WSAVA guidelines for the vaccination of dogs and cats

The first evaluation of the effectiveness of canine vaccination schedule by two commercial vaccines in Iran

Background

Canine Parvovirus type 2 (CPV-2) is a member of the Parvoviridae family with a global distribution and causes pathogenicity in puppies aged from 6 weeks to 6 months. It should be noted that Maternally Derived Antibodies (MDA) have protection against CPV-2 in the first weeks of puppies’ life. However, MDA declines with age. The most important influential factor is timely vaccination against CPV-2.

Methods

In this study, 24 healthy 8-week-old terrier puppies were selected and divided into three identical groups based on a randomized, double-blind comparative trial. One of which was called the control group that was injected with the physiological serum. The second group was the group A that was vaccinated by the vaccine provided by Biocan DHPPi+L (Bioveta, Czech). The third group was group B that was vaccinated by the vaccine of Duramune Max 5 + LCI / GP (Fort Dodge Animal Health, USA) from 8 to 16 weeks of their life at every 4 weeks. Then serum samples were analyzed with HI and ELISA tests.

Results

The MDA titer was protective in some puppies until 18 weeks of age. Also, after the first vaccination, all puppies had a protective titer against CPV-2, and Duramune vaccine had seroconverted after the first injection and Biocan had seroconverted after the second injection.

Conclusions

It is recommended that to reduce the risk of vaccine failure: such as the MDA titer should be measured in puppies before designing a vaccination schedule.

Exotic pets in Ireland: 1. Prevalence of ownership and access to veterinary services

Background

There has been increasing concern expressed about the welfare of exotic pets worldwide. For the purposes of this article, an exotic pet is considered to be a non-domesticated species, where there are knowledge gaps on good practice (minimum standards of care), veterinary diagnostics and treatments. The categories of exotic pets included in this study were: small mammals (< 20 kg), large mammals (> 20 kg), birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrates. Dogs, cats, rabbits, hamsters, gerbils, guinea pigs, mice, rats, and ferrets were excluded from the study. An online survey of pet owning staff at University College Dublin was conducted between July and August 2020 to provide the first empirical data for Ireland. In this pilot study (the first in this thematic series) we aim to characterise exotic pet ownership, the challenges and benefits of keeping exotic pets, and access to veterinary services from the pet owner’s perspective.

Results

Using an online survey this pilot study gathered evidence from 83 domestic and 32 exotic pet owners within the staff (n = ~ 3600 FTE) at University College Dublin, the largest third level institution in Ireland. The prevalence of exotic pet ownership was determined to be 34.4 % of households with more than 10 % of pet owning households owning only exotic pets. Fish (n = 15), reptiles (n = 13) and birds (n = 8) were the most common types of exotic pets. Thirty-four per cent of exotic pet owners never sought veterinary services, the most common reasons were due to lack of local veterinary specialists (n = 10) and good owner knowledge (n = 8). However identifying appropriate guidance on the animals’ needs was a common challenge for exotic pet owners (n = 13). A reasonable monthly cost of caring for an exotic ranged from €20–180, depending on the species.

Conclusions

This pilot study contains important implications for veterinary education to support the veterinary community with providing services to the exotic pet owning community. Policy issues with exotic pet ownership also need to be considered and further research into the proposed strategies to support the health and welfare of exotic pets should be carried out such as the introduction of white lists and guidelines on responsible pet ownership.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13620-021-00190-6.

Diagnostic Challenges in Canine Parvovirus 2c in Vaccine Failure Cases

In this study, three different diagnostic tests for parvovirus were compared with vaccination status and parvovirus genotype in suspected canine parvovirus cases. Faecal samples from vaccinated (N17) and unvaccinated or unknown vaccination status (N41) dogs that had clinical signs of parvovirus infection were tested using three different assays of antigen tests, conventional and quantitative PCR tests. The genotype of each sample was determined by sequencing. In addition to the suspected parvovirus samples, 21 faecal samples from apparently healthy dogs were tested in three diagnostic tests to evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of the tests. The antigen test was positive in 41.2% of vaccinated dogs and 73.2% of unvaccinated diseased dogs. Conventional PCR and qPCR were positive for canine parvovirus (CPV) in 82.4% of vaccinated dogs and 92.7% of unvaccinated dogs. CPV type-2c (CPV-2c) was detected in 82.75% of dogs (12 vaccinated and 36 unvaccinated dogs), CPV-2b was detected in 5.17% dogs (one vaccinated and two unvaccinated) and CPV-2a in 1.72% vaccinated dog. Mean Ct values in qPCR for vaccinated dogs were higher than the unvaccinated dogs (p = 0.049), suggesting that vaccinated dogs shed less virus, even in clinical forms of CPV. CPV-2c was the dominant subtype infecting dogs in both vaccinated and unvaccinated cases. Faecal antigen testing failed to identify a substantial proportion of CPV-2c infected dogs, likely due to low sensitivity. The faecal samples from apparently healthy dogs (n = 21) showed negative results in all three tests. Negative CPV faecal antigen results should be viewed with caution until they are confirmed by molecular methods.

