,000 individual rivulus across 17 populations throughout its range were genotyped at 32 highly polymorphic microsatellites. Range-wide population genetic structure was evaluated with five complementary approaches that found eight distinct population clusters. However, an analysis of molecular variance indicated significant population genetic structure among regions, populations within regions, sampling locations within populations, and individuals within sampling locations, indicating that rivulus has both broad- and fine-scale genetic differentiation. Integrating range-wide genetic data with biophysical modeling based on 10 years of ocean current data showed that ocean currents and the distance between populations over water drive gene flow patterns on broad scales. Directional migration estimates suggested some significant asymmetries in gene flow that also were mediated by ocean currents and distance. Specifically, populations in the center of the range (Florida Keys) were identified as sinks that received migrants (and alleles) from other populations but failed to export individuals. These populations thus harbor genetic variation, perhaps even from extirpated populations across the range, but ocean currents and complex arrangements of landmasses might prevent the distribution of that genetic variation elsewhere. Hence, the inherent asymmetry of ocean currents shown to impact both genetic differentiation and directional migration rates may be responsible for the complex distribution of genetic variation across the range and observed patterns of metapopulation structure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony A. Snead
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, United States
| | - Andrey Tatarenkov
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - John C. Avise
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | | | - Bruce J. Turner
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Kristine Marson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, United States
| | - Ryan L. Earley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, United States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Shuyskaya E, Toderich K, Kolesnikov A, Prokofieva M, Lebedeva M. Effects of Vertically Heterogeneous Soil Salinity on Genetic Polymorphism and Productivity of the Widespread Halophyte Bassia prostrata. LIFE (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 13:life13010056. [PMID: 36676005 PMCID: PMC9866743 DOI: 10.3390/life13010056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 12/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Salinity is one of the environmental factors that affects both productivity and genetic diversity in plant species. Within the soil profile, salinity is a dynamic indicator and significantly changes with depth. The present study examined the effects of the vertical heterogeneity of soil salinity chemistry on the plant height, fresh and dry biomass accumulation, water content, level of genetic polymorphism, and observed and expected heterozygosity in seven populations of halophyte Bassia prostrata in natural habitats. Soil salinity ranged from slight (Ssalts = 0.11-0.25%) to extreme (Ssalts = 1.35-2.57%). The main contributors to salinity were Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+. Multivariate analysis revealed that biomass accumulation is positively affected by moderate/high salinity in 20-60 cm soil layers, which may be associated with the salt required for the optimal growth of the halophyte B. prostrata. The formation of seed genetic diversity is negatively affected by slight/moderate salinity in the 0-40 cm layers. An increase in divalent ion content can reduce genetic diversity and increase the local adaptation of B. prostrata to magnesium-calcium sulfate salinity. The effect of the in-depth distribution of soil salinity on productivity and genetic diversity may be related to seasonal variables during biomass accumulation (summer) and seed formation (autumn).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Shuyskaya
- K.A. Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology RAS, 35 Botanicheskaya St., 127276 Moscow, Russia
- Correspondence:
| | - Kristina Toderich
- International Platform for Dryland Research and Education, Tottori University, Tottori 680-0001, Japan
| | - Alexander Kolesnikov
- Institute of Forest Science, Russian Academy of Sciences, 143030 Uspenskoe, Russia
| | - Maria Prokofieva
- K.A. Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology RAS, 35 Botanicheskaya St., 127276 Moscow, Russia
| | - Marina Lebedeva
- V.V. Dokuchaev Soil Science Institute, 7/2 Pyzhevsky per., 119017 Moscow, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Gorton AJ, Shaw AK. Using theoretical models to explore dispersal variation and fragmentation in urban environments. POPUL ECOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/1438-390x.12135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amanda J. Gorton
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior University of Minnesota St. Paul Minnesota USA
| | - Allison K. Shaw
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior University of Minnesota St. Paul Minnesota USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Nicolaus M, Wang X, Lamers KP, Ubels R, Both C. Unravelling the causes and consequences of dispersal syndromes in a wild passerine. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20220068. [PMID: 35506227 PMCID: PMC9065973 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.0068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Evidence accumulates that dispersal is correlated with individual behavioural phenotype (dispersal syndrome). The evolutionary causes and consequences of such covariation depend on the degree of plasticity versus inheritance of the traits, which requires challenging experiments to implement in mobile organisms. Here, we combine a forced dispersal experiment, natural colonization and longitudinal data to establish if dispersal and aggression levels are integrated and to test their adaptive nature in pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca). We found that (forced) dispersers behaved more aggressively in their first breeding year after dispersal and decreased their aggression in following years. Strength of dispersal syndrome and direction of fecundity selection on aggression in newly colonized areas varied between years. We propose that the net benefits of aggression for dispersers increase under harsh conditions (e.g. low food abundance). This hypothesis now warrants further testing. Overall, this study provides unprecedented experimental evidence that dispersal syndromes can be remodelled via adaptive plasticity depending on the individuals' local breeding experience and/or year-specific ecological conditions. It highlights the importance of individual behavioural variation in population dynamics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marion Nicolaus
- Conservation Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), University of Groningen, PO Box 11103, 9700 CC Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Xuelai Wang
- Conservation Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), University of Groningen, PO Box 11103, 9700 CC Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Koosje P. Lamers
- Conservation Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), University of Groningen, PO Box 11103, 9700 CC Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Richard Ubels
- Conservation Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), University of Groningen, PO Box 11103, 9700 CC Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Christiaan Both
