Diminishing the taxonomic gap in the neotropical soldierless termites: descriptions of four new genera and a new Anoplotermes species (Isoptera, Termitidae, Apicotermitinae)

The neotropical Apicotermitinae is a common and widespread clade of mostly soil-feeding soldierless termites. With few exceptions, species of this group were originally assigned to the genus Anoplotermes Müller, 1873. The application of internal worker morphology coupled with genetic sequencing has recently shed light on the true diversity of this subfamily. Herein, Anoplotermessusanae Scheffrahn, Carrijo & Castro, sp. nov. and four new species in four new genera are described: Hirsutitermeskanzakii Scheffrahn, Carrijo & Castro, gen. nov. et sp. nov., Krecekitermesdaironi Scheffrahn, Carrijo & Castro, gen. nov. et sp. nov., Mangolditermescurveileum Scheffrahn, Carrijo & Castro, gen. nov. et sp. nov., and Ourissotermesgiblinorum Scheffrahn, Carrijo & Castro, gen. nov. et sp. nov. Worker descriptions are based mainly on worker gut morphology, including the enteric valve, while imagoes were described based on external characters. A Bayesian phylogenetic tree of New World Apicotermitinae was constructed using the complete mitogenome to infer genera relationships and corroborate the taxonomic decisions. Distribution maps and a dichotomic key to the known Neotropical Apicotermitinae genera are provided.

Termite sensitivity to temperature affects global wood decay rates

Deadwood is a large global carbon store with its store size partially determined by biotic decay. Microbial wood decay rates are known to respond to changing temperature and precipitation. Termites are also important decomposers in the tropics but are less well studied. An understanding of their climate sensitivities is needed to estimate climate change effects on wood carbon pools. Using data from 133 sites spanning six continents, we found that termite wood discovery and consumption were highly sensitive to temperature (with decay increasing >6.8 times per 10°C increase in temperature)-even more so than microbes. Termite decay effects were greatest in tropical seasonal forests, tropical savannas, and subtropical deserts. With tropicalization (i.e., warming shifts to tropical climates), termite wood decay will likely increase as termites access more of Earth's surface.

Elevational biodiversity gradients in the Neotropics: Perspectives from freshwater caddisflies (Insecta: Trichoptera)

Aquatic insects in the order Trichoptera are extremely diverse in number of species and their trophic roles. However, their distribution and diversity patterns are poorly known in the Neotropics, including the species restricted to tropical mountain ecosystems. Recent studies in tropical mountains have shown high levels of endemism of aquatic insects and changes in the composition of communities over short distances. Still, the incidence of environmental filters that explain such patterns has not been addressed quantitatively. Given the relevance of understanding Trichoptera spatial diversity patterns to prioritize conservation areas for freshwaters, as well as to obtain baseline information to predict changes in aquatic communities facing global environmental changes, we assessed the species distribution and assemblages of caddisflies along an elevational gradient from 600 to 3,600 m a.s.l. on the equatorial Andes. In this area, we had long-term continuous climate data with hourly resolution. We collected adult caddisflies in seven localities along this gradient using light traps. We sampled each locality for two hours after sunset for three consecutive days. All specimens collected were identified to species or morphospecies. Our results showed an increase in species and genera numbers with decreasing altitude, albeit no significant. Minimum air temperature is the main environmental variable explaining Trichoptera community assemblages. β‐diversity (taxon turnover among sites), as opposed to species richness, increased with altitude and showed a bimodal distribution along the elevation gradient for both genera and species assemblages, which resulted in a significant shift in community composition of species and genera at 2,000 m a.s.l. Our null-models confirm the observed patterns of B-diversity are non-random and suggest a strong environmental filtering of tropical caddisflies community assemblies and turnover. Geographic distance coupled with changes in environmental conditions along the elevation gradient explained a high percentage of community variance, as documented for other taxa (e.g., vascular plants), suggesting the importance of securing habitat connectivity along the altitudinal gradient to protect aquatic insect diversity effectively.

