The composition of polyunsaturated fatty acids in erythrocytes of lactating mothers and their infants

Depression in Women: Potential Biological and Sociocultural Factors Driving the Sex Effect

Important sex-related differences have been observed in the onset, prevalence, and clinical phenotype of depression, based on several epidemiological studies. Social, behavioural, and educational factors have a great role in underlying this bias; however, also several biological factors are extensively involved. Indeed, sexually dimorphic biological systems might represent the underlying ground for these disparities, including cerebral structures and neural correlates, reproductive hormones, stress response pathways, the immune system and inflammatory reaction, metabolism, and fat distribution. Furthermore, in this perspective, it is also important to consider and focus the attention on specific ages and life stages of individuals: indeed, women experience during their life specific periods of reproductive transitional phases, which are not found in men, that represent windows of particular psychological vulnerability. In addition to these, other biologically related risk factors, including the occurrence of sleep disturbances and the exposure to childhood trauma, which are found to differentially affect men and women, are also putative underlying mechanisms of the clinical bias of depression. Overall, by taking into account major differences which characterize men and women it might be possible to improve the diagnostic process, as well as treat more efficiently depressed individuals, based on a more personalized medicine and research.

Placental AA/EPA Ratio Is Associated with Obesity Risk Parameters in the Offspring at 6 Years of Age

During pregnancy, maternal polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are transferred to the fetus through the placenta by specific FA transporters (FATP). A higher perinatal exposure to n-6 over n-3 PUFA could be linked to excess fat mass and obesity development later in life. In this context, we aimed to assess the associations between long chain PUFAs (LC-PUFAs) (n-6, n-3, and n-6/n-3 ratios) measured in the placenta at term birth with obesity-related parameters in the offspring at 6 years of age and assess whether these associations are dependent on the placental relative expression of fatty acid transporters. As results, the PUFAn-6/PUFAn-3 ratio was 4/1, which scaled up to 15/1 when considering only the arachidonic acid/eicosapentaenoic acid ratio (AA/EPA ratio). Positive associations between the AA/EPA ratio and offspring's obesity risk parameters were found with weight-SDS, BMI-SDS, percent fat mass-SDS, visceral fat, and HOMA-IR (r from 0.204 to 0.375; all p < 0.05). These associations were more noticeable in those subjects with higher expression of fatty acid transporters. Therefore, in conclusion, a higher placental AA/EPA ratio is positively associated with offspring's visceral adiposity and obesity risk parameters, which become more apparent in subjects with higher expressions of placental FATPs. Our results support the potential role of n-6 and n-3 LC-PUFA in the fetal programming of obesity risk in childhood. For the present study, 113 healthy pregnant women were recruited during the first trimester of pregnancy and their offspring were followed up at 6 years of age. The fatty acid profiles and the expression of fatty acid transporters (FATP1 and FATP4) were analyzed from placental samples at birth. Associations between LC-PUFA (n-6, n-3, and n-6/n-3 ratios) and obesity risk parameters (weight, body mass index (BMI), percent fat mass, visceral fat, and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR)) in the offspring at 6 years of age were examined.

Mediterranean-Type Diets as a Protective Factor for Asthma and Atopy

We are currently riding the second wave of the allergy epidemic, which is ongoing in affluent societies, but now also affecting developing countries. This increase in the prevalence of atopy/asthma in the Western world has coincided with a rapid improvement in living conditions and radical changes in lifestyle, suggesting that this upward trend in allergic manifestations may be associated with cultural and environmental factors. Diet is a prominent environmental exposure that has undergone major changes, with a substantial increase in the consumption of processed foods, all across the globe. On this basis, the potential effects of dietary habits on atopy and asthma have been researched rigorously, but even with a considerable body of evidence, clear associations are far from established. Many factors converge to obscure the potential relationship, including methodological, pathophysiological and cultural differences. To date, the most commonly researched, and highly promising, candidate for exerting a protective effect is the so-called Mediterranean diet (MedDi). This dietary pattern has been the subject of investigation since the mid twentieth century, and the evidence regarding its beneficial health effects is overwhelming, although data on a correlation between MedDi and the incidence and severity of asthma and atopy are inconclusive. As the prevalence of asthma appears to be lower in some Mediterranean populations, it can be speculated that the MedDi dietary pattern could indeed have a place in a preventive strategy for asthma/atopy. This is a review of the current evidence of the associations between the constituents of the MedDi and asthma/atopy, with emphasis on the pathophysiological links between MedDi and disease outcomes and the research pitfalls and methodological caveats which may hinder identification of causality. MedDi, as a dietary pattern, rather than short-term supplementation or excessive focus on single nutrient effects, may be a rational option for preventive intervention against atopy and asthma.