- Conservation Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), University of Groningen, PO Box 11103, 9700 CC Groningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Palma E, Vesk PA, White M, Baumgartner JB, Catford JA. Plant functional traits reflect different dimensions of species invasiveness. Ecology 2021; 102:e03317. [PMID: 33638164 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.3317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Trait-based invasiveness studies typically categorize exotic species as invasive or noninvasive, implicitly assuming species form two homogenous groups. However, species can become invasive in different ways (e.g., high abundance, fast spread), likely relying on different functional traits to do so. As such, binary classification may obscure traits associated with invasiveness. We tested whether (1) the way in which invasiveness is quantified influences its correlation with functional traits and (2) different demography-based metrics are related to different sets of traits. Using a case study of 251 herbs exotic to Victoria, Australia, we quantified species' invasiveness using 10 metrics: four continuous, demography-based dimensions of invasiveness (spread rate, local abundance, geographic and environmental range sizes) and six binary classifications of invasiveness (based on alternative sources and invasion criteria). We examined the correlation between species' invasiveness and a set of four traits known to relate to plant demography and invasion. Then, we examined whether different demographic dimensions of invasiveness were better explained by different sets of traits. We found that the way invasiveness was quantified was important: different traits were linked with different invasiveness metrics, and some traits showed opposite effects across metrics. Species with fast spread were either tall with small seeds (i.e., good colonizers), or had heavy, animal-dispersed seeds. Plants with a large environmental range had greater plasticity for some traits. Locally abundant plants had low SLA and heavy seeds (i.e., strong competitors). Animal dispersal was also key to reach a large geographic range. No traits were consistently related to the six binary classifications. Our results indicate that exotic plants are invasive in different ways and rely on different combinations of traits to be so. Some traits (e.g., seed mass) had complex relationships with invasion: they apparently promote, hampered, or had no influence on different dimensions of invasiveness. Our findings are consistent with the notion that plant species use strategies that may be near optimal under some, but not all, ecological conditions. Compared to binary classifications of invasiveness, the use of invasiveness dimensions advances clearer hypothesis testing in invasion science.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Estibaliz Palma
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Peter A Vesk
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Matt White
- Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, Heidelberg, Victoria, 3084, Australia
| | - John B Baumgartner
- Centre of Excellence for Biosecurity Risk Analysis (CEBRA), The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Jane A Catford
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia.,Department of Geography, King's College London, 30 Aldwych, London, WC2B 4BG, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ovaskainen O, Somervuo P, Finkelshtein D. A general mathematical method for predicting spatio-temporal correlations emerging from agent-based models. J R Soc Interface 2020; 17:20200655. [PMID: 33109018 PMCID: PMC7653394 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.0655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Agent-based models are used to study complex phenomena in many fields of science. While simulating agent-based models is often straightforward, predicting their behaviour mathematically has remained a key challenge. Recently developed mathematical methods allow the prediction of the emerging spatial patterns for a general class of agent-based models, whereas the prediction of spatio-temporal pattern has been thus far achieved only for special cases. We present a general and mathematically rigorous methodology that allows deriving the spatio-temporal correlation structure for a general class of individual-based models. To do so, we define an auxiliary model, in which each agent type of the primary model expands to three types, called the original, the past and the new agents. In this way, the auxiliary model keeps track of both the initial and current state of the primary model, and hence the spatio-temporal correlations of the primary model can be derived from the spatial correlations of the auxiliary model. We illustrate the agreement between analytical predictions and agent-based simulations using two example models from theoretical ecology. In particular, we show that the methodology is able to correctly predict the dynamical behaviour of a host–parasite model that shows spatially localized oscillations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Otso Ovaskainen
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 65, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland.,Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, N-7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Panu Somervuo
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 65, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
| | - Dmitri Finkelshtein
- Department of Mathematics, Swansea University, Fabian Way, Swansea SA1 8EN, UK
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Influence of reproductive biology on establishment capacity in introduced Hymenoptera species. Biol Invasions 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-020-02375-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
8
|
Stuart KC, Cardilini APA, Cassey P, Richardson MF, Sherwin WB, Rollins LA, Sherman CDH. Signatures of selection in a recent invasion reveal adaptive divergence in a highly vagile invasive species. Mol Ecol 2020; 30:1419-1434. [PMID: 33463838 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
A detailed understanding of population genetics in invasive populations helps us to identify drivers of successful alien introductions. Here, we investigate putative signals of selection in Australian populations of invasive common starlings, Sturnus vulgaris, and seek to understand how these have been influenced by introduction history. We used reduced representation sequencing to determine population structure, and identify Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) that are putatively under selection. We found that since their introduction into Australia, starling populations have become genetically differentiated despite the potential for high levels of dispersal, and that starlings have responded to selective pressures imposed by a wide range of environmental conditions across their geographic range. Isolation by distance appears to have played a strong role in determining genetic substructure across the starling's Australian range. Analyses of candidate SNPs that are putatively under selection indicated that aridity, precipitation and temperature may be important factors driving adaptive variation across the starling's invasive range in Australia. However, we also noted that the historic introduction regime may leave footprints on sites flagged as being under adaptive selection, and encourage critical interpretation of selection analyses in non-native populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katarina C Stuart
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Adam P A Cardilini
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Phillip Cassey
- Centre for Applied Conservation Science and School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Mark F Richardson
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia.,Genomics Centre, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - William B Sherwin
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Lee A Rollins
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Craig D H Sherman
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Cortés AJ, López-Hernández F, Osorio-Rodriguez D. Predicting Thermal Adaptation by Looking Into Populations' Genomic Past. Front Genet 2020; 11:564515. [PMID: 33101385 PMCID: PMC7545011 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2020.564515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular evolution offers an insightful theory to interpret the genomic consequences of thermal adaptation to previous events of climate change beyond range shifts. However, disentangling often mixed footprints of selective and demographic processes from those due to lineage sorting, recombination rate variation, and genomic constrains is not trivial. Therefore, here we condense current and historical population genomic tools to study thermal adaptation and outline key developments (genomic prediction, machine learning) that might assist their utilization for improving forecasts of populations' responses to thermal variation. We start by summarizing how recent thermal-driven selective and demographic responses can be inferred by coalescent methods and in turn how quantitative genetic theory offers suitable multi-trait predictions over a few generations via the breeder's equation. We later assume that enough generations have passed as to display genomic signatures of divergent selection to thermal variation and describe how these footprints can be reconstructed using genome-wide association and selection scans or, alternatively, may be used for forward prediction over multiple generations under an infinitesimal genomic prediction model. Finally, we move deeper in time to comprehend the genomic consequences of thermal shifts at an evolutionary time scale by relying on phylogeographic approaches that allow for reticulate evolution and ecological parapatric speciation, and end by envisioning the potential of modern machine learning techniques to better inform long-term predictions. We conclude that foreseeing future thermal adaptive responses requires bridging the multiple spatial scales of historical and predictive environmental change research under modern cohesive approaches such as genomic prediction and machine learning frameworks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrés J Cortés
- Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria AGROSAVIA, C.I. La Selva, Rionegro, Colombia.,Departamento de Ciencias Forestales, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia - Sede Medellín, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Felipe López-Hernández
- Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria AGROSAVIA, C.I. La Selva, Rionegro, Colombia
| | - Daniela Osorio-Rodriguez
- Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Pasadena, CA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Blakeslee AMH, Manousaki T, Vasileiadou K, Tepolt CK. An evolutionary perspective on marine invasions. Evol Appl 2020; 13:479-485. [PMID: 32431730 PMCID: PMC7045714 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Species distributions are rapidly changing as human globalization increasingly moves organisms to novel environments. In marine systems, species introductions are the result of a number of anthropogenic mechanisms, notably shipping, aquaculture/mariculture, the pet and bait trades, and the creation of canals. Marine invasions are a global threat to human and non-human populations alike and are often listed as one of the top conservation concerns worldwide, having ecological, evolutionary, and social ramifications. Evolutionary investigations of marine invasions can provide crucial insight into an introduced species' potential impacts in its new range, including: physiological adaptation and behavioral changes to exploit new environments; changes in resident populations, community interactions, and ecosystems; and severe reductions in genetic diversity that may limit evolutionary potential in the introduced range. This special issue focuses on current research advances in the evolutionary biology of marine invasions and can be broadly classified into a few major avenues of research: the evolutionary history of invasive populations, post-invasion reproductive changes, and the role of evolution in parasite introductions. Together, they demonstrate the value of investigating marine invasions from an evolutionary perspective, with benefits to both fundamental and applied evolutionary biology at local and broad scales.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Tereza Manousaki
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and AquacultureHellenic Centre for Marine ResearchThalassocosmosGreece
| | | | - Carolyn K. Tepolt
- Department of BiologyWoods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionWoods HoleMAUSA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Moran EV. Simulating the effects of local adaptation and life history on the ability of plants to track climate shifts. AOB PLANTS 2020; 12:plaa008. [PMID: 32128105 PMCID: PMC7046178 DOI: 10.1093/aobpla/plaa008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Many studies have examined the impact of dispersal on local adaptation, but much less attention has been paid to how local adaptation influences range shifts. The aim of this study was to test how local adaptation might affect climate-driven range shifts in plants, and if this might differ between plants with different life histories. Simulated range shift dynamics were compared for hypothetical annual, perennial and tree species, each comprised of either one plastic genotype or six locally adapted genotypes. The landscape consists of shifting climate bands made up of 20 × 20 m patches containing multiple individuals. Effects of seed dispersal, breadth of the plastic species' tolerance, steepness of the climate gradient and rate of the climate shift are also examined. Local adaptation increased the equilibrium range size and aided range shifts by boosting fitness near range edges. However, when the rate of climate change was doubled on a steep gradient, locally adapted trees exhibited a higher percent loss of range during the climate shift. The plastic annual species with short dispersal was unable to recover its range size even after the climate stabilized, while the locally adapted annuals tracked climate change well. The results suggest that in most situations local adaptation and longer dispersal distances will be advantageous, though not necessarily sufficient, for tracking suitable climates. However, local adaptation might put species with long generation times at greater risk when climate shifts are very rapid. If confirmed by empirical tests, these results suggest that identifying variation between species in how fitness varies along climate gradients and in these key demographic rates might aid in prioritizing management actions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emily V Moran
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of California Merced, Merced, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Mitotic Recombination and Rapid Genome Evolution in the Invasive Forest Pathogen Phytophthora ramorum. mBio 2019; 10:mBio.02452-18. [PMID: 30862749 PMCID: PMC6414701 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02452-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Alien species are often successful invaders in new environments, despite the introduction of a few isolates with a reduced genetic pool. This is called the genetic paradox of invasion. We found two mechanisms by which the invasive forest pathogen causing sudden oak and sudden larch death can evolve. Extensive mitotic recombination producing runs of homozygosity generates genotypic diversity even in the absence of sexual reproduction, and rapid turnover of genes in the non-core, or nonessential portion of genome not shared by all isolates, allows pathogenicity genes to evolve rapidly or be eliminated while retaining essential genes. Mitotic recombination events occur in genomic hot spots, resulting in similar ROH patterns in different isolates or groups; one ROH, independently generated in two different groups, was enriched in pathogenicity genes and may be a target for selection. This provides important insights into the evolution of invasive alien pathogens and their potential for adaptation and future persistence. Invasive alien species often have reduced genetic diversity and must adapt to new environments. Given the success of many invasions, this is sometimes called the genetic paradox of invasion. Phytophthora ramorum is invasive, limited to asexual reproduction within four lineages, and presumed clonal. It is responsible for sudden oak death in the United States, sudden larch death in Europe, and ramorum blight in North America and Europe. We sequenced the genomes of 107 isolates to determine how this pathogen can overcome the invasion paradox. Mitotic recombination (MR) associated with transposons and low gene density has generated runs of homozygosity (ROH) affecting 2,698 genes, resulting in novel genotypic diversity within the lineages. One ROH enriched in effectors was fixed in the NA1 lineage. An independent ROH affected the same scaffold in the EU1 lineage, suggesting an MR hot spot and a selection target. Differences in host infection between EU1 isolates with and without the ROH suggest that they may differ in aggressiveness. Non-core regions (not shared by all lineages) had signatures of accelerated evolution and were enriched in putative pathogenicity genes and transposons. There was a striking pattern of gene loss, including all effectors, in the non-core EU2 genome. Positive selection was observed in 8.0% of RxLR and 18.8% of Crinkler effector genes compared with 0.9% of the core eukaryotic gene set. We conclude that the P. ramorum lineages are diverging via a rapidly evolving non-core genome and that the invasive asexual lineages are not clonal, but display genotypic diversity caused by MR.