Cross-kingdom interactions and functional patterns of active microbiota matter in governing deadwood decay

Microbial community members are the primary microbial colonizers and active decomposers of deadwood. This study placed sterilized standardized beech and spruce sapwood specimens on the forest ground of 8 beech- and 8 spruce-dominated forest sites. After 370 days, specimens were assessed for mass loss, nitrogen (N) content and ¹⁵N isotopic signature, hydrolytic and lignin-modifying enzyme activities. Each specimen was incubated with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) to label metabolically active fungal and bacterial community members, which were assessed using amplicon sequencing. Fungal saprotrophs colonized the deadwood accompanied by a distinct bacterial community that was capable of cellulose degradation, aromatic depolymerization, and N₂ fixation. The latter were governed by the genus Sphingomonas, which was co-present with the majority of saprotrophic fungi regardless of whether beech or spruce specimens were decayed. Moreover, the richness of the diazotrophic Allorhizobium-Neorhizobium-Pararhizobium-Rhizobium group was significantly correlated with mass loss, N content and ¹⁵N isotopic signature. By contrast, presence of obligate predator Bdellovibrio spp. shifted bacterial community composition and were linked to decreased beech deadwood decay rates. Our study provides the first account of the composition and function of metabolically active wood-colonizing bacterial and fungal communities, highlighting cross-kingdom interactions during the early and intermediate stages of wood decay.

Influence of altitude and seasonality in the termite species richness and nests density in a hill environment of the Brazilian Caatinga

ABSTRACT The variation in altitude drives the richness and density of species in tropical ecosystems. The diversity and richness of termites are influenced by the variations in temperature, humidity, and soil properties according to altitude elevation. This is well known for rainy forests and little information is found for semiarid areas of Brazil. In this study, we aimed to identify species richness and encounters density of termites in a hill inserted in the Caatinga Brazilian forest. We found variation in the composition of species as a function of altitude (in a comparison of top and foot of the hill) and in periods of the wet and dry, with an increase in the season wet. The increase the diversity in this period and altitude elevations can be explained by the increases in humidity after rainfalls and maintenance of temperature enabled by the conditions in the hill’s top. Our findings provide valuable information regarding termite diversity in semiarid areas as a function of elevation and contribute to other studies that are expanding our understanding of how elevation can affect these organisms.

Anatomical specializations of the gizzard in soil-feeding termites (Termitidae, Apicotermitinae): Taxonomical and functional implications

The anatomy of the workers' digestive tube is essential in taxonomical studies of soil-feeding Apicotermitinae termites, especially in soldierless lineages. Two structures, the mesenteric-proctodeal junction and the enteric valve, have long been important to distinguish genera and species. By contrast, the gizzard (proventriculus) has been almost ignored by taxonomists because of its generally regressed state in soil-feeding termites. In this study, we document in detail for the first time the sclerotized structures and ornamentations in the gizzard in the Apicotermitinae subfamily. We identified two main clusters of species: those without ornamentations and those exhibiting a sclerotized pulvillar armature, which may include spicules or spines of diverse sizes, numbers and dispositions. The latter group comprises the majority of African soldierless species, a widely diverse and dominant group in tropical forests and savannas. We outline the potential role of the anatomy of the gizzard in the taxonomy of Apicotermitinae based on the interspecific anatomical variation of the pulvillar armatures. We suggest that sclerotized ornamentations regulate the flow of food particles and break or lacerate aggregates to facilitate the access of enzymes in the midgut.

Rustitermes boteroi, a new genus and species of soldierless termites (Blattodea, Isoptera, Apicotermitinae) from South America

We present the description of a new genus and species of soldierless termites from South America. Rustitermesboteroi Constantini, Castro & Scheffrahn, gen. et sp. nov. can be identified by the morphology of the enteric valve, with six slightly asymmetric cushions, each one forming a central pouch made of scales smaller than those between the cushions. The new genus features two characteristic rows of thick bristles on the interior margin of the fore tibia, and is supported by COI molecular sequence data. This species is distributed from Tobago to northern Argentina.

