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Srisuphanunt M, Wilairatana P, Kooltheat N, Damrongwatanapokin T, Karanis P. Occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in commercial oysters in southern Thailand. Food Waterborne Parasitol 2023; 32:e00205. [PMID: 37577105 PMCID: PMC10412772 DOI: 10.1016/j.fawpar.2023.e00205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 07/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The enteric parasite Cryptosporidium is spread through the fecal-oral pathway, most commonly by the consumption of contaminated water but also through food. Because eating raw or barely cooked shellfish might put consumers at risk for cryptosporidiosis, identifying the parasite in oysters is important for public health. A total of 240 oysters, collected from two shellfish aquaculture sites in Thailand's Gulf coast, Nakhon Si Thammarat and Surat Thani, were tested for the presence of Cryptosporidium. Escherichia coli, enterococci, and thermotolerant coliform total levels were measured to assess seawater quality in the shellfish production regions. Oocysts of Cryptosporidium spp. were detected in 13.8% of the samples processed by immunofluorescence analyses. The detection of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in oysters obtained from Surat Thani (17.5%) was higher than in those obtained from Nakhon Si Thammarat (9.2%). The difference in detection of positive samples obtained from Nakhon Si Thammarat and those obtained from Surat Thani may be attributed to the effects of physical, ecological, and anthropogenic conditions, resulting in an increased level of marine water contamination by Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts. These findings demonstrate that native commercial oysters obtained from Thailand's southern Gulf coast contained Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts which might serve as a source of human infection. Consequently, these findings pose a serious public health concern and suggest that more quality control measures need to be implemented by the oyster aquaculture business to ensure the safety of seafood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayuna Srisuphanunt
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
- Centre for One Health, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80161, Thailand
- Hematology and Transfusion Science Research Center, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
| | - Polrat Wilairatana
- Department of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Nateelak Kooltheat
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
- Hematology and Transfusion Science Research Center, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
| | - Thanis Damrongwatanapokin
- Akkhraratchakumari Veterinary College, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
- Centre for One Health, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80161, Thailand
| | - Panagiotis Karanis
- University of Nicosia Medical School, Department of Basic and Clinical Sciences, Egkomi 2408, Cyprus
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Chen Y, Qin H, Wu Y, Xu H, Huang J, Li J, Zhang L. Global prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in pigs: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Parasitology 2023; 150:531-544. [PMID: 37051887 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182023000276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium spp. are significant opportunistic pathogens causing diarrhoea in humans and animals. Pigs are one of the most important potential hosts for Cryptosporidium. We evaluated the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in pigs globally using published information and a random-effects model. In total, 131 datasets from 36 countries were included in the final quantitative analysis. The global prevalence of Cryptosporidium in pigs was 16.3% (8560/64 809; 95% confidence interval [CI] 15.0–17.6%). The highest prevalence of Cryptosporidium in pigs was 40.8% (478/1271) in Africa. Post-weaned pigs had a significantly higher prevalence (25.8%; 2739/11 824) than pre-weaned, fattening and adult pigs. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium was higher in pigs with no diarrhoea (12.2%; 371/3501) than in pigs that had diarrhoea (8.0%; 348/4874). Seven Cryptosporidium species (Cryptosporidium scrofarum, Cryptosporidium suis, Cryptosporidium parvum, Cryptosporidium muris, Cryptosporidium tyzzeri, Cryptosporidium andersoni and Cryptosporidium struthioni) were detected in pigs globally. The proportion of C. scrofarum was 34.3% (1491/4351); the proportion of C. suis was 31.8% (1385/4351) and the proportion of C. parvum was 2.3% (98/4351). The influence of different geographic factors (latitude, longitude, mean yearly temperature, mean yearly relative humidity and mean yearly precipitation) on the infection rate of Cryptosporidium in pigs was also analysed. The results indicate that C. suis is the dominant species in pre-weaned pigs, while C. scrofarum is the dominant species in fattening and adult pigs. The findings highlight the role of pigs as possible potential hosts of zoonotic cryptosporidiosis and the need for additional studies on the prevalence, transmission and control of Cryptosporidium in pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuancai Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, P. R. China
| | - Huikai Qin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, P. R. China
| | - Yayun Wu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, P. R. China
| | - Huiyan Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, P. R. China
| | - Jianying Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, P. R. China
| | - Junqiang Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, P. R. China
| | - Longxian Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, P. R. China
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Teel L, Pagilla K, Sundaram V, Li L, Guarin T, Haak L. Pathogen reduction by ozone-biological activated carbon-based advanced water reclamation for reuse. WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH : A RESEARCH PUBLICATION OF THE WATER ENVIRONMENT FEDERATION 2022; 94:e10726. [PMID: 35621226 DOI: 10.1002/wer.10726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Ozone-biological activated carbon (ozone-BAC)-based technologies are emerging as an appealing option for potable reuse systems; however, uncertainty remains regarding the reduction of waterborne pathogens. Common log reduction requirements have been modeled after California Department of Drinking Water's 12-10-10 log reduction value (LRV) for enteric virus, Cryptosporidium, and Giardia, respectively. The objective of this research was to investigate appropriate LRVs of pathogens that can be achieved in ozone-BAC-based treatment systems and to assess the applicability of employing drinking water pathogen guidelines for potable reuse applications. A pilot scale ozone-BAC-based treatment train was operated at two water reclamation facilities in Reno, Nevada, USA. Virus, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and bacterial indicators were monitored across individual and combined treatment processes. Pathogen barriers investigated include conventional filtration, ozonation, and ultraviolet disinfection. Based on sampling and treatment validation strategies, the three pathogen barriers can provide minimum LRVs of 13-9-9.5 for virus, Giardia, and Cryptosporidium. Secondary biological treatment can provide additional pathogen LRVs with site-specific sampling. The present study addresses regulatory uncertainties associated with ozone-BAC pathogen reduction. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Ozone-biological activated carbon-based advanced treatment can meet pathogen LRV requirements with a minimum of three pathogen barriers. Successfully applied drinking water pathogen reduction guidelines for potable reuse applications verified by operational criteria. Low presence of pathogens requires surrogates and indicator analyses and variety of monitoring techniques to verify pathogen log reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Teel
- Department of Civil and Environmental, Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada, USA
- Truckee Meadows Water Authority, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - Krishna Pagilla
- Department of Civil and Environmental, Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | | | - Lin Li
- Department of Civil and Environmental, Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - Tatiana Guarin
- Department of Civil and Environmental, Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - Laura Haak
- Department of Civil and Environmental, Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada, USA
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Dela Peña LBRO, Vejano MRA, Rivera WL. Molecular surveillance of Cryptosporidium spp. for microbial source tracking of fecal contamination in Laguna Lake, Philippines. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2021; 19:534-544. [PMID: 34152304 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2021.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Water quality deterioration in source waters poses increased health, environmental, and economic risks. Here, we genotyped Cryptosporidium spp. obtained from water samples of Laguna Lake, Philippines, and its tributaries for the purpose of source-tracking fecal contamination. A total of 104 surface water samples were collected over a 1-year period (March 2018 to April 2019). Detection of Cryptosporidium was carried out using genus-specific primers targeting a fragment of the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene. The study revealed 8 (14%) tributary samples and 1 (2.77%) lake sample positive for contamination. The species were determined to be C. parvum (n = 4), C. muris (n = 2), C. hominis (n = 1), C. galli (n = 1), C. baileyi (n = 1), C. suis (n = 1), as well as rat genotype IV (n = 1). Two species were detected in duck (C. baileyi) and cattle (C. parvum) fecal samples. The data presented suggest that Cryptosporidium contamination is likely to come from sewage or human feces as well as various agricultural sources (i.e. cattle, swine, and poultry). This information reveals the importance of mitigating fecal pollution in the lake system and minimizing health risks due to exposure to zoonotic Cryptosporidium species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurice Beatrice Raphaelle O Dela Peña
- Pathogen-Host-Environment Interactions Research Laboratory, Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines E-mail:
| | - Mark Raymond A Vejano
- Pathogen-Host-Environment Interactions Research Laboratory, Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines E-mail:
| | - Windell L Rivera
- Pathogen-Host-Environment Interactions Research Laboratory, Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines E-mail:
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Mahdavi Poor B, Rashedi J, Asgharzadeh M, Fallah E. An Evaluation of Transmission Dynamics of Cryptosporidium Using Molecular Methods. Avicenna J Med Biotechnol 2021; 13:51-52. [PMID: 33680374 PMCID: PMC7903431 DOI: 10.18502/ajmb.v13i1.4582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Behroz Mahdavi Poor
- Department of Laboratory Science, Faculty of Paramedicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Jalil Rashedi
- Department of Laboratory Science, Faculty of Paramedicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Asgharzadeh
- Biotechnology Research Center Faculty of Paramedicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Esmaeel Fallah
- Faculty of Medicine, Islamic Azad University, Ardabil Branch, Ardabil, Iran
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Ikiroma IA, Pollock KG. Influence of weather and climate on cryptosporidiosis-A review. Zoonoses Public Health 2020; 68:285-298. [PMID: 33225635 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Studies have shown that climatic factors can significantly influence transmission of many waterborne diseases. However, knowledge of the impact of climate variability on cryptosporidiosis is much less certain. Associations between the incidence of cryptosporidiosis and climatic variables have been reported in several countries. Given that the identified relationships were not consistently reported across studies, it is not known whether these were country-specific observations or can be considered more globally. Variation in the disease risk in both low- and middle-income countries and high-income countries presents new challenges and opportunities to enact responsive changes in research and public health policies. Available epidemiological evidence of the influence of weather and climate on cryptosporidiosis is reviewed. Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria, and most studies showed that the incidence of cryptosporidiosis is highly sensitive to climatic conditions, especially temperature, rainfall and relative humidity. The identified associations varied across studies, with different conditions of importance and lag times across different locations. Therefore, there is a need for countries at risk to assess Cryptosporidium transmission routes based on the spatiotemporal patterns of the disease and what role climate and other socio-ecological changes play in the transmission. Information gathering will then allow us to provide information for evidence-based control strategies and mitigation of transmission. This review offers new perspectives on the role of climate variability on Cryptosporidium transmission. It highlights different epidemiological approaches adopted and provides the potential for future research and surveillance to reduce the disease burden. By evaluating the epidemiological transmission of this organism in high-income countries, all mitigation strategies, for example filtration and water catchment management, can be used as exemplars of preventing infection in low- to middle-income countries.