Collapse
|
13
|
Chen N, Huang Z, Lu C, Shen Y, Luo X, Ke C, You W. Different Transcriptomic Responses to Thermal Stress in Heat-Tolerant and Heat-Sensitive Pacific Abalones Indicated by Cardiac Performance. Front Physiol 2019; 9:1895. [PMID: 30687115 PMCID: PMC6334008 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The Pacific abalone Haliotis discus hannai is one of the most economically important mollusks in China. Even though it has been farmed in southern China for almost 20 years, summer mortality remains the most challengeable problem for Pacific abalone aquaculture recently. Here, we determined the different heat tolerance ability for five selective lines of H. discus hannai by measuring the cardiac performance and Arrhenius breakpoint temperature (ABT). The Red line (RL) and Yangxia line (YL) were determined as the most heat-sensitive and most heat-tolerant line, respectively. Heart rates for RL were significantly lower than those of the YL at the same temperature (p < 0.05). The differentially expressed genes (DEGs), which were enriched in several pathways including cardiac muscle contraction, glutathione metabolism and oxidative phosphorylation, were identified between RL and YL at control temperature (20°C) and heat stress temperature (28.5°C, the ABT of the RL) by RNA-seq method. In the RL, 3370 DEGs were identified between the control and the heat-stress temperature, while only 1351 DEGs were identified in YL between these two temperature tests. Most of these DEGs were enriched in the pathways such as protein processing in endoplasmic reticulum, nucleotide binding and oligomerization domain (NOD) like receptor signaling, and ubiquitin mediated proteolysis. Notably, the most heat-tolerant line YL used an effective heat-protection strategy based on moderate transcriptional changes and regulation on the expression of key genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Zekun Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- State-Province Joint Engineering Laboratory of Marine Bioproducts and Technology, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Chengkuan Lu
- College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- State-Province Joint Engineering Laboratory of Marine Bioproducts and Technology, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Yawei Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- State-Province Joint Engineering Laboratory of Marine Bioproducts and Technology, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Xuan Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- State-Province Joint Engineering Laboratory of Marine Bioproducts and Technology, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Caihuan Ke
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- State-Province Joint Engineering Laboratory of Marine Bioproducts and Technology, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Weiwei You
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- State-Province Joint Engineering Laboratory of Marine Bioproducts and Technology, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Nicolaus M, Edelaar P. Comparing the consequences of natural selection, adaptive phenotypic plasticity, and matching habitat choice for phenotype-environment matching, population genetic structure, and reproductive isolation in meta-populations. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:3815-3827. [PMID: 29721259 PMCID: PMC5916293 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.3816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Revised: 11/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Organisms commonly experience significant spatiotemporal variation in their environments. In response to such heterogeneity, different mechanisms may act that enhance ecological performance locally. However, depending on the nature of the mechanism involved, the consequences for populations may differ greatly. Building on a previous model that investigated the conditions under which different adaptive mechanisms (co)evolve, this study compares the ecological and evolutionary population consequences of three very different responses to environmental heterogeneity: matching habitat choice (directed gene flow), adaptive plasticity (associated with random gene flow), and divergent natural selection. Using individual‐based simulations, we show that matching habitat choice can have a greater adaptive potential than plasticity or natural selection: it allows for local adaptation while protecting genetic polymorphism despite global mating or strong environmental changes. Our simulations further reveal that increasing environmental fluctuations and unpredictability generally favor the emergence of specialist genotypes but that matching habitat choice is better at preventing local maladaptation by individuals. This confirms that matching habitat choice can speed up the genetic divergence among populations, cause indirect assortative mating via spatial clustering, and hence even facilitate sympatric speciation. This study highlights the potential importance of directed dispersal in local adaptation and speciation, stresses the difficulty of deriving its operation from nonexperimental observational data alone, and helps define a set of ecological conditions which should favor its emergence and subsequent detection in nature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marion Nicolaus
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry Engineering University Pablo de Olavide Sevilla Spain.,Conservation Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES) University of Groningen Groningen The Netherlands
| | - Pim Edelaar
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry Engineering University Pablo de Olavide Sevilla Spain
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Moran EV, Reid A, Levine JM. Population genetics and adaptation to climate along elevation gradients in invasive Solidago canadensis. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0185539. [PMID: 28957402 PMCID: PMC5619793 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0185539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Gene flow between populations may either support local adaptation by supplying genetic variation on which selection may act, or counteract it if maladapted alleles arrive faster than can be purged by selection. Although both such effects have been documented within plant species’ native ranges, how the balance of these forces influences local adaptation in invasive plant populations is less clear, in part because introduced species often have lower genetic variation initially but also tend to have good dispersal abilities. To evaluate the extent of gene flow and adaptation to local climate in invasive populations of Solidago canadensis, and the implications of this for range expansion, we compared population differentiation at microsatellite and chloroplast loci for populations across Switzerland and assessed the effect of environmental transfer distance using common gardens. We found that while patterns of differentiation at neutral genetic markers suggested that populations are connected through extensive pollen and seed movement, common-garden plants nonetheless exhibited modest adaptation to local climate conditions. Growth rate and flower production declined with climatic distance from a plant's home site, with clones from colder home sites performing better at or above the range limit. Such adaptation in invasive species is likely to promote further spread, particularly under climate change, as the genotypes positioned near the range edge may be best able to take advantage of lengthening growing seasons to expand the range.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emily V. Moran
- Life and Environmental Sciences, University of California Merced, Merced, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Webster MS, Colton MA, Darling ES, Armstrong J, Pinsky ML, Knowlton N, Schindler DE. Who Should Pick the Winners of Climate Change? Trends Ecol Evol 2017; 32:167-173. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2016.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Revised: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
|
17
|
Gubili C, Mariani S, Weckworth BV, Galpern P, McDevitt AD, Hebblewhite M, Nickel B, Musiani M. Environmental and anthropogenic drivers of connectivity patterns: A basis for prioritizing conservation efforts for threatened populations. Evol Appl 2016; 10:199-211. [PMID: 28127396 PMCID: PMC5253427 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Ecosystem fragmentation and habitat loss have been the focus of landscape management due to restrictions on contemporary connectivity and dispersal of populations. Here, we used an individual approach to determine the drivers of genetic differentiation in caribou of the Canadian Rockies. We modelled the effects of isolation by distance, landscape resistance and predation risk and evaluated the consequences of individual migratory behaviour (seasonally migratory vs. sedentary) on gene flow in this threatened species. We applied distance-based and reciprocal causal modelling approaches, testing alternative hypotheses on the effects of geographic, topographic, environmental and local population-specific variables on genetic differentiation and relatedness among individuals. Overall, gene flow was restricted to neighbouring local populations, with spatial coordinates, local population size, groups and elevation explaining connectivity among individuals. Landscape resistance, geographic distances and predation risk were correlated with genetic distances, with correlations threefold higher for sedentary than for migratory caribou. As local caribou populations are increasingly isolated, our results indicate the need to address genetic connectivity, especially for populations with individuals displaying different migratory behaviours, whilst maintaining quality habitat both within and across the ranges of threatened populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chrysoula Gubili
- School of Environment and Life Sciences University of Salford Salford UK; Faculties of Environmental Design and Veterinary Medicine University of Calgary Calgary AB Canada
| | - Stefano Mariani
- School of Environment and Life Sciences University of Salford Salford UK
| | | | - Paul Galpern
- Faculties of Environmental Design and Veterinary Medicine University of Calgary Calgary AB Canada
| | - Allan D McDevitt
- School of Environment and Life Sciences University of Salford Salford UK
| | - Mark Hebblewhite
- Wildlife Biology Program Department of Ecosystem and Conservation Sciences College of Forestry and Conservation University of Montana Missoula MT USA
| | - Barry Nickel
- Environmental Studies Department Center for Integrated Spatial Research University of California Santa Cruz CA USA
| | - Marco Musiani
- Faculties of Environmental Design and Veterinary Medicine University of Calgary Calgary AB Canada
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
What drivers phenotypic divergence in Leymus chinensis (Poaceae) on large-scale gradient, climate or genetic differentiation? Sci Rep 2016; 6:26288. [PMID: 27195668 PMCID: PMC4872539 DOI: 10.1038/srep26288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Elucidating the driving factors among-population divergence is an important task in evolutionary biology, however the relative contribution from natural selection and neutral genetic differentiation has been less debated. A manipulation experiment was conducted to examine whether the phenotypic divergence of Leymus chinensis depended on climate variations or genetic differentiations at 18 wild sites along a longitudinal gradient from 114 to 124°E in northeast China and at common garden condition of transplantation. Demographical, morphological and physiological phenotypes of 18 L. chinensis populations exhibited significant divergence along the gradient, but these divergent variations narrowed significantly at the transplantation. Moreover, most of the phenotypes were significantly correlated with mean annual precipitation and temperature in wild sites, suggesting that climatic variables played vital roles in phenotypic divergence of the species. Relative greater heterozygosity (HE), genotype evenness (E) and Shannon-Wiener diversity (I) in western group of populations suggested that genetic differentiation also drove phenotypic divergence of the species. However, neutral genetic differentiation (FST = 0.041) was greatly lower than quantitative differentiation (QST = 0.199), indicating that divergent selection/climate variable was the main factor in determining the phenotypic divergence of the species along the large-scale gradient.