Study of the immunogenicity of the VP2 protein of canine parvovirus produced using an improved Baculovirus expression system

BACKGROUND

Canine parvovirus (CPV) is now recognized as a serious threat to the dog breeding industry worldwide. Currently used CPV vaccines all have their specific drawbacks, prompting a search for alternative safe and effective vaccination strategies such as subunit vaccine. VP2 protein is the major antigen targeted for developing CPV subunit vaccine, however, its production in baculovirus expression system remains challenging due to the insufficient yield. Therefore, our study aims to increase the VP2 protein production by using an improved baculovirus expression system and to evaluate the immunogenicity of the purified VP2 protein in mice.

RESULTS

The results showed that high-level expression of the full length VP2 protein was achieved using our modified baculovirus expression system. The recombinant virus carrying two copies of VP2 gene showed the highest expression level, with a productivity of 186 mg/L, which is about 1.4-1.6 fold that of the recombinant viruses carrying only one copy. The purified protein reacted with Mouse anti-His tag monoclonal antibody and Rabbit anti-VP2 polyclonal antibody. BALB/c mice were intramuscularly immunized with purified VP2 protein twice at 2 week intervals. After vaccination, VP2 protein could induce the mice produce high level of hemagglutination inhibition antibodies.

CONCLUSIONS

Full length CPV VP2 protein was expressed at high level and purified efficiently. Moreover, it stimulated mice to produce high level of antibodies with hemmaglutination inhibition properties. The VP2 protein expressed in this study could be used as a putative economic and efficient subunit vaccine against CPV infection.

Características epizootiológicas da infecção natural pelo vírus da cinomose canina em Belo Horizonte

RESUMO O perfil epizootiológico da cinomose canina em Belo Horizonte é desatualizado e não alberga algumas características relevantes. Uma análise recente da distribuição do vírus em relação às características do hospedeiro e do meio ambiente associada aos principais sinais clínicos e achados laboratoriais são importantes para se adotarem medidas estratégicas para o controle da enfermidade. Objetivou-se, assim, determinar as características epizootiológicas da infecção pelo vírus da cinomose canina associada à variedade de sinais clínico-neurológicos e laboratoriais em Belo Horizonte, auxiliando no diagnóstico precoce da infecção e na diminuição das taxas de morbidade e mortalidade da doença. A avaliação do perfil epizootiológico de 90 cães revelou que a doença é mais frequente em animais adultos (um a seis anos de idade) e que não receberam vacinas conforme recomendado pelos protocolos. Os sinais clínicos extraneurais e neurais foram variados, com predomínio para manifestações gastrentérica e respiratória, mioclonia e déficit motor, respectivamente. O exame do fluido cérebro-espinhal demonstrou predomínio de proteinorraquia associada à pleocitose linfocítica. O teste de imunocromatografia para pesquisa de antígeno com amostras do fluido cerebroespinhal foi eficaz para identificar a doença em pacientes com sinais neurológicos, diferentemente das amostras do swab conjuntival, que não devem ser utilizadas.

Trigger factor assisted self-assembly of canine parvovirus VP2 protein into virus-like particles in Escherichia coli with high immunogenicity

Canine parvovirus (CPV) has been considered to be an important pathogen, which can cause acute infectious disease in canids. Although current vaccines are effective in preventing CPV infection, safety problems still remain unsolved. In this study, a subunit vaccine against CPV based on virus-like particles (VLPs) with good safety and immunogenicity is reported. Soluble CPV VP2 protein was produced by co-expression of chaperone trigger factor (Tf16) in Escherichia coli (E.coli), and assembled into CPV VLPs which could be affected by NaCl and pH. At 250 mM NaCl pH 8.0, the VLPs co-expressed with Tf16 had similar size (25 nm) and shape with the authentic virus capsid under the transmission electron microscopy (TEM), which is also in accordance with the dynamic light scattering (DLS) data. Immunization with these particles could induce high-titer hemagglutination inhibition (1:12288) and neutralizing antibodies (1:6144) in guinea pigs. Splenic cells of them could secrete IFN-γ and IL-4 after stimulation by CPV. Thus, the VLPs produced by the new approach with high yield and immunogenicity could be a potential candidate for CPV vaccine.

Prevalence of feline herpesvirus-1, feline calicivirus, Chlamydophila felis and Mycoplasma felis DNA and associated risk factors in cats in Spain with upper respiratory tract disease, conjunctivitis and/or gingivostomatitis