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El-Alfy ES, Nishikawa Y. Cryptosporidium species and cryptosporidiosis in Japan: a literature review and insights into the role played by animals in its transmission. J Vet Med Sci 2020; 82:1051-1067. [PMID: 32536636 PMCID: PMC7468066 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.20-0151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidium species infect domestic animals, livestock, and humans.
These protozoan parasites are frequently reported as major environmental contaminants in
many countries despite their differing climatic, socioeconomic, and demographic factors.
This review focuses on the research findings that relate to
Cryptosporidium epidemiology, genetic diversity, and associated risk
factors relating to animals, contaminated water sources, and humans in Japan. Adequate
knowledge of these factors is essential for understanding the economic and public health
importance of cryptosporidiosis in Japan so that effective control strategies against it
are implemented. Cryptosporidium infections are highly prevalent in
animals in Japan. Among the different animal species, cattle infections stand out because
of their economic importance and zoonotic potential. Living circumstances in Japan
restrain Cryptosporidium transmission between humans, but there is
evidence to suggest that animals, especially those in close contact with humans, can be
potential sources of human infections. Water sampling studies have provided clues about
how environmental contamination with Cryptosporidium oocysts can cause
infections in livestock and wild animals. There is some evidence of person-to-person
transmission of cryptosporidiosis, but only occasionally and under certain circumstances.
By identifying the major role played by animals in Cryptosporidium
transmission to people in Japan, we highlight the urgent need for disease control against
this pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- El-Sayed El-Alfy
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan.,Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Yoshifumi Nishikawa
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
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Korajkic A, McMinn BR, Harwood VJ. Relationships between Microbial Indicators and Pathogens in Recreational Water Settings. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:E2842. [PMID: 30551597 PMCID: PMC6313479 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15122842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Fecal pollution of recreational waters can cause scenic blight and pose a threat to public health, resulting in beach advisories and closures. Fecal indicator bacteria (total and fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, and enterococci), and alternative indicators of fecal pollution (Clostridium perfringens and bacteriophages) are routinely used in the assessment of sanitary quality of recreational waters. However, fecal indicator bacteria (FIB), and alternative indicators are found in the gastrointestinal tract of humans, and many other animals and therefore are considered general indicators of fecal pollution. As such, there is room for improvement in terms of their use for informing risk assessment and remediation strategies. Microbial source tracking (MST) genetic markers are closely associated with animal hosts and are used to identify fecal pollution sources. In this review, we examine 73 papers generated over 40 years that reported the relationship between at least one indicator and one pathogen group or species. Nearly half of the reports did not include statistical analysis, while the remainder were almost equally split between those that observed statistically significant relationships and those that did not. Statistical significance was reported less frequently in marine and brackish waters compared to freshwater, and the number of statistically significant relationships was considerably higher in freshwater (p < 0.0001). Overall, significant relationships were more commonly reported between FIB and pathogenic bacteria or protozoa, compared to pathogenic viruses (p: 0.0022⁻0.0005), and this was more pronounced in freshwater compared to marine. Statistically significant relationships were typically noted following wet weather events and at sites known to be impacted by recent fecal pollution. Among the studies that reported frequency of detection, FIB were detected most consistently, followed by alternative indicators. MST markers and the three pathogen groups were detected least frequently. This trend was mirrored by reported concentrations for each group of organisms (FIB > alternative indicators > MST markers > pathogens). Thus, while FIB, alternative indicators, and MST markers continue to be suitable indicators of fecal pollution, their relationship with waterborne pathogens, particularly viruses, is tenuous at best and influenced by many different factors such as frequency of detection, variable shedding rates, differential fate and transport characteristics, as well as a broad range of site-specific factors such as the potential for the presence of a complex mixture of multiple sources of fecal contamination and pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asja Korajkic
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, 26 West Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA.
| | - Brian R McMinn
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, 26 West Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA.
| | - Valerie J Harwood
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Ave, SCA 110, Tampa, FL 33620, USA.
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Fereig RM, Abdelbaky HH, Ihara F, Nishikawa Y. Development and evaluation of the first immunochromatographic test that can detect specific antibodies against Cryptosporidium parvum. Acta Trop 2018; 185:349-356. [PMID: 29932929 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum is a major cause of diarrhea among human and calves, resulting in severe health hazards and drastic economic losses, respectively. Although C. parvum infection leads to high morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised patients and bovine calves, this infection remains a neglected disease. Currently available diagnostic tests for C. parvum are primarily based on detection of oocysts, DNA, or secreted antigens in fecal specimens. Demonstration of specific antibodies with a rapid immunochromatographic test (ICT) will be advantageous not only in providing a simple, rapid, accurate, and affordable tool but also in surveillance because of the ability to recognize recent and past infections. Herein, we developed two ICTs using the diagnostic antigen CpP23 and immunodominant antigen CpGP15 to detect C. parvum-specific antibodies in cattle sera. Because of unavailability of a reference test for antibody detection, evaluation and validation of our developed ICTs were conducted using reference cattle samples and unknown field cattle sera. Serum samples were simultaneously tested by a previously validated enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using the same antigens (CpGP15 and CpP23). ICTs showed substantial ability to discriminate between positive and negative control cattle sera for both CpGP15 and CpP23. Even against field sera, high sensitivity, specificity, and agreement rates were recorded for ICTs compared with the previously validated ELISA with the same antigens (CpGP15 = 78.78%, 100%, and 85.11%; CpP23 = 80%, 100%, and 80.56%, respectively). Moreover, a high correlation was observed between the test band intensity of ICTs and optical density of ELISA, particularly in the case of CpP23-specific IgM. To our knowledge, this study represents the first development of ICTs that can detect C. parvum-specific antibodies. Our tests will contribute greatly to C. parvum infection control in cattle by providing a method for on-site diagnosis of early and latent infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ragab M Fereig
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan; Research Center for Global Agromedicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan; Department of Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, South Valley University, Qena City, Qena 83523, Egypt
| | - Hanan H Abdelbaky
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Fumiaki Ihara
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Yoshifumi Nishikawa
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan.
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Omarova A, Tussupova K, Berndtsson R, Kalishev M, Sharapatova K. Protozoan Parasites in Drinking Water: A System Approach for Improved Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Developing Countries. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:E495. [PMID: 29534511 PMCID: PMC5877040 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15030495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Revised: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Improved water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) are significant in preventing diarrhea morbidity and mortality caused by protozoa in low- and middle-income countries. Due to the intimate and complex relationships between the different WASH components, it is often necessary to improve not just one but all of these components to have sustainable results. The objective of this paper was to review the current state of WASH-related health problems caused by parasitic protozoa by: giving an overview and classification of protozoa and their effect on people's health, discussing different ways to improve accessibility to safe drinking water, sanitation services and personal hygiene behavior; and suggesting an institutional approach to ensure improved WASH. The findings indicate that Giardia and Cryptosporidium are more often identified during waterborne or water-washed outbreaks and they are less sensitive than most of the bacteria and viruses to conventional drinking water and wastewater treatment methods. There are various institutions of control and prevention of water-related diseases caused by protozoa in developed countries. Unfortunately, the developing regions do not have comparable systems. Consequently, the institutional and systems approach to WASH is necessary in these countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alua Omarova
- Department of Nutrition and General Hygiene, Karaganda State Medical University, Gogol Street 40, Karaganda 100008, Kazakhstan.
| | - Kamshat Tussupova
- Department of International Cooperation and Bologna Process, Karaganda State Medical University, Gogol Street 40, Karaganda 100008, Kazakhstan.
- Division of Water Resources Engineering & Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden.
| | - Ronny Berndtsson
- Division of Water Resources Engineering & Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden.
| | - Marat Kalishev
- Department of Nutrition and General Hygiene, Karaganda State Medical University, Gogol Street 40, Karaganda 100008, Kazakhstan.
| | - Kulyash Sharapatova
- Department of Surgery, Gynecology and Pediatry, Semey State Medical University, Pavlodar Branch, Toraigyrov Street 72/1, Pavlodar 140000, Kazakhstan.
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Rosado-García FM, Guerrero-Flórez M, Karanis G, Hinojosa MDC, Karanis P. Water-borne protozoa parasites: The Latin American perspective. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2017; 220:783-798. [PMID: 28460996 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2017] [Revised: 03/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/18/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Health systems, sanitation and water access have certain limitations in nations of Latin America (LA): typical matters of developing countries. Water is often contaminated and therefore unhealthy for the consumers and users. Information on prevalence and detection of waterborne parasitic protozoa are limited or not available in LA. Only few reports have documented in this field during the last forty years and Brazil leads the list, including countries in South America and Mexico within Central America region and Caribbean islands. From 1979 to 2015, 16 outbreaks of waterborne-protozoa, were reported in Latin American countries. T. gondii and C. cayetanensis were the protozoa, which caused more outbreaks and Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. were the most frequently found protozoa in water samples. On the other hand, Latin America countries have not got a coherent methodology for detection of protozoa in water samples despite whole LA is highly vulnerable to extreme weather events related to waterborne-infections; although Brazil and Colombia have some implemented laws in their surveillance systems. It would be important to coordinate all surveillance systems in between all countries for early detection and measures against waterborne-protozoan and to establish effective and suitable diagnosis tools according to the country's economic strength and particular needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Manuel Rosado-García
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Center for Biomedicine and Infectious Diseases, Qinghai Academy of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, PR China; National Institute of Hygiene, Epidemiology and Microbiology of Cuba, Cuba
| | - Milena Guerrero-Flórez
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Center for Biomedicine and Infectious Diseases, Qinghai Academy of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, PR China; Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Doctorate in Biotechnology, Universidad de Nariño, Research Group of Functional Materials and Catalysis, GIMFC, Colombia
| | - Gabriele Karanis
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Center for Biomedicine and Infectious Diseases, Qinghai Academy of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, PR China; Qinghai University Affiliated Hospital, Xining City, 810016, Qinghai Province, PR China
| | | | - Panagiotis Karanis
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Center for Biomedicine and Infectious Diseases, Qinghai Academy of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, PR China.