Maternal Fatty Acid Metabolism in Pregnancy and Its Consequences in the Feto-Placental Development

During pregnancy, maternal plasma fatty acids are critically required for cell growth and development, cell signaling, and the development of critical structural and functional aspects of the feto-placental unit. In addition, the fatty acids modulate the early stages of placental development by regulating angiogenesis in the first-trimester human placenta. Preferential transport of maternal plasma long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids during the third trimester is critical for optimal fetal brain development. Maternal status such as obesity, diabetes, and dietary intakes may affect the functional changes in lipid metabolic processes in maternal-fetal lipid transport and metabolism. Fatty acids traverse the placental membranes via several plasma membrane fatty acid transport/binding proteins (FAT, FATP, p-FABPpm, and FFARs) and cytoplasmic fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs). This review discusses the maternal metabolism of fatty acids and their effects on early placentation, placental fatty acid transport and metabolism, and their roles in feto-placental growth and development. The review also highlights how maternal fat metabolism modulates lipid processing, including transportation, esterification, and oxidation of fatty acids.

Maternal Supply of Both Arachidonic and Docosahexaenoic Acids Is Required for Optimal Neurodevelopment

During the last trimester of gestation and for the first 18 months after birth, both docosahexaenoic acid,22:6n-3 (DHA) and arachidonic acid,20:4n-6 (ARA) are preferentially deposited within the cerebral cortex at a rapid rate. Although the structural and functional roles of DHA in brain development are well investigated, similar roles of ARA are not well documented. The mode of action of these two fatty acids and their derivatives at different structural-functional roles and their levels in the gene expression and signaling pathways of the brain have been continuously emanating. In addition to DHA, the importance of ARA has been much discussed in recent years for fetal and postnatal brain development and the maternal supply of ARA and DHA. These fatty acids are also involved in various brain developmental processes; however, their mechanistic cross talks are not clearly known yet. This review describes the importance of ARA, in addition to DHA, in supporting the optimal brain development and growth and functional roles in the brain.

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Newborn Bloodspots: Associations With Autism Spectrum Disorder and Correlation With Maternal Serum Levels

We conducted a population-based case-control study to examine newborn polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) levels in association with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and assess PUFA correlation across two time points. ASD cases (n = 200) were identified through the Department of Developmental Services and matched to live-birth population controls (n = 200) on birth month, year (2010-2011), and sex. Nonesterified PUFAs were measured by isotope dilution liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry from archived newborn dried blood spots and maternal mid-pregnancy serum samples. Crude and adjusted conditional logistic regression models were used to examine the association between neonatal PUFA levels, categorized in quartiles and according to distributional extremes, and ASD. Cubic splines were utilized to examine nonlinear relationships between continuous neonatal PUFAs and ASD. The correlation between neonatal and maternal levels was examined using Pearson correlation coefficients. In adjusted analyses of neonatal PUFA levels, no clear trends emerged, though there was an elevated odds ratio of ASD for the third quartile of linoleic acid, relative to the first (adjusted odds ratio = 2.49, 95% confidence interval: 1.31, 4.70). Cubic spline analysis suggested a nonlinear association between linoleic acid and ASD, though this was not robust to sensitivity analyses. While individual PUFAs were significantly correlated with one another within a given time point, aside from docohexaseanoic acid, PUFAs were not correlated across maternal and neonatal samples. Overall, our findings do not support an association between neonatal PUFA levels and ASD. Future work should confirm and expand these findings by examining associations with phenotypic subgroups and considering PUFAs in other time points. LAY SUMMARY: In this study, we examined whether levels of fats known as polyunsaturated fatty acids, measured in newborns, were related to later child diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Overall, we did not find strong evidence for hypothesized reduction in risk of ASD based on newborn levels of these fats. Future studies in larger samples and considering other time points may be useful to explain whether these fats are important in brain development related to ASD. Autism Res 2020, 13: 1601-1613. © 2020 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Breast milk and erythrocyte fatty acid composition of lactating women residing in a peri‑urban South African township