Objectives Our objective was to perform the first multicentric study in Spain to evaluate the prevalence of feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1), feline calicivirus (FCV), Chlamydophila felis and Mycoplasma felis in cats with upper respiratory tract disease (URTD), conjunctivitis and/or gingivostomatitis (GS) compared with control cats; and to evaluate risk factors for these clinical conditions. Methods Conjunctival and oropharyngeal swabs were collected and a questionnaire regarding signalment, lifestyle, vaccination history and clinical signs was obtained for each cat. Swabs were tested for each pathogen by real-time PCR. Results The study population consisted of 358 cats, including 98 control cats. Among the 260 diseased cats, 127 cats presented with URTD, 149 cats had conjunctivitis, 154 cats were suffering GS; many cats presented more than one clinical condition. The prevalence observed of FHV-1, FCV, C felis and M felis was, respectively, 28.3%, 48.0%, 20.5% and 46.5% in cats with URTD; 24.2%, 43.6%, 19.5% and 38.3% in cats with conjunctivitis; and 15.6%, 58.4%, 9.1% and 37.7% in cats with GS. Prevalences in the control group were 6.1%, 15.3%, 2.0% and 20.4%, respectively. Coinfections were common among all groups of cats. Risk factors were identified for all groups. FHV-1, FCV and C felis were associated with URTD and conjunctivitis. FCV was strongly associated with GS. M felis was present in a high percentage of the population in all groups, but its role in these clinical conditions remains uncertain. Vaccination was protective for URTD and GS but not for conjunctivitis. Conclusions and relevance This epidemiological study describes, for the first time, prevalence for FHV-1, FCV, C felis and M felis in Spain. In general, the prevalences found are similar to those reported in other countries. Factors associated with disease expression were also identified, which are relevant for practitioners.

Doxorubicin Conjugated to Glutathione Stabilized Gold Nanoparticles (Au-GSH-Dox) as an Effective Therapeutic Agent for Feline Injection-Site Sarcomas-Chick Embryo Chorioallantoic Membrane Study

Feline injection-site sarcomas are malignant skin tumours with a high local recurrence rate, ranging from 14% to 28%. The treatment of feline injection-site sarcomas includes radical surgery, radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy. In our previous study it has been demonstrated that doxorubicin conjugated to glutathione-stabilized gold nanoparticles (Au-GSH-Dox) has higher cytotoxic effects than free doxorubicin for feline fibrosarcoma cell lines with high glycoprotein P activity (FFS1, FFS3). The aim of the present study was to assess the effectiveness of intratumoural injection of Au-GSH-Dox on the growth of tumours from the FFS1 and FFS3 cell lines on chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane. This model has been utilized both in human and veterinary medicine for preclinical oncological studies. The influence of intratumoural injections of Au-GSH-Dox, glutathione-stabilized gold nanoparticles and doxorubicin alone on the Ki-67 proliferation marker was also checked. We demonstrated that the volume ratio of tumours from the FFS1 and FFS3 cell lines was significantly (p < 0.01) decreased after a single intratumoural injection of Au-GSH-Dox, which confirms the positive results of in vitro studies and indicates that Au-GSH-Dox may be a potent new therapeutic agent for feline injection-site sarcomas.

Epidemiology and clinical presentation of canine distemper disease in dogs and ferrets in Australia, 2006-2014

OBJECTIVE

To determine the status and distribution of distemper in Australian dogs and ferrets.

DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

METHODS

Cases were identified via a national voluntary disease reporting system, veterinarian groups and a national laboratory database. The geographic distribution, seasonal distribution, signalment and clinical presentation of cases were described using maps and frequency distributions.

RESULTS

A total of 48 individually affected dogs and ferrets in 27 case groups were identified, including eight confirmed case groups (> one individual). Confirmed cases were more common in summer and on the central coast of New South Wales and southern Victoria, and occurred exclusively in young, unvaccinated dogs. For dogs there was no obvious sex predilection. A mortality rate of 100% in ferrets and up to 77% in dogs was estimated. Neurological, gastrointestinal and respiratory were the most commonly reported systems affected in dogs and ferrets. There was no evidence that any large, unreported outbreaks occurred during the study period.

CONCLUSIONS

Continuation of vaccination against canine distemper virus is justified within Australia, particularly for younger dogs. Veterinarians should continue to consider distemper in their differential diagnosis of cases with neurological, gastrointestinal and respiratory presentation.

Development of a duplex rapid assay for immunoglobulins M and G to evaluate the parvoviral immune status of clinically healthy dogs

A duplex rapid assay for detection of serum antibodies to canine parvovirus (CPV) was developed. Canine immunoglobulin (Ig)M or IgG were captured in immunotubes with anti-canine IgM or IgG and detected with parvovirus VP2 recombinant protein followed by an anti-VP2 monoclonal antibody. The assay was tested using a collection of sera from dogs that were vaccinated against CPV on arrival at an animal shelter in Madrid, Spain. Results were compared with those of 2 commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) considered as reference techniques. A high correlation was found between the duplex rapid assay and the ELISAs, presenting an accuracy of 98% and 100% for IgG and IgM, respectively. According to the IgG and IgM levels at days 0-3 postvaccination, the samples were divided into 2 groups. One group of dogs showed high IgG and low IgM values at the first sampling post-vaccination and during the following 14 days, indicating that they had previously been in contact with the virus, either by vaccination or infection before arrival at the animal shelter. A second group of dogs appeared to be unvaccinated or uninfected before arrival at the animal shelter because they had negative IgM and IgG values soon after vaccination. These animals responded to vaccination, as demonstrated by seroconversion of both isotypes of immunoglobulins. The developed assay appears to be useful in determining the unknown immune status of dogs to CPV, especially in kennels and shelters where the rate of infection by CPV is relatively high.