Increasing the phylogenetic coverage for understanding broad-scale diversity gradients

Despite decades of scientific effort, there is still no consensus on the determinants of broad-scale gradients of animal diversity. We argue that general drivers of diversity are unlikely to be found among the narrowly defined taxa which are typically analyzed in studies of broad-scale diversity gradients because ecological niches evolve largely conservatively. This causes constraints in the use of available niche space leading to systematic differences in diversity gradients among taxa. We instead advocate studies of phylogenetically diverse animal communities along broad environmental gradients. Such multi-taxa communities are less constrained in resource use and diversification and may be better targets for testing major classical hypotheses on diversity gradients. Besides increasing the spatial scale in analyses, expanding the phylogenetic coverage may be a second way to achieve higher levels of generality in studies of broad-scale diversity gradients.

A new species of Acorhinotermes Emerson, 1949 (Blattodea, Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae) from Colombia, with a key to Neotropical Rhinotermitinae species based on minor soldiers

Acorhinotermes Emerson, 1949 is the only Neotropical Rhinotermitine genus with no major soldier. Herein Acorhinotermes claritae Castro & Scheffrahn, sp. nov. is described based on minor soldiers and an alate nymph collected in a secondary rain forest in the Colombian Amazon. The minor soldier of A. claritae Castro & Scheffrahn, sp. nov. has longer mandibular points and it is comparatively smaller than A. subfusciceps. An illustrated key to the minor soldiers of the Neotropical species of Rhinotermitinae is presented.

A comparison of termite assemblages from West African savannah and forest ecosystems using morphological and molecular markers

Termites (Isoptera) are important ecosystem engineers of tropical ecosystems. However, they are notoriously difficult to identify, which hinders ecological research. To overcome these problems, we comparatively studied termite assemblages in the two major West African ecosystems, savannah and forest, both under natural settings and along disturbance gradients. We identified all species using morphological as well as molecular markers. We hypothesized species richness to be higher in the forest than the savannah and that it declines with disturbance in both ecosystems. Overall we found more species in the forest than in the savannah. However, alpha diversity per site did not differ between both ecosystems with on average around ten species. For both ecosystems, species diversity did not decrease along the studied disturbance gradient but encounter rates did. For the forest, we did not detect a decline in soil feeding termites and an increase of fungus grower Macrotermitinae with disturbance as some other studies did. Yet, soil feeders were generally rare. Strikingly, the set of morphologically difficult-to-identify Macrotermitinae (Microtermes and Ancistrotermes) was as high in the forest as in the savannah with little species overlap between both ecosystems. Using phylogenetic community analyses, we found little evidence for strong structuring mechanisms such as environmental filtering or interspecific competition. Most local assemblages did not differ significantly from random assemblages of the regional species pool. Our study is the most comprehensive of its kind. It provides the most reliable termite species list for West Africa that builds the basis for further ecological studies.

Phylogenetic Community Structure and Niche Differentiation in Termites of the Tropical Dry Forests of Colombia

The mechanisms that structure species communities are still debated. We addressed this question for termite assemblages from tropical dry forests in Colombia. These forests are endangered and poorly understood ecosystems and termites are important ecosystem engineers in the tropics. Using biodiversity and environmental data, combined with phylogenetic community analyses, trait mapping, and stable isotopes studies, we investigated the termite community composition of three protected dry forests in Colombia. Our data suggest that the structuring mechanisms differed between sites. Phylogenetic overdispersion of termite assemblages correlated with decreasing rainfall and elevation and increasing temperature. Food niche traits-classified as feeding groups and quantified by δ15N‰ and δ13C‰ isotope signatures-were phylogenetically conserved. Hence, the overdispersion pattern implies increasing interspecific competition with decreasing drier and warmer conditions, which is also supported by fewer species occurring at the driest site. Our results are in line with a hypothesis that decreased biomass production limits resource availability for termites, which leads to competition. Along with this comes a diet shift: termites from drier plots had higher δ13C signatures, reflecting higher δ13C values in the litter and more C4 plants. Our study shows how a phylogenetic community approach combined with trait analyses can contribute to gaining the first insights into mechanisms structuring whole termite assemblages.

