Means of Delivering Recommended Levels of Long Chain n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Human Diets

Biomedical Approach of Nanotechnology and Biological Risks: A Mini-Review

Nanotechnology has played a prominent role in biomedical engineering, offering innovative approaches to numerous treatments. Notable advances have been observed in the development of medical devices, contributing to the advancement of modern medicine. This article briefly discusses key applications of nanotechnology in tissue engineering, controlled drug release systems, biosensors and monitoring, and imaging and diagnosis. The particular emphasis on this theme will result in a better understanding, selection, and technical approach to nanomaterials for biomedical purposes, including biological risks, security, and biocompatibility criteria.

Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: Metabolism and health implications

Recently, omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFAs) have gained substantial interest due to their specific structure and biological functions. Humans cannot naturally produce these fatty acids (FAs), making it crucial to obtain them from our diet. This comprehensive review details n-3 LC-PUFAs and their role in promoting and maintaining optimal health. The article thoroughly analyses several sources of n-3 LC-PUFAs and their respective bioavailability, covering marine, microbial and plant-based sources. Furthermore, we provide an in-depth analysis of the biological impacts of n-3 LC-PUFAs on health conditions, with particular emphasis on cardiovascular disease (CVD), gastrointestinal (GI) cancer, diabetes, depression, arthritis, and cognition. In addition, we highlight the significance of fortification and supplementation of n-3 LC-PUFAs in both functional foods and dietary supplements. Additionally, we conducted a detailed analysis of the several kinds of n-3 LC-PUFAs supplements currently available in the market, including an assessment of their recommended intake, safety, and effectiveness. The dietary guidelines associated with n-3 LC-PUFAs are also highlighted, focusing on the significance of maintaining a well-balanced intake of n-3 PUFAs to enhance health benefits. Lastly, we highlight future directions for further research in this area and their potential implications for public health.

The Comparison of Fatty Acid Composition and Lipid Quality Indices of Roach, Perch, and Pike of Lake Gusinoe (Western Transbaikalia)

This paper describes the study of the fatty acid (FA) composition of three fish species (roach, perch, and pike) from Lake Gusinoe (western Transbaikalia). Using principal component analysis, the fatty acid composition of the studied fish species was shown to be species specific. The muscle tissue of roach, perch, and pike was found to contain high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), including essential docosahexaenoic (DHA), eicosapentaenoic (EPA), and arachidonic acids. Indicators of nutritional quality based on the fatty acid composition showed that the values of the hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic (HH) ratio indices were sufficiently high. The atherogenicity (AI) and thrombogenicity (TI) indices, which are indicators for the nutritional value, were less than 1 in the studied fish. In terms of flesh lipid quality (FLQ), pike and perch had the highest proportion of total EPA + DHA. According to the obtained data for the composition of fatty acids in the muscle tissue of the studied fish from Lake Gusinoe, the anthropogenic load exerted on Lake Gusinoe has not yet statistically significantly affected the fish muscle quality.

Interdependent Oxidation of Eicosapentaenoic Acid and Docosahexaenoic Acid in Isada Krill Oil Encapsulated with Maltodextrin by Spray-drying

The major polyunsaturated fatty acids in krill oil extracted from Euphausia pacifica, known as Isada on the Sanriku coast, are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acid. A kinetic model was proposed to explain the relationship between the fractions of unoxidized EPA (Y _E) and unoxidized DHA (Y _D) in the oil spray-dried with maltodextrin and stored at 25, 50, and 70℃. The relationship between Y _E and Y _D during storage was independent of the temperature and could be expressed using the proposed model. This indicated that the oxidation of EPA and DHA in krill oil was interdependent.