Data on breast milk fatty acid (FA) composition in South African lactating women in relation to their FA status, as well as on potential compositional changes within feed, are limited. The aim of this study was to assess the FA composition of breast milk sampled at three time points within feed, and to determine associations with red blood cell (RBC) total phospholipid FA levels in lactating South African mothers of 2-4-month-old breastfed infants. FA composition (% total FAs) was analyzed in RBC total phospholipids, and in fore-, mid-feed and hind-milk samples of lactating mothers (n = 100) of Black African descent living in a peri‑urban township. The mean age of the lactating women was 27.8 ± 6.8 years. Geometric mean (95% CI) breast milk SFA, MUFA and PUFA contents were 37.7 (37.3,38.1), 28.5 (27.9, 28.8), and 23.5 (23.2, 24.5)%, respectively. Breast milk DHA and AA contents were 0.25 (0.24, 3.71) and 0.81 (0.79, 0.83)%, respectively, in fore-, mid- and hind-milk combined. Maternal RBC EPA, DHA and AA levels were 0.37 (0.34, 0.40), 3.8 (3.6, 4.0) and 15.4 (14.8, 16.1)%, respectively. Women who reported to consume fish often (n = 3) had significantly higher RBC EPA levels than women who consumed fish sometimes (n = 56), never (n = 14) or rarely (n = 19). Breast milk DHA positively correlated with maternal RBC DHA, while no correlations were found between breast milk AA and maternal RBC AA. Breast milk ALA and DHA contents were significantly higher in mid-feed [ALA= 0.8 (0.2, 0.2), DHA=0.3 (0.2, 0.3)] and hind-milk [ALA=0.8 (0.8, 0.9), DHA=0.3 (0.3, 0.3)] than foremilk [ALA=0.8 (0.7, 0.9), DHA=0.2 (0.2, 0.3)]. In contrast, LA and AA contents remained constant within feed. In this sample of peri‑urban South African lactating mothers, breast milk was low in DHA and high in AA compared to global means. Breast milk DHA was associated with maternal RBC status, while breast milk AA was not. We further showed that breast milk ALA and DHA increased, while LA and AA remained unchanged within feed. This suggests that n-3 PUFA maybe preferentially transferred to breast milk within feed through biomagnification.

Variation and Interdependencies of Human Milk Macronutrients, Fatty Acids, Adiponectin, Insulin, and IGF-II in the European PreventCD Cohort

Human milk composition is variable. The identification of influencing factors and interdependencies of components may help to understand the physiology of lactation. In this study, we analyzed linear trends in human milk composition over time, the variation across different European countries and the influence of maternal celiac disease. Within a multicenter European study exploring potential prevention of celiac disease in a high-risk population (PreventCD), 569 human milk samples were donated by women from five European countries between 16 and 163 days postpartum. Some 202 mothers provided two samples at different time points. Protein, carbohydrates, fat and fatty acids, insulin, adiponectin, and insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) were analyzed. Milk protein and n-6 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids decreased during the first three months of lactation. Fatty acid composition was significantly influenced by the country of residence. IGF-II and adiponectin concentrations correlated with protein content (r = 0.24 and r = 0.35), and IGF-II also correlated with fat content (r = 0.36), suggesting a possible regulatory role of IGF in milk macronutrient synthesis. Regarding the impact of celiac disease, only the level in palmitic acid was influenced by this disease, suggesting that breastfeeding by celiac disease mothers should not be discouraged.

Maternal and neonatal red blood cell n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids inversely associate with infant whole-body fat mass assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry

Research regarding polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) status and body composition in neonates is limited. This study tested the relationship between newborn docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) status and body composition. Healthy mothers and their term-born infants (n = 100) were studied within 1 month postpartum for anthropometry and whole-body composition using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Maternal and infant red blood cell (RBC) membrane PUFA profiles were measured using gas chromatography (expressed as percentage of total fatty acids). Data were grouped according to infant RBC DHA quartiles and tested for differences in n-3 status and infant body composition using mixed-model ANOVA, Spearman correlations, and regression analyses (P < 0.05). Mothers were 32.2 ± 4.6 years (mean ± SD) of age, infants (54% males) were 0.68 ± 0.23 month of age, and 80% exclusively breastfed. Infant RBC DHA (ranged 3.96% to 7.75% of total fatty acids) inversely associated with infant fat mass (r = -0.22, P = 0.03). Infant and maternal RBC n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio (r² = 0.28, P = 0.043; r² = 0.28, P = 0.041 respectively) were positively associated with fat mass. These results demonstrate that both maternal and infant long-chain PUFA status are associated with neonatal body composition. Novelty Our findings support an early window to further explore the relationship between infant n-3 PUFA status and body composition. Maternal and infant n-3 PUFA status is inversely related to neonatal whole-body fat mass. DHA appears to be the best candidate to test in the development of a lean body phenotype.