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Cryptosporidium Attenuation across the Wastewater Treatment Train: Recycled Water Fit for Purpose. Appl Environ Microbiol 2017; 83:AEM.03068-16. [PMID: 28039137 DOI: 10.1128/aem.03068-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Compliance with guideline removal targets for Cryptosporidium which do not provide any credit for the inactivation of oocysts through wastewater treatment processes can considerably increase the cost of providing recycled water. Here we present the application of an integrated assay to quantify both oocyst numbers and infectivity levels after various treatment stages at three Victorian and two South Australian (SA) wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Oocyst density in the raw sewage was commensurate with community disease burden, with early rounds of sampling capturing a widespread cryptosporidiosis outbreak in Victoria. The level of infectivity of oocysts in sewage was stable throughout the year but was significantly lower at the SA WWTPs. Removals across secondary treatment processes were seasonal, with poorer removals associated with inflow variability; however, no decrease in the oocyst infectivity was identified. For SA WWTPs, those oocysts remaining within the secondary treatment-clarified effluent were proportionally more infectious than those in raw sewage. Lagoon systems demonstrated significant inactivation or removal of oocysts, with attenuation being seasonal. Examination of a UV system emphasized its efficacy as a disinfectant barrier but conversely confirmed the importance of a multibarrier approach with the detection of infectious oocysts postdisinfection. The ability to characterize risk from infectious oocysts revealed that the risk from Cryptosporidium is significantly lower than previously thought and that its inclusion in quantitative risk assessments of reuse systems will more accurately direct the selection of treatment strategies and capital expenditure, influencing the sustainability of such schemes.IMPORTANCE Here we present the application of a recently developed integrated assay not only to quantify the removal of Cryptosporidium oocysts but also to quantify their infectivity across various treatment stages at five wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), thereby better measuring the "true effect" of the treatment train on oocyst risk reduction. For a number of the WWTPs analyzed in this study the risk, is significantly lower than previously thought. Therefore, the inclusion of oocyst infectivity in guideline values and in quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) has the potential to affect future treatment directions and capital expenditure.
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Hadi M, Mesdaghinia A, Yunesian M, Nasseri S, Nabizadeh Nodehi R, Tashauoei H, Jalilzadeh E, Zarinnejad R. Contribution of environmental media to cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis prevalence in Tehran: a focus on surface waters. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 23:19317-19329. [PMID: 27370533 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7055-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The occurrences of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in surface sources of drinking water in Tehran were monitored, using US EPA method 1623.1. The prevalence ratios (PR) of positive samples among other media (animal's stools, vegetables, and human's stools) were also estimated from literature data. The density of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in water samples were 0.129 ± 0.069 cysts/L and 0.005 ± 0.002 oocysts/L, respectively. Estimated PR in vegetables, animal stools, surface waters, and human stools were 6.65, 20.42, 21.05, and 4.28 % for Cryptosporidium and 6.46, 17.13, 73.68, and 15.65 % for Giardia, respectively. These reveal the importance of surface waters' and animal stools' roles in the prevalence of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis in Tehran's population. Giardia's prevalence in untreated surface waters in Tehran was found 3.5 times as much as Cryptosporidium while this found 2.3 times on a global scale. Moreover, the prevalence of giardiasis to cryptosporidiosis infections in Tehran's human population was 3.65. These values could be a clue to attribute the infections to the occurrence of parasites in surface waters. Significant (p < 0.05) associations were observed between rainfalls and presence of Giardia (r = 0.62) and Cryptosporidium (r = 0.60) in surface waters. In autumn, rainfalls can increase the parasites occurrences in surface waters. Significant (p < 0.05) difference on the density of parasites was found between some seasons using Kruskal-Wallis and multiple comparison tests. A significant correlation (r = 0.86) between Giardia and Cryptosporidium densities also confirms the common sources of pollution in surface waters. Findings suggest that untreated surface waters in Tehran may be a potential route of human exposure to protozoan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdi Hadi
- Center for Water Quality Research (CWQR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Mesdaghinia
- Center for Water Quality Research (CWQR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Masud Yunesian
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Center for Air Pollution Research (CAPR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Simin Nasseri
- Center for Water Quality Research (CWQR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ramin Nabizadeh Nodehi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Center for Air Pollution Research (CAPR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hamidreza Tashauoei
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Islamic Azad University-Tehran Medical Branch, Tehran, Iran
| | - Esfandiar Jalilzadeh
- Department of Water and Wastewater Quality Control Laboratory, Water and Wastewater Company, Tehran, Iran
| | - Roya Zarinnejad
- Department of Water and Wastewater Quality Control Laboratory, Water and Wastewater Company, Tehran, Iran
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Nasser AM. Removal of Cryptosporidium by wastewater treatment processes: a review. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2016; 14:1-13. [PMID: 26837825 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2015.131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium is a protozoan parasite that infects humans and various animal species. The environmental stability and the low infectious dose of Cryptosporidium facilitate its transmission by water and food. Discharge of untreated wastewater may result in waterborne or foodborne Cryptosporidium outbreaks, therefore a suitable treatment may prevent its dissemination. Most studies on the prevalence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in wastewater have reported a concentration range between 10 and 200 oocysts/L and a prevalence of 6 to 100%. Activated sludge has been found to be ineffective for the removal of Cryptosporidium oocysts. Stabilization ponds and constructed wetlands are efficient for the reduction of Cryptosporidium from wastewater, especially when the retention time is longer than 20 days at suitable sunlight and temperature. High rate filtration and chlorine disinfection are inefficient for the reduction of Cryptosporidium from effluents, whereas ultrafiltration and UV irradiation were found to be very efficient for the reduction of Cryptosporidium oocysts. Adequate tertiary treatment may result in high quality effluent with low risk of Cryptosporidium for unrestricted irrigation and other non-potable applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abidelfatah M Nasser
- Water Quality Research Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Ben Zvi Rd 69, Tel Aviv, Israel E-mail:
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15
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Silver Nanoparticles Decrease the Viability of Cryptosporidium parvum Oocysts. Appl Environ Microbiol 2016. [PMID: 26497464 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02806‐15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Oocysts of the waterborne protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum are highly resistant to chlorine disinfection. We show here that both silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and silver ions significantly decrease oocyst viability, in a dose-dependent manner, between concentrations of 0.005 and 500 μg/ml, as assessed by an excystation assay and the shell/sporozoite ratio. For percent excystation, the results are statistically significant for 500 μg/ml of AgNPs, with reductions from 83% for the control to 33% with AgNPs. For Ag ions, the results were statistically significant at 500 and 5,000 μg/ml, but the percent excystation values were reduced only to 66 and 62%, respectively, from 86% for the control. The sporozoite/shell ratio was affected to a greater extent following AgNP exposure, presumably because sporozoites are destroyed by interaction with NPs. We also demonstrated via hyperspectral imaging that there is a dual mode of interaction, with Ag ions entering the oocyst and destroying the sporozoites while AgNPs interact with the cell wall and, at high concentrations, are able to fully break the oocyst wall.
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16
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Silver Nanoparticles Decrease the Viability of Cryptosporidium parvum Oocysts. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 82:431-7. [PMID: 26497464 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02806-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Oocysts of the waterborne protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum are highly resistant to chlorine disinfection. We show here that both silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and silver ions significantly decrease oocyst viability, in a dose-dependent manner, between concentrations of 0.005 and 500 μg/ml, as assessed by an excystation assay and the shell/sporozoite ratio. For percent excystation, the results are statistically significant for 500 μg/ml of AgNPs, with reductions from 83% for the control to 33% with AgNPs. For Ag ions, the results were statistically significant at 500 and 5,000 μg/ml, but the percent excystation values were reduced only to 66 and 62%, respectively, from 86% for the control. The sporozoite/shell ratio was affected to a greater extent following AgNP exposure, presumably because sporozoites are destroyed by interaction with NPs. We also demonstrated via hyperspectral imaging that there is a dual mode of interaction, with Ag ions entering the oocyst and destroying the sporozoites while AgNPs interact with the cell wall and, at high concentrations, are able to fully break the oocyst wall.
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Hoyer AB, Schladow SG, Rueda FJ. A hydrodynamics-based approach to evaluating the risk of waterborne pathogens entering drinking water intakes in a large, stratified lake. WATER RESEARCH 2015; 83:227-236. [PMID: 26162312 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2015.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2014] [Revised: 03/23/2015] [Accepted: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Pathogen contamination of drinking water lakes and reservoirs is a severe threat to human health worldwide. A major source of pathogens in surface sources of drinking waters is from body-contact recreation in the water body. However, dispersion pathways of human waterborne pathogens from recreational beaches, where body-contact recreation is known to occur to drinking water intakes, and the associated risk of pathogens entering the drinking water supply remain largely undocumented. A high spatial resolution, three-dimensional hydrodynamic and particle tracking modeling approach has been developed to analyze the risk and mechanisms presented by pathogen dispersion. The pathogen model represents the processes of particle release, transport and survival. Here survival is a function of both water temperature and cumulative exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Pathogen transport is simulated using a novel and computationally efficient technique of tracking particle trajectories backwards, from a drinking water intake toward their source areas. The model has been applied to a large, alpine lake - Lake Tahoe, CA-NV (USA). The dispersion model results reveal that for this particular lake (1) the risk of human waterborne pathogens to enter drinking water intakes is low, but significant; (2) this risk is strongly related to the depth of the thermocline in relation to the depth of the intake; (3) the risk increases with the seasonal deepening of the surface mixed layer; and (4) the risk increases at night when the surface mixed layer deepens through convective mixing and inactivation by UV radiation is eliminated. While these risk factors will quantitatively vary in different lakes, these same mechanisms will govern the process of transport of pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea B Hoyer
- Water Research Institute, University of Granada, C/ Ramón y Cajal 4, 18071 Granada, Spain.
| | - S Geoffrey Schladow
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA; Tahoe Environmental Research Center, University of California, Davis, 291 Country Club Dr., Incline Village, NV 89451, USA.
| | - Francisco J Rueda
- Water Research Institute, University of Granada, C/ Ramón y Cajal 4, 18071 Granada, Spain; Department of Civil Engineering, University of Granada, Campus Universitario de Fuentenueva (Edificio, Politécnico), 18071 Granada, Spain.