Fish Oil Microcapsules as Omega-3 Enrichment Strategy: Changes in Volatile Compounds of Meat Products during Storage and Cooking

This work aims to analyze the effects of processing and storage on the volatile compound profile of different meat products enriched in ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Monolayered (Mo) and multilayered (Mu) microcapsules of fish oil were tested. The profiles of volatile compounds were analyzed by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The enrichment with Mo significantly increases the abundance of volatile compounds from lipid oxidation and markers of ω-3 PUFA oxidation, which may be related to the multilayer structure of chitosan–maltodextrin in Mu that achieves greater fish oil protection than the simple coating of maltodextrin in Mo. Besides, the changes in volatile compounds during storage depends on the type of fish oil microcapsules and the meat products, having an increased abundance of ω-3 PUFA oxidation markers in dry-cured sausages added with Mo. However, the enrichment of these meat products with Mo and Mu does not modify the usual variations in the volatile compound profile during culinary cooking. Thus, the addition of multilayer fish oil microcapsules may be a suitable option for enrichment of meat products in ω-3 PUFA without modifying the abundance of volatile compounds, including oxidation markers.

Development of alginate/inulin carrier systems containing non-conventional Amazonian berry extracts

Different carriers, such as the combination of sodium alginate and inulin, have been employed to protect foods against environmental effects. The goal of this work was to use the ionic gelation encapsulation process to produce microparticles containing Clidemia rubra extract, ranging the concentration of inulin from 1.5 to 3.5 g inulin.100 g^-1 of solution. Characteristic signals of sugars, organic acids and phenolic compounds were identified in the extract using the ¹H NMR technique. The carriers containing inulin presented significant difference in the moisture content when compared to the pure sodium alginate beads. The produced beads were found in the range of 0.81-1.06 mm. The addition of inulin to sodium alginate was significant for the encapsulation efficiency (EE) of the antioxidant compounds when compared to the beads formed only using pure sodium alginate. The microspheres presenting inulin and sodium alginate presented higher content of spherical particles. The addition of 2.5 g inulin.100 g^-1 of solution allowed its incorporation into the pores of the beads, favoring a possible chemical interaction between inulin and sodium alginate. This interaction resulted in a different crystal structure and better EE. Furthermore, beads containing inulin presented higher protection of the encapsulated bioactive compounds during the gastric phase.

Effect of Omega-3 Microcapsules Addition on the Profile of Volatile Compounds in Enriched Dry-Cured and Cooked Sausages

The main goal of the present study was evaluating the effect of enriching meat products (cooked (C-SAU) and dry-cured sausages (D-SAU)) with monolayered (Mo) and multilayered (Mu) fish oil microcapsules on the profile of volatile compounds, with special interest in lipid oxidation markers. For that, Solid-Phase Microextraction (SPME) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) were used. Significant differences were found in the volatile compound profile between Mo and Mu, which was been reflected in the meat samples. Thus, in general, volatile compounds from lipid oxidation have shown higher abundance in Mo and C-SAU and D-SAU enriched with this type of microcapsule, indicating that the wall of Mu (chitosan-maltodextrine) might protect the encapsulated bioactive compounds more effectively than that of Mo (maltodextrine). However, this finding is not reflected in the results of previous studies evaluating the sensory perception and oxidation stability of C-SAU and D-SAU, but it should be considered since unhealthy oxidation products can be formed in the enriched meat products with Mo. Thus, the addition of Mu as an omega-3 vehicle for enriching meat products may be indicated.

Omega-3 fatty acids as adjunctive therapeutics: prospective of nanoparticles in its formulation development

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3-PUFAs) are dietary components that have been extensively recognized for their therapeutic value and have shown diverse therapeutic effects including anti-inflammatory, antiarrhythmic, antithrombotic, immunomodulatory and antineoplastic activities. Most of the ω-3-PUFAs are obtained through diet or supplements because the body does not synthesize them. The high instability of ω-3-PUFAs to oxidative deterioration, lower bioavailability at the target tissues and reduced bioactivity of ω-3-PUFAs is an impediment for achieving their therapeutic potential. The present review provides an overview of potential therapeutic activities of ω-3-PUFAs and different novel technical approaches based on nanotechnology, which have been emphasized to overcome instability problems as well as enhance the bioactivity of ω-3-PUFAs. Future prospects related to this area of research are also provided.