Collapse
|
19
|
Expression Differentiation Is Constrained to Low-Expression Proteins over Ecological Timescales. Genetics 2015; 202:273-83. [PMID: 26546003 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.115.180547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 11/04/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein expression level is one of the strongest predictors of protein sequence evolutionary rate, with high-expression protein sequences evolving at slower rates than low-expression protein sequences largely because of constraints on protein folding and function. Expression evolutionary rates also have been shown to be negatively correlated with expression level across human and mouse orthologs over relatively long divergence times (i.e., ∼100 million years). Long-term evolutionary patterns, however, often cannot be extrapolated to microevolutionary processes (and vice versa), and whether this relationship holds for traits evolving under directional selection within a single species over ecological timescales (i.e., <5000 years) is unknown and not necessarily expected. Expression is a metabolically costly process, and the expression level of a particular protein is predicted to be a tradeoff between the benefit of its function and the costs of its expression. Selection should drive the expression level of all proteins close to values that maximize fitness, particularly for high-expression proteins because of the increased energetic cost of production. Therefore, stabilizing selection may reduce the amount of standing expression variation for high-expression proteins, and in combination with physiological constraints that may place an upper bound on the range of beneficial expression variation, these constraints could severely limit the availability of beneficial expression variants. To determine whether rapid-expression evolution was restricted to low-expression proteins owing to these constraints on highly expressed proteins over ecological timescales, we compared venom protein expression levels across mainland and island populations for three species of pit vipers. We detected significant differentiation in protein expression levels in two of the three species and found that rapid-expression differentiation was restricted to low-expression proteins. Our results suggest that various constraints on high-expression proteins reduce the availability of beneficial expression variants relative to low-expression proteins, enabling low-expression proteins to evolve and potentially lead to more rapid adaptation.
Collapse
|
20
|
Berdahl A, Torney CJ, Schertzer E, Levin SA. On the evolutionary interplay between dispersal and local adaptation in heterogeneous environments. Evolution 2015; 69:1390-1405. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.12664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Berdahl
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; Princeton University; Princeton New Jersey 08544
- Santa Fe Institute; Santa Fe New Mexico 87501
| | - Colin J. Torney
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; Princeton University; Princeton New Jersey 08544
- Centre for Mathematics and the Environment; University of Exeter; Penryn Campus Cornwall United Kingdom
| | - Emmanuel Schertzer
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; Princeton University; Princeton New Jersey 08544
- Laboratoire de Probabilités et Modèles Aléatoires des Universités Pierre et Marie Curie et Denis Diderot; Paris France
- Collège de France; Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology CNRS UMR 7241; Paris France
| | - Simon A. Levin
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; Princeton University; Princeton New Jersey 08544
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Welt RS, Litt A, Franks SJ. Analysis of population genetic structure and gene flow in an annual plant before and after a rapid evolutionary response to drought. AOB PLANTS 2015; 7:plv026. [PMID: 25818074 PMCID: PMC4417203 DOI: 10.1093/aobpla/plv026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The impact of environmental change on population structure is not well understood. This study aimed to examine the effect of a climate change event on gene flow over space and time in two populations of Brassica rapa that evolved more synchronous flowering times over 5 years of drought in southern California. Using plants grown from seeds collected before and after the drought, we estimated genetic parameters within and between populations and across generations. We expected that with greater temporal opportunity to cross-pollinate, due to reduced phenological isolation, these populations would exhibit an increase in gene flow following the drought. We found low but significant FST, but no change in FST or Nm across the drought, in contrast to predictions. Bayesian analysis of these data indicates minor differentiation between the two populations but no noticeable change in structure before and after the shift in flowering times. However, we found high and significant levels of FIS, indicating that inbreeding likely occurred in these populations despite self-incompatibility in B. rapa. In this system, we did not find an impact of climate change on gene flow or population structuring. The contribution of gene flow to adaptive evolution may vary by system, however, and is thus an important parameter to consider in further studies of natural responses to environmental change.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel S Welt
- Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University, Bronx, New York, NY 10458, USA Present address: Department of Herpetology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA
| | - Amy Litt
- The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York, NY 10458, USA Present address: Botany and Plant Sciences, UC Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Steven J Franks
- Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University, Bronx, New York, NY 10458, USA The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York, NY 10458, USA
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Laine AL, Burdon JJ, Nemri A, Thrall PH. Host ecotype generates evolutionary and epidemiological divergence across a pathogen metapopulation. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 281:rspb.2014.0522. [PMID: 24870042 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.0522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The extent and speed at which pathogens adapt to host resistance varies considerably. This presents a challenge for predicting when--and where--pathogen evolution may occur. While gene flow and spatially heterogeneous environments are recognized to be critical for the evolutionary potential of pathogen populations, we lack an understanding of how the two jointly shape coevolutionary trajectories between hosts and pathogens. The rust pathogen Melampsora lini infects two ecotypes of its host plant Linum marginale that occur in close proximity yet in distinct populations and habitats. In this study, we found that within-population epidemics were different between the two habitats. We then tested for pathogen local adaptation at host population and ecotype level in a reciprocal inoculation study. Even after controlling for the effect of spatial structure on infection outcome, we found strong evidence of pathogen adaptation at the host ecotype level. Moreover, sequence analysis of two pathogen infectivity loci revealed strong genetic differentiation by host ecotype but not by distance. Hence, environmental variation can be a key determinant of pathogen population genetic structure and coevolutionary dynamics and can generate strong asymmetry in infection risks through space.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Liisa Laine
- Metapopulation Research Group, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, PO Box 65, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - Jeremy J Burdon
- CSIRO Plant Industry, GPO Box 1600, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia
| | - Adnane Nemri
- CSIRO Plant Industry, GPO Box 1600, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia
| | - Peter H Thrall