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18
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Bonilla JA, Bonilla TD, Abdelzaher AM, Scott TM, Lukasik J, Solo-Gabriele HM, Palmer CJ. Quantification of Protozoa and Viruses from Small Water Volumes. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2015; 12:7118-32. [PMID: 26114244 PMCID: PMC4515645 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph120707118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2015] [Revised: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Large sample volumes are traditionally required for the analysis of waterborne pathogens. The need for large volumes greatly limits the number of samples that can be processed. The aims of this study were to compare extraction and detection procedures for quantifying protozoan parasites and viruses from small volumes of marine water. The intent was to evaluate a logistically simpler method of sample collection and processing that would facilitate direct pathogen measures as part of routine monitoring programs. Samples were collected simultaneously using a bilayer device with protozoa capture by size (top filter) and viruses capture by charge (bottom filter). Protozoan detection technologies utilized for recovery of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. were qPCR and the more traditional immunomagnetic separation-IFA-microscopy, while virus (poliovirus) detection was based upon qPCR versus plaque assay. Filters were eluted using reagents consistent with the downstream detection technologies. Results showed higher mean recoveries using traditional detection methods over qPCR for Cryptosporidium (91% vs. 45%) and poliovirus (67% vs. 55%) whereas for Giardia the qPCR-based methods were characterized by higher mean recoveries (41% vs. 28%). Overall mean recoveries are considered high for all detection technologies. Results suggest that simultaneous filtration may be suitable for isolating different classes of pathogens from small marine water volumes. More research is needed to evaluate the suitability of this method for detecting pathogens at low ambient concentration levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Alfredo Bonilla
- Oceans and Human Health Center, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL 33149, USA.
- Department of Biology, University of Wisconsin-River Falls, River Fall, WI 54022, USA.
| | - Tonya D Bonilla
- Oceans and Human Health Center, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL 33149, USA.
- Corporate Research Materials Laboratory, St. Paul, MN 55144, USA.
| | - Amir M Abdelzaher
- Oceans and Human Health Center, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL 33149, USA.
- Department of Civil, Arch., and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33126, USA.
| | - Troy M Scott
- Oceans and Human Health Center, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL 33149, USA.
- Hydros Coastal Solutions, Inc.-Miami, FL 33126, USA.
| | | | - Helena M Solo-Gabriele
- Oceans and Human Health Center, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL 33149, USA.
- Department of Civil, Arch., and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33126, USA.
| | - Carol J Palmer
- Oceans and Human Health Center, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL 33149, USA.
- BioStar Consulting, Inc., Greenbrier, TN 37073, USA.
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Hatam-Nahavandi K, Mohebali M, Mahvi AH, Keshavarz H, Khanaliha K, Tarighi F, Molaei-Rad MB, Rezaeian T, Charehdar S, Salimi M, Farnia S, Rezaeian M. Evaluation of Cryptosporidium oocyst and Giardia cyst removal efficiency from urban and slaughterhouse wastewater treatment plants and assessment of cyst viability in wastewater effluent samples from Tehran, Iran. JOURNAL OF WATER REUSE AND DESALINATION 2015. [DOI: 10.2166/wrd.2015.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
Five municipal and domestic wastewater treatment plants, most of which had secondary treatment systems formed by activated sludge, were studied during 2013–2014 in Tehran. The study was done in order to evaluate their efficiency in terms of removal of Cryptosporidium and Giardia by (oo)cyst recovery in effluent samples using immunofluorescence with monoclonal antibodies. Results showed that mean concentrations of cysts in the influent samples always outnumbered mean concentrations of oocysts (883.3 ± 4,16.7–3,191.7 ± 1,067.2 versus 4.8 ± 6.2–83.8 ± 77.3 (oo)cysts/L), and that lower concentrations of (oo)cysts were recorded in summer, and higher levels in autumn, and that the difference was statistically significant (t-test, P <0.05) only in wastewater from slaughterhouses. Results for removal percentages of all the plants ranged from 76.7 to 92.1% for cysts and from 48.9 to 90.8% for oocysts. There was more reduction of (oo)cysts at the urban treatment plant by activated sludge-A2O-sand filtration than at plants with conventional activated sludge and activated sludge-trickling filter, however, this difference was not statistically significant for cysts and oocysts (ANOVA, P > 0.05). Infections in mice inoculated with cysts obtained from urban wastewater effluent demonstrated presence of infectious Giardia cysts. Results demonstrate limited efficiency of conventional wastewater treatment processes at physico-chemical removal of (oo)cysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kareem Hatam-Nahavandi
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehdi Mohebali
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Center for Research of Endemic Parasites of Iran (CREPI), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir-Hossein Mahvi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, and Center for Environment Research (CER), School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Keshavarz
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Khadijeh Khanaliha
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Tarighi
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad-bagher Molaei-Rad
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Tahereh Rezaeian
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sorour Charehdar
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahbobeh Salimi
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shohreh Farnia
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mostafa Rezaeian
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Taran-Benshoshan M, Ofer N, Dalit VO, Aharoni A, Revhun M, Nitzan Y, Nasser AM. Cryptosporidium and Giardia removal by secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2015; 50:1265-1273. [PMID: 26301853 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2015.1055152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater disposal may be a source of environmental contamination by Cryptosporidium and Giardia. This study was conducted to evaluate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in raw and treated wastewater effluents. A prevalence of 100% was demonstrated for Giardia cysts in raw wastewater, at a concentration range of 10 to 12,225 cysts L(-1), whereas the concentration of Cryptosporidium oocysts in raw wastewater was 4 to 125 oocysts L(-1). The removal of Giardia cysts by secondary and tertiary treatment processes was greater than those observed for Cryptosporidium oocysts and turbidity. Cryptosporidium and Giardia were present in 68.5% and 76% of the tertiary effluent samples, respectively, at an average concentration of 0.93 cysts L(-1) and 9.94 oocysts L(-1). A higher detection limit of Cryptosporidium oocysts in wastewater was observed for nested PCR as compared to immune fluorescent assay (IFA). C. hominis was found to be the dominant genotype in wastewater effluents followed by C. parvum and C. andersoni or C. muris. Giardia was more prevalent than Cryptosporidium in the studied community and treatment processes were more efficient for the removal of Giardia than Cryptosporidium. Zoonotic genotypes of Cryptosporidium were also present in the human community. To assess the public health significance of Cryptosporidium oocysts present in tertiary effluent, viability (infectivity) needs to be assessed.