Investigating preventive-medicine consultations in first-opinion small-animal practice in the United Kingdom using direct observation

Preventive-medicine consultations account for a large proportion of the veterinary caseload and previous research has suggested these consultations are fundamentally different from those in which the animal is presented for a specific health problem. There has been recent controversy around some aspects of preventive medicine for cats and dogs, and the full health benefits of the preventive-medicine consultation remain unclear. The aim of this study was to compare characteristics of the consultation and the problems discussed during the consultation between preventive-medicine consultations and other types of consultations. Data were gathered during direct observation of small-animal consultations in seven first-opinion practices in the United Kingdom. Data collected included type of clinical examination performed, patient signalment, and details of all problems discussed (including whether the problem was presenting or non-presenting, new or pre-existing, who had raised the problem, body system affected and whether an action was taken). A two-level multivariable logistic-regression model was developed, with canine and feline patients at Level 1 nested within consulting veterinary surgeons at Level 2, and a binary outcome variable of preventive-medicine consultation versus specific health-problem consultation. A total of 1807 patients were presented, of which 690 (38.2%) presented for a preventive-medicine consultation. Dogs were the most frequently presented species (n=1168; 64.6%) followed by cats (n=510; 28.2%), rabbits (n=86; 4.8%) and patients of other species (n=43; 2.4%). The five variables remaining in the multi-level model were whether multiple patients were presented, patient age, clinical examination type, weighing and number of problems discussed. Species, breed, sex, neutering status and practice did not remain in the final model. Many non-presenting problems, including both preventive-medicine problems and specific-health problems, were discussed and acted upon during all types of consultations. Dental and behavioural non-presenting problems were discussed more frequently during preventive-medicine consultations compared with specific health-problem consultations. Preventive-medicine consultations represent an opportunity for veterinary surgeons to discuss other aspects of preventive medicine, and to detect and manage new and ongoing health problems. A greater evidence base is needed to understand whether detecting and managing underlying disease during the preventive-medicine consultation has a positive impact on lifelong patient health and welfare.

Farmers' perception of the role of veterinary surgeons in vaccination strategies on British dairy farms

There is limited research investigating the motivators and barriers to vaccinating dairy cattle. Veterinary surgeons have been identified as important sources of information for farmers making vaccination and disease control decisions, as well as being farmers’ preferred vaccine suppliers. Vets’ perception of their own role and communication style can be at odds with farmers’ reported preferences. The objective of this study was to investigate how dairy farmers perceived the role of vets in implementing vaccination strategies on their farm. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 24 dairy farmers from across Britain. The data were analysed using thematic analysis. Analysis revealed that farmers perceive vets to have an important role in facilitating decision-making in all aspects of vaccination, including the aspects of vaccine distribution and advice on implementation. This important role is acknowledged by farmers who have regular veterinary contact, but also farmers with solely emergency veterinary contact. Given this finding, future work should investigate the attitudes of vets towards vaccination and how they perceive their role. Combining this knowledge will enable optimisation of vaccination strategies on British dairy farms.

Prevalence of antibodies to canine parvovirus and reaction to vaccination in client-owned, healthy dogs

The purpose of this population-based cohort study was to assess current prevalence of antibodies to canine parvovirus (CPV) in adult, healthy dogs, including risk factors associated with lack of antibodies, and reaction to revaccination with a modified live vaccine (MLV). One hundred dogs routinely presented for vaccination were included in the study and vaccinated with a single dose of a combined MLV. Information was collected on signalment, origin, environment, vaccination history and side effects. Prevaccination and postvaccination antibodies were detected by haemagglutination inhibition. Univariate analysis, followed by multivariate logistic regression, was used to investigate association between different variables and presence of antibodies as well as titre increase. Protective CPV antibodies were present in 86.0 per cent of dogs. Intervals of more than four years since the last vaccination and rare contacts with other dogs were determined as main risk factors for the absence of antibodies. An increase in titres only occurred in 17.0 per cent of dogs. Dogs without protective titres before vaccination or with bodyweight <10 kg were more likely to have an adequate titre increase. Based on these findings, antibody status should be determined instead of periodic vaccinations to ensure reliable protection without unnecessary vaccinations in adult dogs.

Epidemiological and morphological analysis of feline injection site sarcomas

Feline injection site sarcomas (FISS) are malignant neoplasms of mesenchymal origin which arise in sites of injections in cats. The prevalence is estimated between 1 in 1000 and 1 in 10 000 vaccinations in the United Kingdom. The aim of this study was to estimate the incidence of FISS in Poland and to analyse clinical aspects and histological and cytological features of injection site sarcomas. In our study the prevalence of FISS was 0.16% (16 FISS on 10.000 of cats) in feline patients in one of a veterinary surgery which conducts the general practice and 85 on 10.000 cats in a practice focused on veterinary oncology. The most typical microscopic features of FISS found in the present analysis were: the presence of perilesional scarring and inflammation, aggregates of lymphocytes at the tumour periphery, moderate but usually marked cellular pleomorphism and intralesional necrosis. The most typical cytologic features of FISS found in present study were: the presence of neutrophils, marked cellular pleomorphism, the presence of lymphocytes and macrophages, the presence of extremely large nuclei in the neoplastic cells, and high sample cellularity.