Altitudinal Turnover of Species in a Neotropical Peripheral Mountain System: A Case Study With Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Aphodiinae and Scarabaeinae)

The study of diversity gradients is a frequent approach to understand evolutionary processes that structure communities. Altitudinal gradients allow the analysis of community spatial responses to environmental fluctuations. One interesting place to study altitudinal gradients is the Andes system because of the coexistence of isolated and continuous mountain ranges. We investigated the altitudinal turnover of species in peripheral mountainous systems by analyzing the structure of dung beetle assemblages along a complete gradient in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia. Seven sites ranging from 480 to 2,890 m were evaluated, using linear transects of pitfall traps. A total of 2,992 individuals and 46 species were collected. Abundance, richness, and diversity diminished with altitude, revealing significant differences among sites. Some genera appeared at certain altitudes and most species appeared at unique sites, indicating a marked altitudinal turnover. A similarity analysis demonstrated the existence of separate lowland and high mountain groups with a turnover at 1,200-1,600 m asl. We registered for the first time a species replacement between Scarabaeinae (low-lands) and Aphodiinae (high-lands) in the Neotropical region. Our results largely agree with the species pattern described for Mesoamerica, although, in this case the altitudinal turnover is more evident, unveiling a transition zone between lowland and high mountain fauna elements. This result suggests an equilibrium between a weak horizontal colonization and a strong vertical turnover, that appears to be higher in isolated mountains. Future investigations with other insect groups are necessary to corroborate this altitudinal pattern in isolated mountains.

Environmental correlates underlying elevational richness, abundance, and biomass patterns of multi-feeding guilds in litter invertebrates across the treeline

Elevational richness patterns and underlying environmental correlates have contributed greatly to a range of general theories of biodiversity. However, the mechanisms underlying elevational abundance and biomass patterns across several trophic levels in belowground food webs remain largely unknown. In this study, we aimed to disentangle the relationships between the elevational patterns of different trophic levels of litter invertebrates and their underlying environmental correlates for two contrasting ecosystems separated by the treeline. We sampled 119 plots from 1020 to 1770 asl in forest and 21 plots from 1790 to 2280 asl in meadow on Dongling Mountain, northwest of Beijing, China. Four functional guilds were divided based on feeding regime: omnivores, herbivores, predators, and detritivores. We used eigenvector-based spatial filters to account for spatial autocorrelation and multi-model selection to determine the best environmental correlates for the community attributes of the different feeding guilds. The results showed that the richness, abundance and biomass of omnivores declined with increasing elevation in the meadow, whereas there was a hump-shaped richness pattern for detritivores. The richness and abundance of different feeding guilds were positively correlated in the forest, while not in the meadow. In the forest, the variances of richness in omnivores, predators, and detritivores were mostly correlated with litter thickness, with omnivores being best explained by mean annual temperature in the meadow. In conclusion, hump-shaped elevational richness, abundance and biomass patterns driven by the forest gradient below the treeline existed in all feeding guilds of litter invertebrates. Climate replaced productivity as the primary factor that drove the richness patterns of omnivores above the treeline, whereas heterogeneity replaced climate for herbivores. Our results highlight that the correlated elevational richness, abundance, and biomass patterns of feeding guilds are ecosystem-dependent and that the underlying environmental correlates shifted at the treeline for most feeding guilds.

Echinotermes biriba, a new genus and species of soldierless termite from the Colombian and Peruvian Amazon (Termitidae, Apicotermitinae)

A new Apicotermitinae genus and species Echinotermesbiriba is described from workers collected on the Andean-Amazon Piedmont in Colombia and Peru. The enteric valve armature of Echinotermesbiriba Castro & Scheffrahn, gen. et sp. n. is a remarkably diagnostic character. A Bayesian phylogenetic analysis using the COI gene and including all other Neotropical Apicotermitinae genera, supports the new genus as a distinct terminal.