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Balderrama-Carmona AP, Gortáres-Moroyoqui P, Álvarez-Valencia LH, Castro-Espinoza L, Balderas-Cortés JDJ, Mondaca-Fernández I, Chaidez-Quiroz C, Meza-Montenegro MM. Quantitative microbial risk assessment of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in well water from a native community of Mexico. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2014; 25:570-582. [PMID: 25494486 DOI: 10.1080/09603123.2014.989492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Accepted: 10/15/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium and Giardia are gastrointestinal disease-causing organisms transmitted by the fecal-oral route, zoonotic and prevalent in all socioeconomic segments with greater emphasis in rural communities. The goal of this study was to assess the risk of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis of Potam dwellers consuming drinking water from communal well water. To achieve the goal, quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) was carried out as follows: (a) identification of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in well water samples by information collection rule method, (b) assessment of exposure to healthy Potam residents, (c) dose-response modelling, and (d) risk characterization using an exponential model. All well water samples tested were positive for Cryptosporidium and Giardia. The QMRA results indicate a mean of annual risks of 99:100 (0.99) for cryptosporidiosis and 1:1 (1.0) for giardiasis. The outcome of the present study may drive decision-makers to establish an educational and treatment program to reduce the incidence of parasite-borne intestinal infection in the Potam community, and to conduct risk analysis programs in other similar rural communities in Mexico.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Paola Balderrama-Carmona
- a Departamento de Biotecnología y Ciencias Alimentarias , Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora (ITSON) , Cd. Obregón , Mexico
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Hynds PD, Thomas MK, Pintar KDM. Contamination of groundwater systems in the US and Canada by enteric pathogens, 1990-2013: a review and pooled-analysis. PLoS One 2014; 9:e93301. [PMID: 24806545 PMCID: PMC4012953 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Up to 150 million North Americans currently use a groundwater system as their principal drinking water source. These systems are a potential source of exposure to enteric pathogens, contributing to the burden of waterborne disease. Waterborne disease outbreaks have been associated with US and Canadian groundwater systems over the past two decades. However, to date, this literature has not been reviewed in a comprehensive manner. METHODS AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS A combined review and pooled-analysis approach was used to investigate groundwater contamination in Canada and the US from 1990 to 2013; fifty-five studies met eligibility criteria. Four study types were identified. It was found that study location affects study design, sample rate and studied pathogen category. Approximately 15% (316/2210) of samples from Canadian and US groundwater sources were positive for enteric pathogens, with no difference observed based on system type. Knowledge gaps exist, particularly in exposure assessment for attributing disease to groundwater supplies. Furthermore, there is a lack of consistency in risk factor reporting (local hydrogeology, well type, well use, etc). The widespread use of fecal indicator organisms in reported studies does not inform the assessment of human health risks associated with groundwater supplies. CONCLUSIONS This review illustrates how groundwater study design and location are critical for subsequent data interpretation and use. Knowledge gaps exist related to data on bacterial, viral and protozoan pathogen prevalence in Canadian and US groundwater systems, as well as a need for standardized approaches for reporting study design and results. Fecal indicators are examined as a surrogate for health risk assessments; caution is advised in their widespread use. Study findings may be useful during suspected waterborne outbreaks linked with a groundwater supply to identify the likely etiological agent and potential transport pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Dylan Hynds
- Centre for Food-borne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - M. Kate Thomas
- Centre for Food-borne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Katarina Dorothy Milena Pintar
- Centre for Food-borne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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Bernal-Guadarrama MJ, Salichs J, Almunia J, García-Parraga D, Fernández-Gallardo N, Santana-Morales MÁ, Pacheco V, Afonso-Lehmann RN, Déniz D, Lorenzo-Morales J, Valladares B, Martínez-Carretero E. Development of an indirect immunofluorescence technique for the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in bottlenose dolphins. Parasitol Res 2013; 113:451-5. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-013-3674-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2013] [Accepted: 10/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Cho EJ, Yang JY, Lee ES, Kim SC, Cha SY, Kim ST, Lee MH, Han SH, Park YS. A waterborne outbreak and detection of cryptosporidium oocysts in drinking water of an older high-rise apartment complex in seoul. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2013; 51:461-6. [PMID: 24039290 PMCID: PMC3770878 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2013.51.4.461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Revised: 05/20/2013] [Accepted: 05/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
From May to June 2012, a waterborne outbreak of 124 cases of cryptosporidiosis occurred in the plumbing systems of an older high-rise apartment complex in Seoul, Republic of Korea. The residents of this apartment complex had symptoms of watery diarrhea and vomiting. Tap water samples in the apartment complex and its adjacent buildings were collected and tested for 57 parameters under the Korean Drinking Water Standards and for additional 11 microbiological parameters. The microbiological parameters included total colony counts, Clostridium perfringens, Enterococcus, fecal streptococcus, Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Cryptosporidium oocysts, Giardia cysts, total culturable viruses, and Norovirus. While the tap water samples of the adjacent buildings complied with the Korean Drinking Water Standards for all parameters, fecal bacteria and Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in the tap water samples of the outbreak apartment complex. It turned out that the agent of the disease was Cryptosporidium parvum. The drinking water was polluted with sewage from a septic tank in the apartment complex. To remove C. parvum oocysts, we conducted physical processes of cleaning the water storage tanks, flushing the indoor pipes, and replacing old pipes with new ones. Finally we restored the clean drinking water to the apartment complex after identification of no oocysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Joo Cho
- Seoul Waterworks Research Institute, Seoul 716-010, Korea
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Frickmann H, Schwarz NG, Wiemer DF, Fischer M, Tannich E, Scheid PL, Müller M, Schotte U, Bock W, Hagen RM. Food and drinking water hygiene and intestinal protozoa in deployed German soldiers. Eur J Microbiol Immunol (Bp) 2013; 3:53-60. [PMID: 24265919 DOI: 10.1556/eujmi.3.2013.1.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
This report analyzes the occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp., E. histolytica, and G. intestinalis in stool of returnees from military deployments and the impact of hygiene precautions. Between 2007 and 2010, stool samples of 830 returnees that were obtained 8-12 weeks after military deployments in Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, the Balkans, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Gabonese Republic, and Sudan and 292 control samples from non-deployed soldiers were analyzed by PCR for Cryptosporidium spp., E. histolytica, G. intestinalis, and the commensal indicator of fecal contamination E. dispar. Data on hygiene precautions were available. The soldiers were questioned regarding gastrointestinal and general symptoms. Among 1122 stool samples, 18 were positive for G. intestinalis, 10 for E. dispar, and no-one for Cryptosporidium spp. and E. histolytica. An increased risk of acquiring chronic parasitic infections in comparison with non-deployed controls was demonstrated only for G. intestinalis in Sudan, where standardized food and drinking water hygiene precautions could not be implemented. Standard food and drinking water hygiene precautions in the context of screened military field camps proved to be highly reliable in preventing food-borne and water-borne chronic infections and colonization by intestinal protozoa, leading to detection proportions similar to those in non-deployed controls.
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Ajonina C, Buzie C, Otterpohl R. The detection of Giardia cysts in a large-scale wastewater treatment plant in Hamburg, Germany. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2013; 76:509-514. [PMID: 23721585 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2013.785208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Giardia is one of the most common human enteric parasites that continue to be a major cause of diarrheal disease globally. Wastewater is an important source of Giardia transmission, and control of the pathogen by appropriate treatment of wastewater would limit its transmission. In this study the occurrence of Giardia cysts at various stages of the wastewater treatment plants was monitored for a period of 18 mo. Using immunomagnetic separation and immunofluorescence with monoclonal antibodies, cysts were detected in all samples throughout the sampling period at a concentration ranging from 50 to 7548 cysts/L. The overall removal efficiency of the cysts in the treatment plants was 78%. Seasonal analyses of results revealed that the pathogens (cysts) were most prevalent in influents and effluents during autumn and winter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Ajonina
- Institute of Wastewater Management and Water Protection, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany.
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Redshaw CH, Stahl-Timmins WM, Fleming LE, Davidson I, Depledge MH. Potential changes in disease patterns and pharmaceutical use in response to climate change. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2013; 16:285-320. [PMID: 23909463 PMCID: PMC3756629 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2013.802265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
As climate change alters environmental conditions, the incidence and global patterns of human diseases are changing. These modifications to disease profiles and the effects upon human pharmaceutical usage are discussed. Climate-related environmental changes are associated with a rise in the incidence of chronic diseases already prevalent in the Northern Hemisphere, for example, cardiovascular disease and mental illness, leading to greater use of associated heavily used Western medications. Sufferers of respiratory diseases may exhibit exacerbated symptoms due to altered environmental conditions (e.g., pollen). Respiratory, water-borne, and food-borne toxicants and infections, including those that are vector borne, may become more common in Western countries, central and eastern Asia, and across North America. As new disease threats emerge, substantially higher pharmaceutical use appears inevitable, especially of pharmaceuticals not commonly employed at present (e.g., antiprotozoals). The use of medications for the treatment of general symptoms (e.g., analgesics) will also rise. These developments need to be viewed in the context of other major environmental changes (e.g., industrial chemical pollution, biodiversity loss, reduced water and food security) as well as marked shifts in human demographics, including aging of the population. To identify, prevent, mitigate, and adapt to potential threats, one needs to be aware of the major factors underlying changes in the use of pharmaceuticals and their subsequent release, deliberately or unintentionally, into the environment. This review explores the likely consequences of climate change upon the use of medical pharmaceuticals in the Northern Hemisphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare H Redshaw
- European Centre for Environment and Human Health, University of Exeter Medical School, Knowledge Spa, Royal Cornwall Hospital, Truro, Cornwall, United Kingdom.
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Poma HR, Cacciabue DG, Garcé B, Gonzo EE, Rajal VB. Towards a rational strategy for monitoring of microbiological quality of ambient waters. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2012; 433:98-109. [PMID: 22771467 PMCID: PMC4492939 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2012] [Revised: 06/07/2012] [Accepted: 06/07/2012] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Water is one of the main sources of human exposure to microbiological hazards. Although legislation establishes regulatory standards in terms of fecal indicator bacteria to assess the microbiological quality of water, these do not necessarily predict the presence of pathogens such as parasites and viruses. Better surveillance and management strategies are needed to assess the risk of pathogens' waterborne transmission. We established a baseline dataset to characterize river water quality, identify changes over time, and design a rational monitoring strategy. Data from a year-long monthly monitoring campaign of the polluted Arenales River (Argentina), were analyzed to statistically correlate physicochemical and microbiological variables, the seasonal and longitudinal variations of the water quality and determine the similarity between study sites. The measured variables (sixteen) reflected the deterioration in the river quality through the city. Different viruses and parasites found did not correlate with the concentration of total and thermotolerant coliforms. There was significant seasonal variation for temperature, turbidity, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, enterococci, and norovirus. Strong correlations between some variables were found; we selected eight variables (dissolved oxygen, conductivity, turbidity, total and thermotolerant coliforms, Enterococcus, and adenovirus and Microsporidium as viral and parasitological indicators, respectively) for future monitoring. There was similarity between the monitoring locations, which were grouped into four clusters validated by cophenetic correlation and supported by discriminant analysis. This allowed us to reduce the number of sites, from eleven down to five. Sixty seven percent of the total variance and the correlation structure between variables were explained using five principal components. All these analyses led to a new long-term systematic monitoring scheme. A rational monitoring strategy based on the selection of the most suitable monitoring points and of the most significant variables to measure, will result in optimal use of the limited resources available to adequately protect the public and environmental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Ramiro Poma
- INIQUI-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Salta, Av. Bolivia 5150, Salta, 4400, Argentina
| | | | - Beatriz Garcé
- INIQUI-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Salta, Av. Bolivia 5150, Salta, 4400, Argentina
| | - Elio Emilio Gonzo
- INIQUI-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Salta, Av. Bolivia 5150, Salta, 4400, Argentina
| | - Verónica Beatriz Rajal
- INIQUI-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Salta, Av. Bolivia 5150, Salta, 4400, Argentina
- Fogarty International Center, CCRBM, 6519 GBSF, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Jagai JS, Griffiths JK, Kirshen PK, Webb P, Naumova EN. Seasonal patterns of gastrointestinal illness and streamflow along the Ohio River. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2012; 9:1771-90. [PMID: 22754472 PMCID: PMC3386587 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph9051771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2012] [Revised: 04/12/2012] [Accepted: 04/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Waterborne gastrointestinal (GI) illnesses demonstrate seasonal increases associated with water quality and meteorological characteristics. However, few studies have been conducted on the association of hydrological parameters, such as streamflow, and seasonality of GI illnesses. Streamflow is correlated with biological contamination and can be used as proxy for drinking water contamination. We compare seasonal patterns of GI illnesses in the elderly (65 years and older) along the Ohio River for a 14-year period (1991-2004) to seasonal patterns of streamflow. Focusing on six counties in close proximity to the river, we compiled weekly time series of hospitalizations for GI illnesses and streamflow data. Seasonal patterns were explored using Poisson annual harmonic regression with and without adjustment for streamflow. GI illnesses demonstrated significant seasonal patterns with peak timing preceding peak timing of streamflow for all six counties. Seasonal patterns of illness remain consistent after adjusting for streamflow. This study found that the time of peak GI illness precedes the peak of streamflow, suggesting either an indirect relationship or a more direct path whereby pathogens enter water supplies prior to the peak in streamflow. Such findings call for interdisciplinary research to better understand associations among streamflow, pathogen loading, and rates of gastrointestinal illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyotsna S. Jagai
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; ; Tel.: +1-919-966-6209; Fax: +1-919-966-7584
| | - Jeffrey K. Griffiths
- Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA; (J.K.G.); (E.N.N.)
- Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, Boston, MA 02111, USA;
- Tufts University School of Engineering, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Paul K. Kirshen
- Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans, and Space, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA;
| | - Patrick Webb
- Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, Boston, MA 02111, USA;
| | - Elena N. Naumova
- Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA; (J.K.G.); (E.N.N.)
- Tufts University School of Engineering, Medford, MA 02155, USA
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Semenza JC, Herbst S, Rechenburg A, Suk JE, Höser C, Schreiber C, Kistemann T. Climate Change Impact Assessment of Food- and Waterborne Diseases. CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2012; 42:857-890. [PMID: 24808720 PMCID: PMC3996521 DOI: 10.1080/10643389.2010.534706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The PubMed and ScienceDirect bibliographic databases were searched for the period of 1998-2009 to evaluate the impact of climatic and environmental determinants on food- and waterborne diseases. The authors assessed 1,642 short and concise sentences (key facts), which were extracted from 722 relevant articles and stored in a climate change knowledge base. Key facts pertaining to temperature, precipitation, water, and food for 6 selected pathogens were scrutinized, evaluated, and compiled according to exposure pathways. These key facts (corresponding to approximately 50,000 words) were mapped to 275 terminology terms identified in the literature, which generated 6,341 connections. These relationships were plotted on semantic network maps to examine the interconnections between variables. The risk of campylobacteriosis is associated with mean weekly temperatures, although this link is shown more strongly in the literature relating to salmonellosis. Irregular and severe rain events are associated with Cryptosporidium sp. outbreaks, while noncholera Vibrio sp. displays increased growth rates in coastal waters during hot summers. In contrast, for Norovirus and Listeria sp. the association with climatic variables was relatively weak, but much stronger for food determinants. Electronic data mining to assess the impact of climate change on food- and waterborne diseases assured a methodical appraisal of the field. This climate change knowledge base can support national climate change vulnerability, impact, and adaptation assessments and facilitate the management of future threats from infectious diseases. In the light of diminishing resources for public health this approach can help balance different climate change adaptation options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan C. Semenza
- Future Threats and Determinants Section, Scientific Advice Unit, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Susanne Herbst
- Institute for Hygiene and Public Health, Department of Medical Geography and Public Health, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Andrea Rechenburg
- Institute for Hygiene and Public Health, Department of Medical Geography and Public Health, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Jonathan E. Suk
- Future Threats and Determinants Section, Scientific Advice Unit, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Christoph Höser
- Institute for Hygiene and Public Health, Department of Medical Geography and Public Health, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Christiane Schreiber
- Institute for Hygiene and Public Health, Department of Medical Geography and Public Health, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Thomas Kistemann
- Institute for Hygiene and Public Health, Department of Medical Geography and Public Health, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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Ajonina C, Buzie C, Ajonina IU, Basner A, Reinhardt H, Gulyas H, Liebau E, Otterpohl R. Occurrence of Cryptosporidium in a wastewater treatment plant in North Germany. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2012; 75:1351-1358. [PMID: 23095153 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2012.721167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum is one of the most common human parasitic protozoa and is responsible for many waterborne outbreaks in several industrialized countries. The oocyst, which is the infective form, is known to be highly resistant to wastewater treatment procedures and represents a potential hazard to human populations through contaminated raw or treated wastewater. In this investigation, the occurrence of Cryptosporidium in wastewater samples was monitored and removal efficiency was assessed. Treated (effluent) and untreated (influent) wastewater samples were collected seasonally over a period of 2 years. Oocysts were repeatedly detected in influent and effluent samples collected from the treatment plant during all sampling seasons, with a mean concentration of 782 oocysts/L. The seasonal distribution showed that oocysts are predominant during autumn and winter. Molecular analyses via the small (18S) subunit of rRNA amplification and subsequent sequencing with an objective of characterizing the oocysts revealed that Cryptosporidium parvum was the dominant Cryptosporidium parasite present in wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Ajonina
- Institute of Wastewater Management and Water Protection, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany.
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Weir MH, Pepe Razzolini MT, Rose JB, Masago Y. Water reclamation redesign for reducing Cryptosporidium risks at a recreational spray park using stochastic models. WATER RESEARCH 2011; 45:6505-14. [PMID: 22033306 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.09.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2010] [Revised: 09/22/2011] [Accepted: 09/24/2011] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Recreational outbreaks associated with sprayparks are well recognized, and may be partly due to the engineering designs used for their water reclamation systems are problematic to control. This work is based on an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis linked to a spraypark in New York State, where it was determined, specifically that the spraypad (the main attraction) was the primary exposure point. We first determined the likely dose the spraypad users were exposed to, then modeled the efficacy of the treatment system and used this to inform a Monte Carlo method to estimate the probability of infection and illness for the users of the spraypad. The current treatment system which consists of; two holding tanks, a dual media filter and chlorine injection as well as two design change recommendations were modeled using three independent Markov chain models. Within the current treatment system design the receiving tank for the treatment train is also connected with a second pipe to the spraypad used to deliver the return (treated) water, this return pipe is acting potentially as a bypass for the treatment train. Based on the risk assessments performed it is recommended that the bypass pipe be removed from the treatment system since in doing so the probability of infection and illness were reduced appreciably. Secondarily including an ozone contactor was shown to slightly reduce the risk further and provide a multiple barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark H Weir
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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Budu-Amoako E, Greenwood SJ, Dixon BR, Barkema HW, McClure JT. Occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia on beef farms and water sources within the vicinity of the farms on Prince Edward Island, Canada. Vet Parasitol 2011; 184:1-9. [PMID: 22112978 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2011] [Revised: 10/13/2011] [Accepted: 10/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence and assemblages of Giardia and species of Cryptosporidium on beef farms in Prince Edward Island (PEI), Canada, including the water sources associated with the farms, and to determine risk factors for infection of cattle with these parasites. Twenty beef farms were selected based on the presence of surface water< 500 m from the barn. Prevalence was determined by direct immunofluorescence microscopy, while genotyping and species determination were performed by nested-PCR and DNA sequencing. Giardia was detected in 42% (95% CI: 38-46%) of fecal samples from 100% farms while Cryptosporidium was detected in 17% (95% CI: 14-19%) of fecal samples from 80% of farms. The most predominant Giardia assemblage isolated was the livestock specific assemblage E (89%). The zoonotic assemblages A and B were found in 4 and 7% of the Giardia isolates that were genotyped, respectively. The Giardia assemblages were detected equally between the cows and calves examined. Overall, the most common Cryptosporidium species detected in this study was Cryptosporidium andersoni (49%), predominantly found in cattle > 6 mo of age, while most Cryptosporidium bovis and Cryptosporidium pestis (previously Cryptosporidium parvum 'bovine genotype') isolates were detected in calves ≤ 6 mo of age. All Cryptosporidium ryanae isolates (four) were found in calves. Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in 14 and 93% of surface water samples of 14 farms, respectively. Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in three (15%) ground water samples of 20 farms. One Cryptosporidium-positive water sample, which was the only surface water sample amenable to genotyping, contained C. parvum. The farm-level risk factors investigated in this study, age of animals and location of the farm, were not associated with the risk of infection in cattle with either Cryptosporidium spp. or Giardia duodenalis. We conclude that beef cattle are a potential reservoir of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis that could contaminate source water. There is the possibility of further transmission to humans on PEI if the source water is not properly treated prior to consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebo Budu-Amoako
- Department of Health Management, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave., Charlottetown, PE, C1A 4P3, Canada.
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Tang J, McDonald S, Peng X, Samadder SR, Murphy TM, Holden NM. Modelling Cryptosporidium oocysts transport in small ungauged agricultural catchments. WATER RESEARCH 2011; 45:3665-3680. [PMID: 21555142 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2010] [Revised: 04/06/2011] [Accepted: 04/07/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium is an environmentally robust pathogen that has caused severe waterborne disease outbreaks worldwide. The main source of zoonotic Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in human drinking water is likely to be from farm animals via catchment pathways with water as the main transport vector. The vast majority of small agricultural catchments are ungauged therefore it is difficult to use a process model to predict and understand the mechanisms and activities that regulate the risk of surface water contamination from agricultural areas. For this study, two ungauged agricultural catchments in Ireland were used to model Cryptosporidium oocyst transport using SWAT2005 on a daily basis with reference data from adjacent catchment gauging stations. The results indicated that SWAT2005 could simulate stream flow with good agreement between prediction and observation on a monthly basis (R(2) from 0.94 to 0.83 and E (efficiency) from 0.92 to 0.66), but Cryptosporidium oocyst concentration results were less reliable (R(2) from 0.20 to 0.37, P < 0.05; with poor E -0.37 to -2.57). A sensitivity analysis using independent parameter perturbation indicated that temperature was the most important parameter regulating oocyst transport in the study catchments and that the timing of manure application relative to the occurrence of water runoff event was critical. The results also showed that grazing management had little influence on predicted oocyst transport while fields fertilized with manure were the key critical source areas for microbial contaminations in the study catchments. It was concluded that the approach presented could be used to assist with understanding the epidemiology of waterborne cryptosporidiosis outbreaks and to improve catchment management for the safety of the general public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialiang Tang
- UCD Bioresources Research Centre/Biosystems Engineering, School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
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Razzolini MTP, Weir MH, Matte MH, Matte GR, Fernandes LN, Rose JB. Risk of Giardia infection for drinking water and bathing in a peri-urban area in Sao Paulo, Brazil. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2011; 21:222-234. [PMID: 21547808 DOI: 10.1080/09603123.2010.533367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
A high incidence of waterborne diseases is observed worldwide and in order to address contamination problems prior to an outbreak, quantitative microbial risk assessment is a useful tool for estimating the risk of infection. The objective of this paper was to assess the probability of Giardia infection from consuming water from shallow wells in a peri-urban area. Giardia has been described as an important waterborne pathogen and reported in several water sources, including ground waters. Sixteen water samples were collected and examined according to the US EPA (1623, 2005). A Monte Carlo method was used to address the potential risk as described by the exponential dose response model. Giardia cysts occurred in 62.5% of the samples (<0.1-36.1 cysts/l). A median risk of 10⁻¹ for the population was estimated and the adult ingestion was the highest risk driver. This study illustrates the vulnerability of shallow well water supply systems in peri-urban areas.