Maternal Sleep in Pregnancy and Postpartum Part II: Biomechanisms and Intervention Strategies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

As described in Part I of this two-part review, maternal sleep has wide-ranging implications for maternal health and overall family functioning. In addition, poor sleep quality and insufficient sleep are highly prevalent and characterized by considerable racial disparities.

RECENT FINDINGS

Part II of this review discusses physiological mechanisms, including inflammation and appetite hormones, by which sleep impacts multiple facets of women's health during pregnancy and postpartum. These mechanisms are increasingly being delineated, but require further study and better integration with studies of behavioral and physical health outcomes. Further, there are multiple potential strategies for improving maternal sleep, providing the opportunity to tailor treatment approaches to individual needs. Ultimately, as a critical health behavior that is amenable to intervention, sleep provides a promising future direction for measurably impacting clinically relevant health parameters in women of childbearing age.

The Role of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Developmental Psychopathology: A Systematic Review on Early Psychosis, Autism, and ADHD

In this systematic review, we will consider and debate studies that have explored the effects of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in three major, and somehow related, developmental psychiatric disorders: Autism, Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity disorder and Psychosis. The impact of ω-3 PUFAs on clinical symptoms and, if possible, brain trajectory in children and adolescents suffering from these illnesses will be reviewed and discussed, considering the biological plausibility of the effects of omega-3 fatty acids, together with their potential perspectives in the field. Heterogeneity in study designs will be discussed in the light of differences in results and interpretation of studies carried out so far.

Omega-3 Fatty Acid Intake of Pregnant Women and Women of Childbearing Age in the United States: Potential for Deficiency?

Omega-3 fatty acids play critical roles during fetal growth and development with increased intakes associated with improved maternal-fetal outcomes. Omega-3 fatty acid intake in Western diets is low, and the impact of socioeconomic factors on omega-3 fatty acid intake in pregnant women and women of childbearing age has not been reported. We used the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) cycles 2003–2012 to assess the relationship between omega-3 fatty acid intake and socioeconomic factors in women of childbearing age. Out of 7266 eligible participants, 6478 were women of childbearing age, while 788 were identified as pregnant at the time of the survey. Mean EPA+DHA intake of the population was 89.0 mg with no significant difference between pregnant and non-pregnant women. By univariate and multivariate analyses adjusting for confounders, omega-3 fatty acid intake was significantly associated with poverty-to-income ratio, race, and educational attainment. Our results demonstrate that omega-3 fatty acid intake is a concern in pregnant women and women of childbearing age in the United States, and that socioeconomically disadvantaged populations are more susceptible to potential deficiencies. Strategies to increase omega-3 fatty acid intake in these populations could have the potential to improve maternal and infant health outcomes.

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid (PUFA) Status in Pregnant Women: Associations with Sleep Quality, Inflammation, and Length of Gestation

Mechanistic pathways linking maternal polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) status with gestational length are poorly delineated. This study examined whether inflammation and sleep quality serve as mediators, focusing on the antiinflammatory ω-3 docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n3) and proinflammatory ω-6 arachidonic acid (AA; 20:4n6). Pregnant women (n = 135) provided a blood sample and completed the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) at 20–27 weeks gestation. Red blood cell (RBC) fatty acid levels were determined by gas chromatography and serum inflammatory markers [interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, tumor necrosis factor-α, IL-1β, and C-reactive protein] by electrochemiluminescence using high sensitivity kits. Both higher serum IL-8 (95% CI = 0.10,3.84) and poor sleep (95% CI = 0.03,0.28) served as significant mediators linking lower DHA:AA ratios with shorter gestation. Further, a serial mediation model moving from the DHA:AA ratio → sleep → IL-8 → length of gestation was statistically significant (95% CI = 0.02, 0.79). These relationships remained after adjusting for depressive symptoms, age, BMI, income, race, and smoking. No interactions with race were observed in relation to length of gestation as a continuous variable. However, a significant interaction between race and the DHA:AA ratio in predicting preterm birth was observed (p = 0.049); among African Americans only, odds of preterm birth decreased as DHA:AA increased (p = 0.048). These data support a role for both inflammatory pathways and sleep quality in linking less optimal RBC PUFA status with shorter gestation in African American and European American women and suggest that African-Americans have greater risk for preterm birth in the context of a low DHA:AA ratio.