- CSIRO Plant Industry, GPO Box 1600, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Schiffers KH, Travis JM. ALADYN - a spatially explicit, allelic model for simulating adaptive dynamics. ECOGRAPHY 2014; 37:1288-1291. [PMID: 25698848 PMCID: PMC4330972 DOI: 10.1111/ecog.00680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
ALADYN is a freely available cross-platform C++ modeling framework for stochastic simulation of joint allelic and demographic dynamics of spatially-structured populations. Juvenile survival is linked to the degree of match between an individual's phenotype and the local phenotypic optimum. There is considerable flexibility provided for the demography of the considered species and the genetic architecture of the traits under selection. ALADYN facilitates the investigation of adaptive processes to spatially and/or temporally changing conditions and the resulting niche and range dynamics. To our knowledge ALADYN is so far the only model that allows a continuous resolution of individuals' locations in a spatially explicit landscape together with the associated patterns of selection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katja H Schiffers
- Katja H Schiffers ( ), Evolution, Modeling and Analysis of BIOdiversity group, Laboratoire d'Ecologie Alpine, UMR CNRS 5553, Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Justin Mj Travis
- Justin MJ Travis, Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Zoology building, Tillydrone Avenue, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Dalrymple RL, Buswell JM, Moles AT. Asexual plants change just as often and just as fast as do sexual plants when introduced to a new range. OIKOS 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.01582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rhiannon L. Dalrymple
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Univ. of New South Wales; NSW 2052 Australia
| | - Joanna M. Buswell
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Univ. of New South Wales; NSW 2052 Australia
- Ministry for the Environment; 23 Kate Sheppard Place Wellington New Zealand
| | - Angela T. Moles
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Univ. of New South Wales; NSW 2052 Australia
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Karasov TL, Horton MW, Bergelson J. Genomic variability as a driver of plant-pathogen coevolution? CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 18:24-30. [PMID: 24491596 PMCID: PMC4696489 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2013.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2013] [Revised: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 12/20/2013] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Pathogens apply one of the strongest selective pressures in plant populations. Understanding plant-pathogen coevolution has therefore been a major research focus for at least sixty years [1]. Recent comparative genomic studies have revealed that the genes involved in plant defense and pathogen virulence are among the most polymorphic in the respective genomes. Which fraction of this diversity influences the host-pathogen interaction? Do coevolutionary dynamics maintain variation? Here we review recent literature on the evolutionary and molecular processes that shape this variation, focusing primarily on gene-for-gene interactions. In summarizing theoretical and empirical studies of the processes that shape this variation in natural plant and pathogen populations, we find a disconnect between the complexity of ecological interactions involving hosts and their myriad microbes, and the models that describe them.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Talia L Karasov
- University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA; Committee on Genetics, Genomics and Systems Biology
| | | | - Joy Bergelson
- University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA; Department of Ecology & Evolution.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Cortés AJ, Waeber S, Lexer C, Sedlacek J, Wheeler JA, van Kleunen M, Bossdorf O, Hoch G, Rixen C, Wipf S, Karrenberg S. Small-scale patterns in snowmelt timing affect gene flow and the distribution of genetic diversity in the alpine dwarf shrub Salix herbacea. Heredity (Edinb) 2014; 113:233-9. [PMID: 24619183 DOI: 10.1038/hdy.2014.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2013] [Revised: 01/22/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Current threats to biodiversity, such as climate change, are thought to alter the within-species genetic diversity among microhabitats in highly heterogeneous alpine environments. Assessing the spatial organization and dynamics of genetic diversity within species can help to predict the responses of organisms to environmental change. In this study, we evaluated whether small-scale heterogeneity in snowmelt timing restricts gene flow between microhabitats in the common long-lived dwarf shrub Salix herbacea L. We surveyed 273 genets across 12 early- and late-snowmelt sites (that is, ridges and snowbeds) in the Swiss Alps for phenological variation over 2 years and for genetic variation using seven SSR markers. Phenological differentiation triggered by differences in snowmelt timing did not correlate with genetic differentiation between microhabitats. On the contrary, extensive gene flow appeared to occur between microhabitats and slightly less extensively among adjacent mountains. However, ridges exhibited significantly lower levels of genetic diversity than snowbeds, and patterns of effective population size (Ne) and migration (Nem) between microhabitats were strongly asymmetric, with ridges acting as sources and snowbeds as sinks. As no recent genetic bottlenecks were detected in the studied sites, this asymmetry is likely to reflect current meta-population dynamics of the species dominated by gene flow via seeds rather than ancient re-colonization after the last glacial period. Overall, our results suggest that seed dispersal prevents snowmelt-driven genetic isolation, and snowbeds act as sinks of genetic diversity. We discuss the consequences of such small-scale variation in gene flow and diversity levels for population responses to climate change.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A J Cortés
- Unit of Plant Ecology and Evolution, Evolutionary Biology Center, Department of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - S Waeber
- Unit of Ecology and Evolution, Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - C Lexer
- Unit of Ecology and Evolution, Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - J Sedlacek
- Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - J A Wheeler
- 1] WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland [2] Institute of Botany, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - M van Kleunen
- Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - O Bossdorf
- Plant Evolutionary Ecology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - G Hoch
- Institute of Botany, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - C Rixen
- WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland
| | - S Wipf
- WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland
| | - S Karrenberg
- Unit of Plant Ecology and Evolution, Evolutionary Biology Center, Department of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Bourne EC, Bocedi G, Travis JMJ, Pakeman RJ, Brooker RW, Schiffers K. Between migration load and evolutionary rescue: dispersal, adaptation and the response of spatially structured populations to environmental change. Proc Biol Sci 2014; 281:20132795. [PMID: 24452022 PMCID: PMC3906938 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2013.2795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2013] [Accepted: 12/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolutionary potential of populations is mainly determined by population size and available genetic variance. However, the adaptability of spatially structured populations may also be affected by dispersal: positively by spreading beneficial mutations across sub-populations, but negatively by moving locally adapted alleles between demes. We develop an individual-based, two-patch, allelic model to investigate the balance between these opposing effects on a population's evolutionary response to rapid climate change. Individual fitness is controlled by two polygenic traits coding for local adaptation either to the environment or to climate. Under conditions of selection that favour the evolution of a generalist phenotype (i.e. weak divergent selection between patches) dispersal has an overall positive effect on the persistence of the population. However, when selection favours locally adapted specialists, the beneficial effects of dispersal outweigh the associated increase in maladaptation for a narrow range of parameter space only (intermediate selection strength and low linkage among loci), where the spread of beneficial climate alleles is not strongly hampered by selection against non-specialists. Given that local selection across heterogeneous and fragmented landscapes is common, the complex effect of dispersal that we describe will play an important role in determining the evolutionary dynamics of many species under rapidly changing climate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth C. Bourne