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Occurrence, source, and human infection potential of cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. in source and tap water in shanghai, china. Appl Environ Microbiol 2011; 77:3609-16. [PMID: 21498768 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00146-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Genotyping studies on the source and human infection potential of Cryptosporidium oocysts in water have been almost exclusively conducted in industrialized nations. In this study, 50 source water samples and 30 tap water samples were collected in Shanghai, China, and analyzed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Method 1623. To find a cost-effective method to replace the filtration procedure, the water samples were also concentrated by calcium carbonate flocculation (CCF). Of the 50 source water samples, 32% were positive for Cryptosporidium and 18% for Giardia by Method 1623, whereas 22% were positive for Cryptosporidium and 10% for Giardia by microscopy of CCF concentrates. When CCF was combined with PCR for detection, the occurrence of Cryptosporidium (28%) was similar to that obtained by Method 1623. Genotyping of Cryptosporidium in 17 water samples identified the presence of C. andersoni in 14 water samples, C. suis in 7 water samples, C. baileyi in 2 water samples, C. meleagridis in 1 water sample, and C. hominis in 1 water sample. Therefore, farm animals, especially cattle and pigs, were the major sources of water contamination in Shanghai source water, and most oocysts found in source water in the area were not infectious to humans. Cryptosporidium oocysts were found in 2 of 30 tap water samples. The combined use of CCF for concentration and PCR for detection and genotyping provides a less expensive alternative to filtration and fluorescence microscopy for accurate assessment of Cryptosporidium contamination in water, although the results from this method are semiquantitative.
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Cantusio Neto R, Santos LD, Sato M, Franco R. CONTROLE DE QUALIDADE ANALÍTICA DOS MÉTODOS UTILIZADOS PARA A DETECÇÃO DE PROTOZOÁRIOS PATOGÊNICOS EM AMOSTRAS DE ÁGUA. ARQUIVOS DO INSTITUTO BIOLÓGICO 2011. [DOI: 10.1590/1808-1657v78p1692011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
RESUMO As espécies de protozoários patogênicos de veiculação hídrica Giardia spp. e Cryptosporidium spp. foram responsáveis por cerca 90% dos surtos de gastroenterite ocorridos nos últimos 25 anos, em vários países. Critérios de avaliação das etapas referentes à detecção destes agentes em amostras de água, tais como: precisão inicial, inoculação nas amostras em água bruta e, diagnóstico e localização de erros estão abordados neste trabalho. Estes critérios devem ser correntemente aplicados e constantemente avaliados pelos laboratórios, a fim de assegurar a confiabilidade dos resultados obtidos durante um monitoramento e, assim, fornecer subsídios para uma avaliação do risco de surtos.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - M.I.Z. Sato
- Companhia de Tecnologia de Saneamento Ambiental, Brasil
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Risk factor analysis and spatiotemporal CART model of cryptosporidiosis in Queensland, Australia. BMC Infect Dis 2010; 10:311. [PMID: 21029426 PMCID: PMC2987305 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-10-311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2009] [Accepted: 10/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND It remains unclear whether it is possible to develop a spatiotemporal epidemic prediction model for cryptosporidiosis disease. This paper examined the impact of social economic and weather factors on cryptosporidiosis and explored the possibility of developing such a model using social economic and weather data in Queensland, Australia. METHODS Data on weather variables, notified cryptosporidiosis cases and social economic factors in Queensland were supplied by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology, Queensland Department of Health, and Australian Bureau of Statistics, respectively. Three-stage spatiotemporal classification and regression tree (CART) models were developed to examine the association between social economic and weather factors and monthly incidence of cryptosporidiosis in Queensland, Australia. The spatiotemporal CART model was used for predicting the outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in Queensland, Australia. RESULTS The results of the classification tree model (with incidence rates defined as binary presence/absence) showed that there was an 87% chance of an occurrence of cryptosporidiosis in a local government area (LGA) if the socio-economic index for the area (SEIFA) exceeded 1021, while the results of regression tree model (based on non-zero incidence rates) show when SEIFA was between 892 and 945, and temperature exceeded 32°C, the relative risk (RR) of cryptosporidiosis was 3.9 (mean morbidity: 390.6/100,000, standard deviation (SD): 310.5), compared to monthly average incidence of cryptosporidiosis. When SEIFA was less than 892 the RR of cryptosporidiosis was 4.3 (mean morbidity: 426.8/100,000, SD: 319.2). A prediction map for the cryptosporidiosis outbreak was made according to the outputs of spatiotemporal CART models. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study suggest that spatiotemporal CART models based on social economic and weather variables can be used for predicting the outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in Queensland, Australia.
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Hu W, Mengersen K, Fu SY, Tong S. The use of ZIP and CART to model cryptosporidiosis in relation to climatic variables. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIOMETEOROLOGY 2010; 54:433-40. [PMID: 20084521 DOI: 10.1007/s00484-009-0294-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2008] [Revised: 12/06/2009] [Accepted: 12/07/2009] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
This research assesses the potential impact of weekly weather variability on the incidence of cryptosporidiosis disease using time series zero-inflated Poisson (ZIP) and classification and regression tree (CART) models. Data on weather variables, notified cryptosporidiosis cases and population size in Brisbane were supplied by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology, Queensland Department of Health, and Australian Bureau of Statistics, respectively. Both time series ZIP and CART models show a clear association between weather variables (maximum temperature, relative humidity, rainfall and wind speed) and cryptosporidiosis disease. The time series CART models indicated that, when weekly maximum temperature exceeded 31 degrees C and relative humidity was less than 63%, the relative risk of cryptosporidiosis rose by 13.64 (expected morbidity: 39.4; 95% confidence interval: 30.9-47.9). These findings may have applications as a decision support tool in planning disease control and risk-management programs for cryptosporidiosis disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbiao Hu
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, 4059, Australia.