Relationship between age at gonadectomy and health problems in kittens adopted from shelters

Prepubertal gonadectomy (PPG) is promoted as a way of managing overpopulation in cats, but concerns about PPG and potential health issues still exist. The objective of the present study was to evaluate short-term and long-term health problems in cats subjected to PPG in comparison to gonadectomy at traditional age (TAG). In a prospective clinical trial, 800 shelter kittens aged between approximately 8 weeks and 12 weeks were recruited before adoption and randomly assigned to either the PPG group (gonadectomy performed immediately) or the TAG group (gonadectomy delayed until six months to eight months of age). Short-term health issues included mortality between when kittens arrived at the clinic and up to seven days after they returned to the shelter, as well as the occurrence of various other health issues arising in the first month following adoption. Kittens were followed-up until 24 months of age specifically for feline lower urinary tract disease, urethral obstruction (male cats), lameness, fractures and hypersensitivity disorders with dermatological presentation. In the short term, there were no significant differences between health problems in PPG and TAG kittens. Similarly, no significant differences were observed between treatment groups in terms of the type or number of health issues in the long term. In conclusion, there are no health-related contraindications to advocating PPG strategies in shelter cats. Ideally, PPG should be performed at the shelter facility itself as long as excellent infectious disease control and postoperative clinical observation before adoption are guaranteed.

The challenges in developing effective canine infectious respiratory disease vaccines

Objectives

Canine infectious respiratory disease (CIRD) is a disease of multifactorial aetiology, where multiple pathogens act sequentially or synergistically to cause disease. It is common within large dog populations, such as those in re‐homing or training kennels. Vaccines are vital in its management of CIRD, but they often fail to prevent disease. Recently, a number of novel pathogens have been identified in CIRD outbreaks and represent new targets for vaccination.

Key findings

Innate immune responses provide a vital first line of defence against the infectious agents involved in the development of CIRD. Once breeched, adaptive mucosal immunity is necessary to prevent infection and limit spread. Current vaccines target only a few of the agents involved in CIRD. Evidence, from the limited amount of published data, indicates that although vaccinating against these agents reduces infection rates, duration of shedding and severity of disease, it does not induce sterilising immunity; and this has important consequences for the management of the disease, and the future of CIRD vaccine development.

Summary

In the process of considering the development of novel CIRD vaccines, this paper focuses on the immunological mechanisms that provide protection for the respiratory tract, the current recommendations for canine vaccination, and the challenges surrounding existing CIRD vaccines, and their future development.

Evaluation of an in-house dot enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect antibodies against feline panleukopenia virus

Measuring antibody titres to determine a cat's immunity to core diseases instead of just administering annual vaccinations has not been established in Germany so far. An in-house test kit for the detection of antibodies against feline panleukopenia virus (FPV), feline herpesvirus-1 and feline calicivirus-- the ImmunoComb Feline VacciCheck--is now available in several European countries. The aim of this study was to assess the quality of the ImmunoComb Feline VacciCheck to determine antibodies by comparing it to a gold standard. The test is aimed for use in practice to assist decision-making when performing an individual health assessment to see whether a cat is potentially unprotected against FPV and requires FPV vaccination. Sera from 347 cats were included in the study. For antibody detection, haemagglutination inhibition (HI) was performed as gold standard. Sensitivity, specificity and positive and negative predictive values of the ImmunoComb Feline VacciCheck were determined for three different HI titre cut-off points (1:20, 1:40, 1:80). In comparison to the HI, the ImmunoComb Feline VacciCheck showed a sensitivity of 79%, 83% and 87%, and a specificity of 89%, 86% and 81%, respectively. Specificity of the ImmunoComb Feline VacciCheck, which was considered the most important parameter, was acceptable in comparison to HI. Especially when considering an antibody titre of 1:20 sufficient for protection (eg, in an adult animal), the ImmunoComb Feline VacciCheck can be recommended for use in veterinary practice.