Taxonomic revision of the long-nosed armadillos, Genus Dasypus Linnaeus, 1758 (Mammalia, Cingulata)

Dasypus is the most speciose genus of the order Cingulata, including approximately 40% of known living armadillos. Nine species are currently recognized, although comprehensive analyses of the entire genus have never been done. Our aim is to revise the taxonomy of the long-nosed armadillos and properly define the taxa. We examined 2126 specimens of Dasypus preserved in 39 different museum collections, including 17 type specimens. Three complementary methods were applied to explore morphological datasets both qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitative morphological variation in discrete characters was assessed by direct observations of specimens. Linear morphometric variation was based on external data and cranial measurements of 887 adult skulls. The shape and size of the skull was abstracted through two-dimensional geometric morphometric analyses of dorsal, lateral and ventral views of respectively 421, 211, and 220 adult specimens. Our results converge on the recognition of eight living species (D. beniensis, D. kappleri, D. mazzai, D. novemcinctus, D. pastasae, D. pilosus, D. sabanicola, and D. septemcinctus), and three subspecies of D. septemcinctus (D. s. septemcinctus, D. s. hybridus, and a new subspecies from Cordoba described here). Information on type material, diagnosis, distribution, and taxonomic comments for each taxon are provided. We designate a lectotype for D. novemcinctus; and a neotype for Loricatus hybridus (= D. septemcinctus hybridus).

Diversification rates, host plant shifts and an updated molecular phylogeny of Andean Eois moths (Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

Eois is one of the best-investigated genera of tropical moths. Its close association with Piper plants has inspired numerous studies on life histories, phylogeny and evolutionary biology. This study provides an updated view on phylogeny, host plant use and temporal patterns of speciation in Eois. Using sequence data (2776 bp) from one mitochondrial (COI) and one nuclear gene (Ef1-alpha) for 221 Eois species, we confirm and reinforce previous findings regarding temporal patterns of diversification. Deep diversification within Andean Eois took place in the Miocene followed by a sustained high rate of diversification until the Pleistocene when a pronounced slowdown of speciation is evident. In South America, Eois diversification is very likely to be primarily driven by the Andean uplift which occurred concurrently with the entire evolutionary history of Eois. A massively expanded dataset enabled an in-depth look into the phylogenetic signal contained in host plant usage. This revealed several independent shifts from Piper to other host plant genera and families. Seven shifts to Peperomia, the sister genus of Piper were detected, indicating that the shift to Peperomia was an easy one compared to the singular shifts to the Chloranthaceae, Siparunaceae and the Piperacean genus Manekia. The potential for close co-evolution of Eois with Piper host plants is therefore bound to be limited to smaller subsets within Neotropical Eois instead of a frequently proposed genus-wide co-evolutionary scenario. In regards to Eois systematics we confirm the monophyly of Neotropical Eois in relation to their Old World counterparts. A tentative biogeographical hypothesis is presented suggesting that Eois originated in tropical Asia and subsequently colonized the Neotropics and Africa. Within Neotropical Eois we were able to identify the existence of six clades not recognized in previous studies and confirm and reinforce the monophyly of all 9 previously delimited infrageneric clades.

Response of Termite (Blattodea: Termitoidae) Assemblages to Lower Subtropical Forest Succession: A Case Study in Dinghushan Biosphere Reserve, China

Termite (Blattodea: Termitoidae) assemblages have important ecological functions and vary in structure between habitats, but have not been studied in lower subtropical forests. To examine whether differences in the richness and relative abundance of termite species and functional groups occur in lower subtropical regions, termite assemblages were sampled in Dinghushan Biosphere Reserve, China, among pine forest, pine and broad-leaved mixed forest (mixed forest), and monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest (monsoon forest). The dominant functional group was wood-feeding termites (family Termitidae), and the mixed forest hosted the greatest richness and relative abundance. Soil-feeding termites were absent from the lower subtropical system, while humus-feeding termites were sporadically distributed in mixed forest and monsoon forest. The species richness and functional group abundance of termites in our site may be linked to the forest succession. Altitude, soil temperature, air temperature, surface air relative humidity, and litter depth were significant influences on species and functional group diversity.