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Yu Q, Li J, Zhang X, Gong P, Zhang G, Li S, Wang H. Induction of immune responses in mice by a DNA vaccine encoding Cryptosporidium parvum Cp12 and Cp21 and its effect against homologous oocyst challenge. Vet Parasitol 2010; 172:1-7. [PMID: 20541869 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.04.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2009] [Revised: 04/19/2010] [Accepted: 04/27/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Cp12 and Cp21 surface proteins on the sporozoite of Cryptosporidium parvum have been identified as the immunodominant antigens involved in the immune response to C. parvum infection. In the present study, the efficacy of Cp12 and Cp21 antigens as vaccine candidates was investigated in BALB/c mice that were susceptible to C. parvum infection. DNA sequences of Cp12, Cp21, Cp12-Cp21, and C (CpG oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN))-Cp12-Cp21 were amplified and then cloned into pVAX1 vector to form the four recombinant plasmids pVAX1-Cp12, pVAX1-Cp21, pVAX1-Cp12-Cp21, and pVAX1-C-Cp12-Cp21. Recombinant protein expression from these four plasmids in HeLa cells were confirmed by indirect immunofluorescence staining and Western blot analysis. The in vivo efficacies of the four DNA vaccines were tested in BALB/c mice. The results indicated that the four DNA vaccines elicited significant antibody responses and specific cellular responses when compared to control mice that received vector only or PBS. Among those four plasmids, pVAX1-C-Cp12-Cp21 elicited significantly higher levels of IgG. Also, the percentages of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells were significantly higher in the group with pVAX1-C-Cp12-Cp21 nasal sprays. Their efficacy in immunoprotection against homologous challenge was also detected after administration of the four DNA vaccines. The results showed that mice in the pVAX1-C-Cp12-Cp21 nasal group had a 77.5% reduction in the level of oocyst shedding and a significant difference was detected when this group was compared with the pVAX1, PBS, pVAX1-Cp12, and pVAX1-Cp21 groups. The reduction in the level of oocysts shedding from the group of pVAX1-C-Cp12-Cp21 nasal spray was also higher than that of pVAX1-Cp12-Cp21 group. These results suggested that C-Cp12-Cp21-DNA may provide an effective means of eliciting humoral and cellular responses and generating protective immunity against C. parvum infections in BALB/c mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinlei Yu
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, 5333 Xi'an Road, Changchun 130062, China
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Hu W, Mengersen K, Tong S. Spatial analysis of notified cryptosporidiosis infections in Brisbane, Australia. Ann Epidemiol 2009; 19:900-7. [PMID: 19648028 DOI: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2009.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2009] [Revised: 06/08/2009] [Accepted: 06/25/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study explored the spatial distribution of notified cryptosporidiosis cases and identified major socioeconomic factors associated with the transmission of cryptosporidiosis in Brisbane, Australia. METHODS We obtained the computerized data sets on the notified cryptosporidiosis cases and their key socioeconomic factors by statistical local area (SLA) in Brisbane for the period of 1996 to 2004 from the Queensland Department of Health and Australian Bureau of Statistics, respectively. We used spatial empirical Bayes rates smoothing to estimate the spatial distribution of cryptosporidiosis cases. A spatial classification and regression tree (CART) model was developed to explore the relationship between socioeconomic factors and the incidence rates of cryptosporidiosis. RESULTS Spatial empirical Bayes analysis reveals that the cryptosporidiosis infections were primarily concentrated in the northwest and southeast of Brisbane. A spatial CART model shows that the relative risk for cryptosporidiosis transmission was 2.4 when the value of the social economic index for areas (SEIFA) was over 1028 and the proportion of residents with low educational attainment in an SLA exceeded 8.8%. CONCLUSIONS There was remarkable variation in spatial distribution of cryptosporidiosis infections in Brisbane. Spatial pattern of cryptosporidiosis seems to be associated with SEIFA and the proportion of residents with low education attainment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbiao Hu
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
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Muchiri JM, Ascolillo L, Mugambi M, Mutwiri T, Ward HD, Naumova EN, Egorov AI, Cohen S, Else JG, Griffiths JK. Seasonality of Cryptosporidium oocyst detection in surface waters of Meru, Kenya as determined by two isolation methods followed by PCR. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2009; 7:67-75. [PMID: 18957776 PMCID: PMC2720591 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2009.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Meru, Kenya has watersheds which are shared by wildlife, humans and domesticated animals. These surface waters can be contaminated by the waterborne pathogen Cryptosporidium. To quantify the seasonality and prevalence of Cryptosporidium in Meru regional surface waters, we used a calcium carbonate flocculation (CCF) and sucrose floatation method, and a filtration and immunomagnetic bead separation method, each of which used PCR for Cryptosporidium detection and genotyping. Monthly water samples were collected from January through June in 2003 and 2004, bracketing two April-May rainy seasons. We detected significant seasonality with 8 of 9 positive samples from May and June (p<0.0014), which followed peak rainy season precipitation and includes some of the subsequent dry season. Six of 9 positive samples revealed C. parvum, and 3 contained C. andersoni. None contained C. hominis. Our results indicate that Meru surface waters are Cryptosporidium-contaminated at the end of rainy seasons, consistent with the timing of human infections reported by others from East Africa and contrasting with the onset of rainy season peak incidence reported from West Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Muchiri
- Kenya Methodist University, P.O. Box 267-60200, Meru, Kenya
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Liu Y, Janjaroen D, Kuhlenschmidt MS, Kuhlenschmidt TB, Nguyen TH. Deposition of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts on natural organic matter surfaces: microscopic evidence for secondary minimum deposition in a radial stagnation point flow cell. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2009; 25:1594-1605. [PMID: 19133757 DOI: 10.1021/la803202h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
A radial stagnation point flow (RSPF) system combined with a microscope was used to determine the deposition kinetics of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts on quartz surfaces and silica surfaces coated with Suwannee River natural organic matter (SRNOM) in solutions with different ionic strengths. Microscopic evidence of C. parvum oocysts entrapped in the secondary minimum energy well was presented to show that among the entrapped C. parvum oocysts some were washed away by the radial flow and some were able to transfer to deep primary minima and become irreversibly deposited. Experimental data were compared with simulation results obtained by the convective-diffusion equation and Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory. The experimental results suggested that surface charge heterogeneity led to a higher attachment efficiency at low ionic strength. In addition, the maximum attachment efficiency was less than 1 at high ionic strength due to steric interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Liu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Center of Advanced Materials for the Purification of Water with System and Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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Majewska AC, Graczyk TK, Słodkowicz-Kowalska A, Tamang L, Jedrzejewski S, Zduniak P, Solarczyk P, Nowosad A, Nowosad P. The role of free-ranging, captive, and domestic birds of Western Poland in environmental contamination with Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts and Giardia lamblia cysts. Parasitol Res 2008; 104:1093-9. [PMID: 19050920 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-008-1293-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2008] [Accepted: 11/17/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
As Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia can be disseminated in the environment by avian hosts, a total of 499 fecal dropping from 308 free-ranging, 90 captive, and 101 domestic birds were tested by conventional, immunological, and molecular techniques for these human enteropathogens. Twenty-six (5.2%) tested positive for G. lamblia cysts and 19 (3.8%) for C. parvum oocysts. A bird total of 23 (7.5%) free-ranging, two (2.2%) captive, and one (0.1%) domestic tested positive for cysts, whereas 18 (5.8%) free-ranging, one (1.1%) captive, and zero livestock birds tested positive for oocysts. G. lamblia cysts and C. parvum oocysts were found significantly more frequently in fecal droppings of free-ranging aquatic birds than in birds not normally associated with water. No specimen tested positive for both pathogens simultaneously. Aquatic birds represent an important epidemiologic link in water-associated transmission cycles of Cryptosporidium and Giardia and play a significant role in environmental contamination of aquatic habitats with these anthropozoonotic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna C Majewska
- Department of Biology and Medical Parasitology, Faculty Medicine I, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland
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Abstract
To better characterize Cryptosporidium in the Potomac River watershed, a PCR-based genotyping tool was used to analyze 64 base flow and 28 storm flow samples from five sites in the watershed. These sites included two water treatment plant intakes, as well as three upstream sites, each associated with a different type of land use. The uses, including urban wastewater, agricultural (cattle) wastewater, and wildlife, posed different risks in terms of the potential contribution of Cryptosporidium oocysts to the source water. Cryptosporidium was detected in 27 base flow water samples and 23 storm flow water samples. The most frequently detected species was C. andersoni (detected in 41 samples), while 14 other species or genotypes, almost all wildlife associated, were occasionally detected. The two common human-pathogenic species, C. hominis and C. parvum, were not detected. Although C. andersoni was common at all four sites influenced by agriculture, it was largely absent at the urban wastewater site. There were very few positive samples as determined by Environmental Protection Agency method 1623 at any site; only 8 of 90 samples analyzed (9%) were positive for Cryptosporidium as determined by microscopy. The genotyping results suggest that many of the Cryptosporidium oocysts in the water treatment plant source waters were from old calves and adult cattle and might not pose a significant risk to human health.
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Neumayerová H, Koudela B. Effects of low and high temperatures on infectivity of Cryptosporidium muris oocysts suspended in water. Vet Parasitol 2008; 153:197-202. [PMID: 18372114 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2007] [Revised: 02/07/2008] [Accepted: 02/12/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium muris oocysts suspended in 200 microl of water were pipetted into plastic microcentrifuge tubes which were stored at 4 degrees C or frozen at -5 degrees C for 1, 3, 5, 7, and 10 days and at -20 degrees C for 1, 3, 5, and 8h, respectively. Other samples of C. muris oocysts suspended in water were heated in the metal block of a thermal DNA cycler. Block temperatures were set at 5 degrees C incremental temperatures from 40 to 70 degrees C. At each high temperature setting microcentrifuge tubes containing C. muris oocysts were exposed for 1 min. Both, frozen and heated oocyst suspensions as well as untreated control oocyst suspensions were then inoculated into each of four ICR mice by gastric intubation. Untreated, freeze-thawed or heated oocysts were considered infectious when oocysts of C. muris were found microscopically in the faeces of mice after inoculation. All inoculated mice that received oocysts frozen at -5 degrees C for 3, 5, 7, and 10 days and -20 degrees C for 1, 3, 5, and 8h had no oocysts in faeces. In contrast, C. muris oocysts frozen at -5 degrees C for 1 day remained infective for inoculated mice. Our results also indicated that when water containing C. muris oocysts was exposed at a temperature of 55 degrees C or higher for 1 min, the infectivity of oocysts was lost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Neumayerová
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
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Wachtman LM, Mansfield KG. Opportunistic Infections in Immunologically Compromised Nonhuman Primates. ILAR J 2008; 49:191-208. [DOI: 10.1093/ilar.49.2.191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
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Abstract
Waterborne trematode and protozoan infections inflict considerable morbidity on healthy, i.e., immunocompetent people, and may cause life-threatening diseases among immunocompromised and immunosuppressed populations. These infections are common, easily transmissible, and maintain a worldwide distribution, although waterborne trematode infections remain predominantly confined to the developing countries. Waterborne transmission of trematodes is enhanced by cultural practices of eating raw or inadequately cooked food, socio-economical factors, and wide zoonotic and sylvatic reservoirs of these helminths. Waterborne protozoan infections remain common in both developed and developing countries (although better statistics exist for developed countries), and their transmission is facilitated via contacts with recreational and surface waters, or via consumption of contaminated drinking water. The transmissive stages of human protozoan parasites are small, shed in large numbers in feces of infected people or animals, resistant to environmental stressors while in the environment, and few are (e.g., Cryptosporidium oocysts) able to resist standard disinfection applied to drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thaddeus K Graczyk
- Division of Environmental Health Engineering, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Wanyiri J, Ward H. Molecular basis of Cryptosporidium-host cell interactions: recent advances and future prospects. Future Microbiol 2007; 1:201-8. [PMID: 17661665 DOI: 10.2217/17460913.1.2.201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Host-parasite interactions mediating attachment of Cryptosporidium spp. to host cells and invasion of the cell membrane are complex processes that involve multiple parasite and host molecules. Knowledge of the molecular basis of these processes is crucial for understanding the pathogenic mechanisms underlying infection and for designing strategies to combat cryptosporidiosis. Recent progress in this field has been greatly facilitated by the completion of the genome sequences of Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis and by success in heterologous expression of Cryptosporidium genes in the related apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii. However, although a number of Cryptosporidium proteins implicated in mediating host-parasite interactions have been identified, progress in establishing their functional role has been hindered by the inability to genetically manipulate the parasite and to continuously propagate it in vitro. This article reviews the recent advances in knowledge regarding the Cryptosporidium proteins mediating attachment to and invasion of host epithelial cells, and outlines prospects for future research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Wanyiri
- Tufts-New England Medical Center, Division of Geographic Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Boston, MA 02111, USA.
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