Feline parvovirus infection and associated diseases

Feline panleukopenia, caused by the single-stranded DNA virus feline parvovirus (FPV), is a highly contagious and often lethal disease of cats and other Felidae. FPV, but also canine parvovirus (CPV) can be isolated from both healthy and diseased cats. In Germany, CPV was detected in only approximately 10% of feline samples, but in Southeast Asia, reports estimated that up to approximately 80% of diseased cats were infected with CPV. Infection spreads rapidly, especially in cells with high mitotic activity, such as bone marrow, lymphoid tissue and intestinal crypt cells. Anorexia, vomiting, diarrhoea, neutropenia and lymphopenia are common in clinically affected cases. In utero or neonatal infection can result in cerebellar hypoplasia. Depending on the severity of clinical signs, mortality ranges from 25 to 100%. Effective vaccination and thorough disinfection are of the utmost importance in the prevention of disease transmission in multi-cat households and animal shelters. If clinical signs develop, supportive treatment should be commenced. The efficacy of feline recombinant interferon and FPV antibodies has not been clearly demonstrated. Commercially available vaccines should induce protective immunity when administered according to current guidelines. Recent studies suggest that in some kittens, maternally derived antibodies (MDA) can persist for much longer than has been previously recognised. FPV serum antibody tests are available, but protection status needs to be interpreted with caution in kittens with MDA and a negative titre in adult cats does not necessarily denote lack of protection.

Prevalence of antibodies against feline panleukopenia virus in client-owned cats in Southern Germany

Feline panleukopenia is a frequent and commonly fatal disease of cats. Recent published studies have raised suspicions that some cats fail to develop antibodies after vaccination. The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of antibodies against feline panleukopenia virus (FPV) in cats in Southern Germany, and to identify factors that are associated with a lack of antibodies. In total, 350 cats presented to the Clinic of Small Animal Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet were randomly included in the study. Information regarding signalment, origin, environment, lifestyle, housing conditions, health status, chronic diseases, glucocorticoid therapy, and vaccination status were collected. Antibodies were detected by haemagglutination inhibition test. Asymptomatic chi-squared tests and univariable logistic regression were used to investigate associations between a lack of antibodies and the different variables. Associations determined to be statistically significant at P<0.1 were verified by a multivariable logistic regression analysis. Of the 350 cats, 103 (29.4%) had no antibodies against FPV. Chronic kidney disease, neoplasia, glucocorticoid therapy, and vaccination status were significantly associated with a lack of antibodies. The cats with no antibodies were likely to have inadequate immunity against panleukopenia and those with chronic diseases or receiving glucocorticoids were less likely to be protected.

Immunization

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Active immunization can partially or completely protect dogs and cats from severe consequences of infection with a variety of different pathogens, and in some cases it reduces shedding of these pathogens.

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Vaccines contain attenuated live microorganisms, inactivated microorganisms, or portions of these organisms. They also contain preservatives and adjuvants.

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Failure of immunization can occur with improper storage or administration of vaccines, a large challenge dose, host factors such as concurrent infections or disease, and interference by maternal antibody.

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Other adverse effects of vaccine administration are uncommon to rare but include hypersensitivity reactions, disease induced by live attenuated vaccine organisms, and injection-site sarcomas in cats.

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The decision to administer a vaccine should be based on discussion of risks and benefits between the veterinarian and pet owner. This should be documented in the medical record.

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Guidelines for vaccine selection and administration have been published by a number of veterinary bodies, such as the AAFP, AAHA, AVMA, and WSAVA; suggestions can also be found in Appendix I.

A door-to-door prevalence study of feline immunodeficiency virus in an Australian suburb

A door-to-door survey was conducted within the limits of the suburb of Douglas in northern Queensland, Australia, to determine the prevalence of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection in the overall population of domestic cats. Previous FIV prevalence studies have relied on convenience sampling strategies, leaving out an important group of pet cats that do not receive regular veterinary attention. Saliva was selected for testing because collection was non-invasive and was likely to achieve a high rate of participation. Ninety-six cats were surveyed and tested for salivary antibodies against FIV and with real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR was considered to be the gold standard and a cat was considered to be FIV-positive if sequencing results on a PCR product of appropriate size matched previously published FIV genome sequences available in GenBank. Results showed 10/96 cats to be infected with FIV subtype A, indicating a prevalence of 10.4% (95% confidence interval: 4.4-16.4) in the area studied. High risk associations were established with the roaming lifestyle of the cat (P <0.002), presence of abscesses (P <0.03) and occurrence of bite wounds (P <0.10). This is the first known cross-sectional study of a population of urban northern Australian cats living in an affluent suburb and presenting saliva as a potential non-invasive sample for large-scale epidemiological surveys on FIV.

Tail vaccination in cats: a pilot study

Feline injection site sarcomas affect 1-10 cats per every 10,000 vaccinated and are associated with high mortality. Radical resection may be curative, but is often associated with prolonged recovery, disfigurement and loss of function when tumors occur at currently recommended injection sites. The objective of this study was to assess alternatives to currently recommended vaccination sites in terms of preference by oncology practitioners, ease of injection and serological responses. Surgical, radiation and medical oncology practitioners were surveyed regarding their preference for vaccination sites based on the ease of tumor resection. A six-point Likert scale was used to measure each cat's behavioral reaction to vaccination when injected subcutaneously in the distal hind limb or the distal tail. Serum collected before and 1-2 months after vaccination was tested for antibody titers against feline panleukopenia virus (FPV) and rabies virus (RV). The preferred sites for vaccination by 94 oncology practitioners were below the stifle (41%) and the tail (30%). There were no significant differences in the cats' behavioral reaction to vaccination below the stifle (n = 31) and in the distal tail (n = 29). Of the cats seronegative for FPV at the time of vaccination, 100% developed protective antibody titers (≥40) against FPV 1-2 months following vaccination. For cats seronegative for RV, all but one cat (tail vaccine) developed acceptable antibody titers (≥0.5 IU/ml) against RV. Tail vaccination was well tolerated and elicited similar serological responses to vaccination in the distal limbs.