DHA Effects in Brain Development and Function

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is a structural constituent of membranes specifically in the central nervous system. Its accumulation in the fetal brain takes place mainly during the last trimester of pregnancy and continues at very high rates up to the end of the second year of life. Since the endogenous formation of DHA seems to be relatively low, DHA intake may contribute to optimal conditions for brain development. We performed a narrative review on research on the associations between DHA levels and brain development and function throughout the lifespan. Data from cell and animal studies justify the indication of DHA in relation to brain function for neuronal cell growth and differentiation as well as in relation to neuronal signaling. Most data from human studies concern the contribution of DHA to optimal visual acuity development. Accumulating data indicate that DHA may have effects on the brain in infancy, and recent studies indicate that the effect of DHA may depend on gender and genotype of genes involved in the endogenous synthesis of DHA. While DHA levels may affect early development, potential effects are also increasingly recognized during childhood and adult life, suggesting a role of DHA in cognitive decline and in relation to major psychiatric disorders.

Dietary arachidonic acid in perinatal nutrition: a commentary

Arachidonic acid (AA) is supplied together with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in infant formulas, but we have limited knowledge about the effects of supplementation with either of these long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) on growth and developmental outcomes. AA is present in similar levels in breast milk throughout the world, whereas the level of DHA is highly diet dependent. Autopsy studies show similar diet-dependent variation in brain DHA, whereas AA is little affected by intake. Early intake of DHA has been shown to affect visual development, but the effect of LCPUFA on neurodevelopment remains to be established. Few studies have found any functional difference between infants supplemented with DHA alone compared to DHA+AA, but some studies show neurodevelopmental advantages in breast-fed infants of mothers supplemented with n-3 LCPUFA alone. It also remains to be established whether the AA/DHA balance could affect allergic and inflammatory outcomes later in life. Disentangling effects of genetic variability and dietary intake on AA and DHA-status and on functional outcomes may be an important step in the process of determining whether AA-intake is of any physiological or clinical importance. However, based on the current evidence we hypothesize that dietary AA plays a minor role on growth and development relative to the impact of dietary DHA.

Postpartum changes in maternal and infant erythrocyte fatty acids are likely to be driven by restoring insulin sensitivity and DHA status

INTRODUCTION

Perinatal changes in maternal glucose and lipid fluxes and de novo lipogenesis (DNL) are driven by hormones and nutrients. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) reduces, whereas insulin augments, nuclear abundance of sterol-regulatory-element-binding-protein-1 (SREBP-1), which promotes DNL, stearoyl-CoA-desaturase (SCD, also Δ9-desaturase), fatty acid-(FA)-elongation (Elovl) and FA-desaturation (FADS). Decreasing maternal insulin sensitivity with advancing gestation and compensatory hyperinsulinemia cause augmented postprandial glucose levels, adipose tissue lipolysis and hepatic glucose- and VLDL-production. Hepatic VLDL is composed of dietary, body store and DNL derived FA. Decreasing insulin sensitivity increases the contribution of FA from hepatic-DNL in VLDL-triacylglycerols, and consequently saturated-FA and monounsaturated-FA (MUFA) in maternal serum lipids increase during pregnancy. Although other authors described changes in maternal serum and RBC essential-FA (EFA) after delivery, none went into detail about the changes in non-EFA and the mechanisms behind -and/or functions of- the observed changes.

HYPOTHESIS

Postpartum FA-changes result from changing enzymatic activities that are influenced by the changing hormonal milieu after delivery and DHA-status.

EMPIRICAL DATA

We studied FA-profiles and FA-ratios (as indices for enzymatic activities) of maternal and infant RBC at delivery and after 3 months exclusive breastfeeding in three populations with increasing freshwater-fish intakes. DNL-, SCD- and FADS2-activities decreased after delivery. Elongation-6 (Elovl-6)- and FADS1-activities increased. The most pronounced postpartum changes for mothers were increases in 18:0, linoleic (LA), arachidonic acid (AA) and decreases in 16:0, 18:1ω9 and DHA; and for infants increases in 18:1ω9, 22:5ω3, LA and decreases in 16:0 and AA. Changes were in line with the literature.