Species Richness, Community Organization, and Spatiotemporal Distribution of Earthworms in the Pineapple Agroecosystems of Tripura, India

The impact that plant communities may have on underground faunal diversity is unclear. Therefore, understanding the links between plants and organisms is of major interest. Earthworm population dynamics were studied in the pineapple agroecosystems of Tripura to evaluate the impact of monoculture plantation on earthworm communities. A total of thirteen earthworm species belonging to four families and five genera were collected from different sampling sites. Application of sample-based rarefaction curve and nonparametric richness estimators reveal 90–95% completeness of sampling. Earthworm community of pineapple agroecosystems was dominated by endogeic earthworms andDrawida assamensiswas the dominant species with respect to its density, biomass, and relative abundance. Vertical distribution of earthworms was greatly influenced by seasonal variations. Population density and biomass of earthworms peaked during monsoon and postmonsoon period, respectively. Overall density and biomass of earthworms were in increasing trend with an increase in plantation age and were highest in the 30–35-year-old plantation. Significant decrease in the Shannon diversity and evenness index and increase in Simpson’s dominance and spatial aggregation index with an increase in the age of pineapple plantation were recorded. Soil temperature and soil moisture were identified as the most potent regulators of earthworm distribution in the pineapple plantation.

Geographic, environmental and biotic sources of variation in the nutrient relations of tropical montane forests

Tropical montane forests (TMF) are associated with a widely observed suite of characteristics encompassing forest structure, plant traits and biogeochemistry. With respect to nutrient relations, montane forests are characterized by slow decomposition of organic matter, high investment in below-ground biomass and poor litter quality, relative to tropical lowland forests. However, within TMF there is considerable variation in substrate age, parent material, disturbance and species composition. Here we emphasize that many TMFs are likely to be co-limited by multiple nutrients, and that feedback among soil properties, species traits, microbial communities and environmental conditions drive forest productivity and soil carbon storage. To date, studies of the biogeochemistry of montane forests have been restricted to a few, mostly neotropical, sites and focused mainly on trees while ignoring mycorrhizas, epiphytes and microbial community structure. Incorporating the geographic, environmental and biotic variability in TMF will lead to a greater recognition of plant–soil feedbacks that are critical to understanding constraints on productivity, both under present conditions and under future climate, nitrogen-deposition and land-use scenarios.

Biodiversity and metacommunity structure of animals along altitudinal gradients in tropical montane forests

The study of altitudinal gradients has made enduring contributions to the theoretical and empirical bases of modern biology. Unfortunately, the persistence of these systems and the species that compose them is threatened by land-use change at lower altitudes and by climate change throughout the gradients, but especially at higher altitudes. In this review, we focus on two broad themes that are inspired by altitudinal variation in tropical montane regions: (1) dimensions of biodiversity and (2) metacommunity structure. Species richness generally decreased with increasing altitude, although not always in a linear fashion. Mid-altitudinal peaks in richness were less common than monotonic declines, and altitudinal increases in richness were restricted to amphibian faunas. Moreover, gradients of biodiversity differed among dimensions (taxonomic, phylogenetic and functional) as well as among faunas (bats, rodents, birds) in the tropical Andes, suggesting that species richness is not a good surrogate for dimensions that reflect differences in the function or evolutionary history of species. Tropical montane metacommunities evinced a variety of structures, including nested (bats), Clementsian (rodents, bats, gastropods), quasi-Clementsian (reptiles, amphibians, passerines) and quasi-Gleasonian (gastropods) patterns. Nonetheless, compositional changes were always associated with the ecotones between rain forest and cloud forest, regardless of fauna.