Enteropathogens in pups from pet shops and breeding facilities

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate faecal and clinical scores and presence of several enteropathogens possibly implicated in the development of diarrhoea in pups aged between 6 and 16 weeks independently of their health status.

METHODS

Pups were selected from pet shops and breeding facilities and assigned a faecal and clinical score. Standard isolation methods were used to determine presence of parasites, viruses and bacteria in faecal samples. For Escherichia coli, virulence genes were assessed by multiplex polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

Fifty-six pups were included in this study. Eighteen had no diarrhoea, 22 had no significant clinical signs related to gastroenteritis. Samples were positive for Toxocara canis (n=29), Giardia duodenalis (n=35), Cystoisospora (n=22), E. coli (n=47) and Clostridium perfringens (n=20). In four E. coli positive samples, genes were detected that correlate with pathogenicity in other animal species. A significant positive correlation between the presence of T. canis and faecal score was found.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Puppies obtained from a pet shop or breeding facility have a high risk of gastrointestinal disease. Furthermore, infectious agents may be present independently of faecal or clinical score. The identification of possible pathogenic E. coli strains suggests that their role in diarrhoea warrant further investigation.

Protective Efficacy of the Calicivirus Valency of the Leucofeligen Vaccine against a Virulent Heterologous Challenge in Kittens

Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common feline pathogen with a potential for antigenic diversity. This study aimed to evaluate and characterize the protective efficacy of the FCV-F9 valency of a tetravalent vaccine, Leucofeligen, against challenge with an unrelated strain. Ten 9-week-old kittens were vaccinated while 10 remained as unvaccinated controls. The vaccinated cats received Leucofeligen twice subcutaneously with a 3-week interval. Four weeks after the second vaccination, all cats were challenged with virulent heterologous FCV and followed up for 21 days, monitoring their general condition, clinical signs, and immunological responses. During the vaccination phase, rectal temperatures and body weights were indistinguishable between the two groups. Only vaccinated cats showed FCV-specific seroconversion (both total and neutralizing antibodies). In the first week after challenge, the vaccinated cats had an 82.6% reduction in median clinical score compared to controls. Leucofeligen was thus shown to provide a significant clinical protection to kittens challenged with heterologous virulent FCV. This protection was similar whether the cats had neutralizing antibody or not, indicating a key role for cellular immunity in the overall protection. This also suggests that previously reported seroneutralisation studies may underestimate the level of cross-protection against field strains obtained with this modified live FCV-F9 vaccine.

Computed tomography characteristics of fibrosarcoma -- a histological subtype of feline injection-site sarcoma

Feline injection-site sarcoma (FISS) may be a consequence of subcutaneous injection. In the present study, the medical records and the computed tomography (CT) features of 22 cats with a FISS, histopathological subtype fibrosarcoma, were used. The majority of the fibrosarcomas (45%) were located in the interscapular region. All fibrosarcomas, except one with mild enhancement, showed strong contrast uptake, characterised as ring (42%), heterogeneous (36%), homogeneous (9%), heterogeneous/ring (6.5%) or mixed heterogeneous/homogeneous enhancement (6.5%). The longest axis of the mass was in a cranio-caudal (68%) or dorso-ventral (32%) direction. The median volume calculated on CT was 7.57 cm(3). Common features were a marked local invasiveness of the musculature and heterogeneity of the tissue in the periphery of the neoplasia. When the fibrosarcoma was interscapular, performing an additional post-contrast scan with the forelimbs positioned caudally along the body, in addition to the standard protocol with the forelimbs extended cranially, allowed better evaluation of the actual relationship between the tumour and the surrounding tissues. The mean number of muscles involved with the tumour was 2.09 with extended and 1.95 with flexed forelimbs. When a lower number of structures was considered infiltrated through the double positioning, a less invasive surgical approach to underlying muscles and scapula was performed.

Assessing demographic and epidemiologic parameters of rural dog populations in India during mass vaccination campaigns