- The James Hutton Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen AB15 8QH, UK
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Zoology Building, Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, UK
- Institute für Biologie—Botanik, Freie Universität Berlin, Altensteinstrasse 6, Berlin 14195, Germany
| | - Greta Bocedi
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Zoology Building, Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, UK
| | - Justin M. J. Travis
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Zoology Building, Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, UK
| | - Robin J. Pakeman
- The James Hutton Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen AB15 8QH, UK
| | - Rob W. Brooker
- The James Hutton Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen AB15 8QH, UK
| | - Katja Schiffers
- Evolution, Modeling and Analyses of Biodiversity group, Laboratoire d'Ecologie Alpine, UMR CNRS 5553, Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Muir AP, Biek R, Thomas R, Mable BK. Local adaptation with high gene flow: temperature parameters drive adaptation to altitude in the common frog (Rana temporaria). Mol Ecol 2014; 23:561-74. [PMID: 24330274 PMCID: PMC4285318 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2013] [Revised: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 11/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Both environmental and genetic influences can result in phenotypic variation. Quantifying the relative contributions of local adaptation and phenotypic plasticity to phenotypes is key to understanding the effect of environmental variation on populations. Identifying the selective pressures that drive divergence is an important, but often lacking, next step. High gene flow between high- and low-altitude common frog (Rana temporaria) breeding sites has previously been demonstrated in Scotland. The aim of this study was to assess whether local adaptation occurs in the face of high gene flow and to identify potential environmental selection pressures that drive adaptation. Phenotypic variation in larval traits was quantified in R. temporaria from paired high- and low-altitude sites using three common temperature treatments. Local adaptation was assessed using Q(ST)-F(ST) analyses, and quantitative phenotypic divergence was related to environmental parameters using Mantel tests. Although evidence of local adaptation was found for all traits measured, only variation in larval period and growth rate was consistent with adaptation to altitude. Moreover, this was only evident in the three mountains with the highest high-altitude sites. This variation was correlated with mean summer and winter temperatures, suggesting that temperature parameters are potentially strong selective pressures maintaining local adaptation, despite high gene flow.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A P Muir
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
|
30
|
Labonne J, Vignon M, Prévost E, Lecomte F, Dodson JJ, Kaeuffer R, Aymes JC, Jarry M, Gaudin P, Davaine P, Beall E. Invasion dynamics of a fish-free landscape by brown trout (Salmo trutta). PLoS One 2013; 8:e71052. [PMID: 23990925 PMCID: PMC3749212 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2013] [Accepted: 06/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Metapopulation dynamics over the course of an invasion are usually difficult to grasp because they require large and reliable data collection, often unavailable. The invasion of the fish-free freshwater ecosystems of the remote sub-Antarctic Kerguelen Islands following man-made introductions of brown trout (Salmo trutta) in the 1950's is an exception to this rule. Benefiting from a full long term environmental research monitoring of the invasion, we built a Bayesian dynamic metapopulation model to analyze the invasion dynamics of 85 river systems over 51 years. The model accounted for patch size (river length and connections to lakes), alternative dispersal pathways between rivers, temporal trends in dynamics, and uncertainty in colonization date. The results show that the model correctly represents the observed pattern of invasion, especially if we assume a coastal dispersal pathway between patches. Landscape attributes such as patch size influenced the colonization function, but had no effect on propagule pressure. Independently from patch size and distance between patches, propagule pressure and colonization function were not constant through time. Propagule pressure increased over the course of colonization, whereas the colonization function decreased, conditional on propagule pressure. The resulting pattern of this antagonistic interplay is an initial rapid invasion phase followed by a strong decrease in the invasion rate. These temporal trends may be due to either adaptive processes or environmental gradients encountered along the colonization front. It was not possible to distinguish these two hypotheses. Because invasibility of Kerguelen Is. freshwater ecosystems is very high due to the lack of a pre-existing fish fauna and minimal human interference, our estimates of invasion dynamics represent a blueprint for the potential of brown trout invasiveness in pristine environments. Our conclusions shed light on the future of polar regions where, because of climate change, fish-free ecosystems become increasingly accessible to invasion by fish species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jacques Labonne
- INRA, UMR 1224, ECOBIOP, Pôle d'Hydrobiologie, Saint-Pée sur Nivelle, France
- * E-mail:
| | - Matthias Vignon
- UPPA, UMR 1224, ECOBIOP, Pôle d'Hydrobiologie, Saint-Pée sur Nivelle, France
| | - Etienne Prévost
- INRA, UMR 1224, ECOBIOP, Pôle d'Hydrobiologie, Saint-Pée sur Nivelle, France
| | - Frédéric Lecomte
- Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune du Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - Julian J. Dodson
- Université Laval, Département de Biologie, Pavillon Vachon, Québec, Canada
| | - Renaud Kaeuffer
- Redpath Museum and Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | | | - Marc Jarry
- UPPA, UMR 1224, ECOBIOP, Pôle d'Hydrobiologie, Saint-Pée sur Nivelle, France
| | - Philippe Gaudin
- INRA, UMR 1224, ECOBIOP, Pôle d'Hydrobiologie, Saint-Pée sur Nivelle, France
| | - Patrick Davaine
- INRA, UMR 1224, ECOBIOP, Pôle d'Hydrobiologie, Saint-Pée sur Nivelle, France
| | - Edward Beall
- INRA, UMR 1224, ECOBIOP, Pôle d'Hydrobiologie, Saint-Pée sur Nivelle, France
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Haller BC, Mazzucco R, Dieckmann U. Evolutionary branching in complex landscapes. Am Nat 2013; 182:E127-41. [PMID: 24021409 DOI: 10.1086/671907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Divergent adaptation to different environments can promote speciation, and it is thus important to consider spatial structure in models of speciation. Earlier theoretical work, however, has been limited to particularly simple types of spatial structure (linear environmental gradients and spatially discrete metapopulations), leaving unaddressed the effects of more realistic patterns of landscape heterogeneity, such as nonlinear gradients and spatially continuous patchiness. To elucidate the consequences of such complex landscapes, we adapt an established spatially explicit individual-based model of evolutionary branching. We show that branching is most probable at intermediate levels of various types of heterogeneity and that different types of heterogeneity have, to some extent, additive effects in promoting branching. In contrast to such additivity, we find a novel refugium effect in which refugia in hostile environments provide opportunities for colonization, thus increasing the probability of branching in patchy landscapes. Effects of patchiness depend on the scale of patches relative to dispersal. Providing a needed connection to empirical research on biodiversity and conservation policy, we introduce empirically accessible spatial environmental metrics that quantitatively predict a landscape's branching propensity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin C Haller