DISCUSSION

Postpartum increases in 18:0, and decreases in 16:0 and 18:1ω9, might derive from reduced insulin-promoted DNL-activity, with more reduced SCD- than Elovl-activity that leaves more 16:0 to be converted to 18:0 (Elovl-activity) than to MUFA (SCD-activity). Postpartum changes in ΣDNL, saturated-FA and MUFA related negatively to RBC-DHA. This concurs with suppression of both SCD- and Elovl-6 activities by DHA, through its influence on SREBP. Infant MUFA and LA increased at expense of their mothers. Sustained transport might be important for myelination (MUFA) and skin barrier development (LA). Maternal postpartum decreases in FADS2-, and apparent increases in FADS1-activity, together with increases in LA, AA, and 22:5ω3, but decrease in DHA, confirm that FADS2 is rate limiting in EFA-desaturation. Maternal LA and AA increases might be the result of rerouting from transplacental transfer to the incorporation into milk lipids and discontinued placental AA-utilization.

IMPLICATIONS

Perinatal changes in maternal and infant FA status may be strongly driven by changing insulin sensitivity and DHA status.

Dietary arachidonic acid dose-dependently increases the arachidonic acid concentration in human milk

Lactation hampers normalization of the maternal arachidonic acid (AA) status, which is reduced after pregnancy and can further decline by the presently recommended increased consumption of (n-3) long-chain PUFA [(n-3) LCPUFA]. This may be unfavorable for breast-fed infants, because they also require an optimum supply of (n-6) LCPUFA. We therefore investigated the LCPUFA responses in nursing mothers upon increased consumption of AA and (n-3) LCPUFA. In a parallel, double-blind, controlled trial, lactating women received for 8 wk no extra LCPUFA (control group, n = 8), 200 (low AA group, n = 9), or 400 (high AA group, n = 8) mg/d AA in combination with (n-3) LCPUFA [320 mg/d docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), 80 mg/d eicosapentaenoic acid, and 80 mg/d other (n-3) fatty acids], or this dose of (n-3) LCPUFA alone [DHA + eicosapentaenoic acid group, n = 8]. Relative concentrations of AA, DHA, and sums of (n-6) and (n-3) LCPUFA were measured in milk total lipids (TL) and erythrocyte phospholipids (PL) after 2 and 8 wk and changes were compared by ANCOVA. The combined consumption of AA and (n-3) LCPUFA caused dose-dependent elevations of AA and total (n-6) LCPUFA concentrations in milk TL and did not significantly affect the DHA and total (n-3) LCPUFA increases caused by (n-3) LCPUFA supplementation only. This latter treatment did not significantly affect breast milk AA and total (n-6) LCPUFA concentrations. AA and DHA concentrations in milk TL and their changes were strongly and positively correlated with their corresponding values in erythrocyte PL (r(2) = 0.27-0.50; P </= 0.002). We thus concluded that the consumption by lactating women of AA in addition to extra (n-3) LCPUFA dose dependently increased the AA concentration of their milk TL.

Erythrocyte fatty acid composition and the metabolic syndrome: a National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute GOLDN study

BACKGROUND

Different fatty acids may vary in their effect on the metabolic syndrome (MetS). We tested whether fatty acid classes measured in erythrocytes are associated with the MetS or its components.

METHODS

Included were men [n = 497; mean (SD) age, 49 (16) years] and women [n = 539; age, 48 (16) years] from 187 families in a National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) family study of the Genetics of Lipid-Lowering Drugs and Diet Network (GOLDN) conducted in Utah and Minnesota. We used gas chromatography to measure erythrocyte fatty acids and obtained data on potential confounding variables from interviewer-administered questionnaires.

RESULTS

The prevalence of the MetS as defined by the updated Adult Treatment Panel III criteria was 36.8% in Utah and 39.6% in Minnesota (P >0.05). In a multivariate model that included 4 fatty acid classes, covariates, and pedigree as a random effect, the odds ratios (95% confidence interval) for the MetS in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th quartile of polyunsaturated fatty acids were 1.00, 0.72 (0.47-1.10), 0.67 (0.43-1.05), and 0.39 (0.24-0.64), respectively (P for trend = 0.0002). For the corresponding quartiles of saturated fatty acids, the odds ratios were 1.00, 1.19 (0.77-1.84), 1.48 (0.94-2.34), and 1.63 (1.01-2.63), respectively (P for trend = 0.03). Unlike n6 fatty acids, which showed an inverse association (P <0.05) with MetS, n3, trans, and monounsaturated fatty acids were not associated with the MetS (P >0.05). We observed significant correlations (P <0.05) between fatty acid classes, insulin, and components of the MetS.

CONCLUSIONS

Polyunsaturated fats are inversely associated with the MetS, whereas saturated fatty acids are positively associated with the MetS, probably through their effect on lipids, adiposity, insulin, and blood pressure.