Mass vaccination of dogs is a mainstay for efforts to control rabies and other viral pathogens. The success of such programs is a function of the ability to vaccinate sufficient proportions of animals to develop herd immunity. However, fully assessing success in reaching target vaccination-levels and in understanding the outcome of mass vaccination efforts is hindered if insufficient information is available on the demographics of dog populations and the prevalence of the targeted pathogens. While such information can sometimes be gained from questionnaire surveys, greater precision requires direct assessment of the dog populations. Here we show how such information can be gained from surveys of dogs conducted in association with mass-vaccination programs. We conducted surveys of dogs in six villages in rural Maharashtra, India, between February and July 2011 as part of an effort to reduce the risk of human rabies and virus transmission from dogs to wildlife. Mass vaccination efforts were conducted in each village, and paired with blood sample collection and photographic mark-recapture approaches to gain epidemiologic and demographic data. This data in turn facilitated estimates of dog abundance, population density and structure, vaccination coverage, and seroprevalence of antibodies against canine adenovirus (CAV), canine parvovirus (CPV), and canine distemper virus (CDV). The median dog population size for the six villages was 134 (range 90-188), the median dog population density was 719 dogs per km(2) (range 526-969), and the median human:dog ratio for these six villages was 34 (range 30-47). The median household:dog ratio for the six villages was 6 (range 5-8). Following vaccination efforts, the median vaccination coverage achieved was 34% (range 24-42%). The dog populations consisted mostly of adult dogs (67-86%) and the median sex ratio for the study area was male biased (1.55 males per female; range 0.9-2.5). The seroprevalence of antibodies against CAV, CPV and CDV was 68, 88 and 73%, respectively. Mass vaccination campaigns provide an opportunity to obtain vital epidemiological and demographic data, and develop a clearer understanding of the threats and impacts of diseases and disease control measures.

Felid herpesvirus 1 as a causative agent of severe nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis in a domestic cat

Felid herpesvirus 1 is an important respiratory pathogen of domestic cats. This report presents the first case of severe nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis caused by this virus in a cat.

A review of the pathology and treatment of canine respiratory infections

Numerous infectious agents are responsible for causing primary or secondary respiratory disease in dogs. These agents can cause upper or lower respiratory infections commonly observed in veterinary practices. Clinical signs might vary from mild dyspnea, sneezing, and coughing to severe pneumonia with systemic manifestations. Depending on the etiologic agent, the gross and microscopic changes observed during these infections can be rather unspecific or have highly characteristic patterns. While histopathology and cytology are not always required for diagnosis of respiratory infections, they are often useful for establishing a definitive diagnosis and identifying specific etiologic agents. Research regarding epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostics, and clinical manifestations related to these infectious pathogens provides valuable information that has improved treatments and management of the diseases they cause. This review discusses the epidemiology, general clinical characteristics, and pathologic lesions for some of the important viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic etiologies of canine respiratory disease.

Effects of maternally-derived antibodies on serologic responses to vaccination in kittens

The optimal vaccination protocol to induce immunity in kittens with maternal antibodies is unknown. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of maternally-derived antibody (MDA) on serologic responses to vaccination in kittens. Vaccination with a modified live virus (MLV) product was more effective than an inactivated (IA) product at inducing protective antibody titers (PAT) against feline panleukopenia virus (FPV). IA vaccination against feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV) and feline calicivirus (FCV) was more effective in the presence of low MDA than high MDA. Among kittens with low MDA, MLV vaccination against FCV was more effective than IA vaccination. A total of 15%, 44% and 4% of kittens had insufficient titers against FPV, FHV and FCV, respectively, at 17 weeks of age. Serologic response to vaccination of kittens varies based on vaccination type and MDA level. In most situations, MLV vaccination should be utilized and protocols continued beyond 14 weeks of age to optimize response by all kittens.

Detection of protective antibody titers against feline panleukopenia virus, feline herpesvirus-1, and feline calicivirus in shelter cats using a point-of-care ELISA

Serum antibody titers are a useful measurement of protection against infection (feline panleukopenia virus [FPV]) or clinical disease (feline herpesvirus-1 [FHV] and feline calicivirus [FCV]), and their determination has been recommended as part of disease outbreak management in animal shelters. The objective of this study was to determine the sensitivity, specificity, and inter-observer and inter-assay agreement of two semi-quantitative point-of-care assays for the detection of protective antibody titers (PAT) against FPV, FHV and FCV in shelter cats. Low sensitivity for FPV antibodies (28%) rendered a canine point-of-care assay inappropriate for use in cats. The feline point-of-care assay also had low sensitivity (49%) and low negative predictive value (74%) for FPV PAT detection, but was highly accurate in the assessment of FHV and FCV PAT. Improvements in accuracy and repeatability of FPV PAT determination could make this tool a valuable component of a disease outbreak response in animal shelters.

The immunopathology of canine vector-borne diseases

The canine vector-borne infectious diseases (CVBDs) are an emerging problem in veterinary medicine and the zoonotic potential of many of these agents is a significant consideration for human health. The successful diagnosis, treatment and prevention of these infections is dependent upon firm understanding of the underlying immunopathology of the diseases in which there are unique tripartite interactions between the microorganism, the vector and the host immune system. Although significant advances have been made in the areas of molecular speciation and the epidemiology of these infections and their vectors, basic knowledge of the pathology and immunology of the diseases has lagged behind. This review summarizes recent studies of the pathology and host immune response in the major CVBDs (leishmaniosis, babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, hepatozoonosis, anaplasmosis, bartonellosis and borreliosis). The ultimate application of such immunological investigation is the development of effective vaccines. The current commercially available vaccines for canine leishmaniosis, babesiosis and borreliosis are reviewed.