- Department of Biology and Redpath Museum, McGill University, 859 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0C4, Canada
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Zamora-Camacho F, Reguera S, Moreno-Rueda G, Pleguezuelos J. Patterns of seasonal activity in a Mediterranean lizard along a 2200m altitudinal gradient. J Therm Biol 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2012.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
33
|
Schiffers K, Bourne EC, Lavergne S, Thuiller W, Travis JMJ. Limited evolutionary rescue of locally adapted populations facing climate change. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2013; 368:20120083. [PMID: 23209165 PMCID: PMC3538450 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2012.0083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Dispersal is a key determinant of a population's evolutionary potential. It facilitates the propagation of beneficial alleles throughout the distributional range of spatially outspread populations and increases the speed of adaptation. However, when habitat is heterogeneous and individuals are locally adapted, dispersal may, at the same time, reduce fitness through increasing maladaptation. Here, we use a spatially explicit, allelic simulation model to quantify how these equivocal effects of dispersal affect a population's evolutionary response to changing climate. Individuals carry a diploid set of chromosomes, with alleles coding for adaptation to non-climatic environmental conditions and climatic conditions, respectively. Our model results demonstrate that the interplay between gene flow and habitat heterogeneity may decrease effective dispersal and population size to such an extent that substantially reduces the likelihood of evolutionary rescue. Importantly, even when evolutionary rescue saves a population from extinction, its spatial range following climate change may be strongly narrowed, that is, the rescue is only partial. These findings emphasize that neglecting the impact of non-climatic, local adaptation might lead to a considerable overestimation of a population's evolvability under rapid environmental change.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katja Schiffers
- Laboratoire d'Ecologie Alpine, Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble 1, UMR-CNRS 5553, BP 53, 38041 Grenoble Cedex 9, France.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Breed MF, Stead MG, Ottewell KM, Gardner MG, Lowe AJ. Which provenance and where? Seed sourcing strategies for revegetation in a changing environment. CONSERV GENET 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s10592-012-0425-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
35
|
De Wit P, Palumbi SR. Transcriptome-wide polymorphisms of red abalone (Haliotis rufescens) reveal patterns of gene flow and local adaptation. Mol Ecol 2012; 22:2884-97. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.12081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2012] [Revised: 07/25/2012] [Accepted: 07/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pierre De Wit
- Department of Biology; Hopkins Marine Station; Stanford University; 120 Ocean view Blvd.; Pacific Grove; CA; 93950; USA
| | - Stephen R. Palumbi
- Department of Biology; Hopkins Marine Station; Stanford University; 120 Ocean view Blvd.; Pacific Grove; CA; 93950; USA
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
|
37
|
McLEOD KA, SCASCITELLI M, VELLEND M. Detecting small-scale genotype-environment interactions in apomictic dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) populations. J Evol Biol 2012; 25:1667-75. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2012.02549.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
38
|
Thomassen G, Barson NJ, Haugen TO, Vøllestad LA. Contemporary divergence in early life history in grayling (Thymallus thymallus). BMC Evol Biol 2011; 11:360. [PMID: 22166134 PMCID: PMC3252335 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-11-360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2011] [Accepted: 12/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Following colonization of new habitats and subsequent selection, adaptation to environmental conditions might be expected to be rapid. In a mountain lake in Norway, Lesjaskogsvatnet, more than 20 distinct spawning demes of grayling have been established since the lake was colonized, some 20-25 generations ago. The demes spawn in tributaries consistently exhibiting either colder or warmer temperature conditions during spawning in spring and subsequent early development during early summer. In order to explore the degree of temperature-related divergence in early development, a multi-temperature common-garden experiment was performed on embryos from four different demes experiencing different spring temperatures. Results Early developmental characters were measured to test if individuals from the four demes respond differently to the treatment temperatures. There was clear evidence of among-deme differences (genotype - environment interactions) in larval growth and yolk-to-body-size conversion efficiency. Under the cold treatment regime, larval growth rates were highest for individuals belonging to cold streams. Individuals from warm streams had the highest yolk-consumption rate under cold conditions. As a consequence, yolk-to-body-mass conversion efficiency was highest for cold-deme individuals under cold conditions. As we observed response parallelism between individuals from demes belonging to similar thermal groups for these traits, some of the differentiation seems likely to result from local adaptation Conclusion The observed differences in length at age during early larval development most likely have a genetic component, even though both directional and random processes are likely to have influenced evolutionary change in the demes under study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gaute Thomassen
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biology, University of Oslo, P, O, Box 1066 Blindern, NO-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Kirk H, Freeland JR. Applications and implications of neutral versus non-neutral markers in molecular ecology. Int J Mol Sci 2011; 12:3966-88. [PMID: 21747718 PMCID: PMC3131602 DOI: 10.3390/ijms12063966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2011] [Revised: 06/06/2011] [Accepted: 06/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The field of molecular ecology has expanded enormously in the past two decades, largely because of the growing ease with which neutral molecular genetic data can be obtained from virtually any taxonomic group. However, there is also a growing awareness that neutral molecular data can provide only partial insight into parameters such as genetic diversity, local adaptation, evolutionary potential, effective population size, and taxonomic designations. Here we review some of the applications of neutral versus adaptive markers in molecular ecology, discuss some of the advantages that can be obtained by supplementing studies of molecular ecology with data from non-neutral molecular markers, and summarize new methods that are enabling researchers to generate data from genes that are under selection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heather Kirk
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario K9J 7B8, Canada; E-Mail:
| | - Joanna R. Freeland
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario K9J 7B8, Canada; E-Mail:
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Austin A, Ovaskainen O, Hanski I. Size and genetic composition of the colonizing propagules in a butterfly metapopulation. OIKOS 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18992.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|