Redescription of the Monotypic Neotropical Genus Crepititermes Emerson (Termitidae: Termitinae)

Based on a reexamination of specimens of Crepititermes Emerson deposited in the Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil (MZUSP), we characterize the morphology and coiling in situ of the digestive tube of workers of Crepititermes verruculosus Emerson for the first time. We provide additional notes on the imago and soldier and present digital images and illustrations for all castes. We also update the currently known geographical distribution of C. verruculosus, adding some biological remarks.

Climate Warming and Soil Carbon in Tropical Forests: Insights from an Elevation Gradient in the Peruvian Andes

The temperature sensitivity of soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition in tropical forests will influence future climate. Studies of a 3.5-kilometer elevation gradient in the Peruvian Andes, including short-term translocation experiments and the examination of the long-term adaptation of biota to local thermal and edaphic conditions, have revealed several factors that may regulate this sensitivity. Collectively this work suggests that, in the absence of a moisture constraint, the temperature sensitivity of decomposition is regulated by the chemical composition of plant debris (litter) and both the physical and chemical composition of preexisting SOM: higher temperature sensitivities are found in litter or SOM that is more chemically complex and in SOM that is less occluded within aggregates. In addition, the temperature sensitivity of SOM in tropical montane forests may be larger than previously recognized because of the presence of "cold-adapted" and nitrogen-limited microbial decomposers and the possible future alterations in plant and microbial communities associated with warming. Studies along elevation transects, such as those reviewed here, can reveal factors that will regulate the temperature sensitivity of SOM. They can also complement and guide in situ soil-warming experiments, which will be needed to understand how this vulnerability to temperature may be mediated by altered plant productivity under future climatic change.

First comparison of quantitative estimates of termite biomass and abundance reveals strong intercontinental differences

Termite species and functional groups differ among regions globally (the functional-diversity anomaly). Here we investigate whether similar differences in biomass and abundance of termites occur among continents. Biomass and abundance data were collected with standardized sampling in Cameroon, Malaysia and Peru. Data from Peru were original to this study, while data from Cameroon and Malaysia were compiled from other sources. Species density data were sampled using a standardized belt transect (100 × 2 m) while the biomass and abundance measurements were sampled using a standardized protocol based on 2 × 2-m quadrats. Biomass and abundance data confirmed patterns found for species density and thus the existence of the functional diversity anomaly: highest estimates for biomass and abundance were found in Cameroon (14.5 ± 7.90 g m−2 and 1234 ± 437 ind m−2) followed by Malaysia (0.719 ± 0.193 g m−2 and 327 ± 72 ind m−2) and then Peru (0.345 ± 0.103 g m−2 and 130 ± 39 ind m−2). The biomass and abundance for each functional group were significantly different across sites for most termite functional groups. Biogeographical distribution of lineages was the primary cause for the functional diversity anomaly with true soil-feeding termites dominating in Cameroon and the absence of fungus-growing termites from Peru. These findings are important as the biomass and abundance of functional groups may be linked to ecosystem processes. Although this study allowed for comparisons between data from different regions further comparable data are needed to enhance the understanding of the role of termites in ecosystem processes on a global scale.

Community and Ecosystem Responses to Elevational Gradients: Processes, Mechanisms, and Insights for Global Change

Community structure and ecosystem processes often vary along elevational gradients. Their responses to elevation are commonly driven by changes in temperature, and many community- and ecosystem-level variables therefore frequently respond similarly to elevation across contrasting gradients. There are also many exceptions, sometimes because other factors such as precipitation can also vary with elevation. Given this complexity, our capacity to predict when and why the same variable responds differently among disparate elevational gradients is often limited. Furthermore, there is utility in using elevational gradients for understanding community and ecosystem responses to global climate change at much larger spatial and temporal scales than is possible through conventional ecological experiments. However, future studies that integrate elevational gradient approaches with experimental manipulations will provide powerful information that can improve predictions of climate change impacts within and across ecosystems.