Preparation of α-Linolenic-Acid-Loaded Water-in-Oil-in-Water Microemulsion and Its Potential as a Fluorescent Delivery Carrier with a Free Label

Our previous work has demonstrated that α-linolenic acid (ALA)-loaded oil-in-water (O/W) microemulsion could enhance ALA antioxidant capacity. Meanwhile, we also observed that synthesized microemulsion itself had fluorescence. In this work, we have prepared a multiple water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) microemulsion to further enhance ALA antioxidant capacity and activate this delivery carrier application potential with a free label. The compositions of primary water-in-oil (W/O) microemulsion were obtained using pseudo-ternary phase diagrams, and then W/O/W microemulsion was prepared adopting the "two-step heterotherm method". The conductivity of W/O/W microemulsion was measured to lie between 250.0 and 350.0 μs/cm. The spherical droplets with a mean particle diameter of 10.0-20.0 nm were confirmed by transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. Nuclear magnetic resonance confirmed that ALA diffused to the multiple water-oily interface simultaneously. In addition, the in vitro release and antioxidant capacity measurements of ALA-loaded W/O/W microemulsion concluded the sustained-release effect and excellent antioxidant capacity. The fluorescent intensity of W/O/W microemulsion was markedly increased in comparison to O/W microemulsion. The synthesized microemulsion could lead to important applications and have advantages of a label-free fluorescent carrier for optical imaging purposes.

Effect of pH and heating conditions on the properties of Alaska pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) surimi gel fortified with fish oil

To improve the quality and functionality of emulsified surimi gels, the effect of pH and heating conditions on the properties of surimi gel fortified with fish oil was investigated. Results showed that pH conditions influenced the solubility and emulsifying properties of surimi proteins and that the gel properties were associated with the protein properties. Under direct heating, the highest gel strength was achieved at pH 8.0, in which condition the solubility was significantly higher than others. Higher emulsifying stability resulted in enhanced gel strength relative to that of the control group. However, the changes in the gel strength were not consistent under two-step heating. In addition, the expressible moisture and oil content were found to vary depending on the pH values under both heating conditions. The corresponding changes in expressible moisture and oil content could be attributed to the high protein solubility and emulsifying properties of surimi proteins. Analysis of the dynamic rheological properties of the resulting surimi paste revealed that the gelation properties varied depending on the pH conditions during the heating process. In addition, the temperatures of myosin cross-linking changed according to the structure of surimi proteins, which in turn varied depending on the pH conditions. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: To improve the functionality of surimi-based product, the fish oil was added to prepare surimi gel. pH and heating conditions play important roles in the gelation of fish proteins. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of combined pH and heating condition on the property of surimi gel fortified with fish oil. The emulsified surimi gel with fine texture was obtained at pH of 8-8.5; moreover, heating conditions (direct heating and two-step heating) also influenced texture of emulsified surimi gel. These results provide the evidence to produce the emulsified surimi-based product with the high gel strength, water- and oil-holding capacity.

Effect of emulsifying stability of myofibrillar protein on the gel properties of emulsified surimi gel

Several kinds of emulsified surimi gels were prepared from different quality levels of Alaska Pollack surimi, and the relationship between the emulsifying stability (ES) of myofibrillar protein and the properties of the emulsified surimi gels was investigated. Fish oil emulsified into surimi gels enhanced the breaking strength, but this was decreased by denaturation of the surimi protein, and the rate of enhanced gel-forming ability with emulsification decreased with decreasing ES. Expressible drip also decreased with emulsification; however, increasing amounts of lipid in the expressible drip were separated out from the gel upon protein denaturation of the source surimi. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that the shape of fish oil particles became irregular and some voids caused by oil leakage were observed with increasing storage period of source surimi. The results suggested that improvement in gel properties of the emulsified surimi gels was correlated with ES as well as the level of protein denaturation.

Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Dietary sources, metabolism, and significance - A review

Linoleic acid (LA) (n-6) and α-linolenic acid (ALA) (n-3) are essential fatty acids (EFAs) as they cannot be synthesized by humans or other higher animals. In the human body, these fatty acids (FAs) give rise to arachidonic acid (ARA, n-6), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, n-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, n-3) that play key roles in regulating body homeostasis. Locally acting bioactive signaling lipids called eicosanoids derived from these FAs also regulate diverse homeostatic processes. In general, ARA gives rise to pro-inflammatory eicosanoids whereas EPA and DHA give rise to anti-inflammatory eicosanoids. Thus, a proportionally higher consumption of n-3 PUFAs can protect us against inflammatory diseases, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and other chronic diseases. The present review summarizes major sources, intake, and global consumption of n-3 and n-6 PUFAs. Their metabolism to biosynthesize long-chain PUFAs and eicosanoids and their roles in brain metabolism, cardiovascular disease, obesity, cancer, and bone health are also discussed.

Effective Prevention of Oxidative Deterioration of Fish Oil: Focus on Flavor Deterioration

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), both abundant in fish oil, are known to have significant biochemical and physiological effects primarily linked to the improvement of human health, especially cardiovascular and brain health. However, the incorporation of fish oil into foods and beverages is often challenging, as fish oil is very easily oxidized and can cause undesirable flavors. This review discusses this rapid formation of the fishy and metallic off-flavors, focusing especially on an early stage of fish oil oxidation. Although oxidative stability and quality of commercialized fish oil have improved over the past few years, there is a still a problem with its application: Flavor deterioration can be found even at very low oxidation levels. This review also notes the effective way to inhibit the formation of the volatile compounds responsible for the flavor deterioration.

Chia and oat emulsion gels as new animal fat replacers and healthy bioactive sources in fresh sausage formulation

This paper examines the effect of emulsion gels (EG) prepared with chia (CEG) and oats (OEG) used as animal fat replacers in reduced-fat fresh sausages (longaniza) (LRF) during chilled storage. Reduced-fat samples were reformulated with CEG and OEG, (LRF/CEG and LRF/OEG respectively). Normal (LNF/P) and reduced-fat (LRF/P) (all-pork-fat) sausages were used as controls. Nutritional composition and microbiological, technological and sensory characteristics of sausages were evaluated. The presence of an EG affected (P<0.05) the concentrations of some minerals and amino acids in sausages. CEG improved MUFA and PUFA contents. Cooking loss was lower (P<0.05) in LRF/CEG and LRF/OEG than in the controls. Of all the reduced-fat samples, Kramer shear force values (KSF) were highest (P<0.05) in the ones containing an EG. KSF generally increased (P<0.05) over storage in all samples. The microbial count was significantly affected by the use of CEG. Sensory properties were affected by the incorporation of an EG, but all sausages were judged acceptable.

Production Strategies and Applications of Microbial Single Cell Oils

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) of the ω-3 and ω-6 class (e.g., α-linolenic acid, linoleic acid) are essential for maintaining biofunctions in mammalians like humans. Due to the fact that humans cannot synthesize these essential fatty acids, they must be taken up from different food sources. Classical sources for these fatty acids are porcine liver and fish oil. However, microbial lipids or single cell oils, produced by oleaginous microorganisms such as algae, fungi and bacteria, are a promising source as well. These single cell oils can be used for many valuable chemicals with applications not only for nutrition but also for fuels and are therefore an ideal basis for a bio-based economy. A crucial point for the establishment of microbial lipids utilization is the cost-effective production and purification of fuels or products of higher value. The fermentative production can be realized by submerged (SmF) or solid state fermentation (SSF). The yield and the composition of the obtained microbial lipids depend on the type of fermentation and the particular conditions (e.g., medium, pH-value, temperature, aeration, nitrogen source). From an economical point of view, waste or by-product streams can be used as cheap and renewable carbon and nitrogen sources. In general, downstream processing costs are one of the major obstacles to be solved for full economic efficiency of microbial lipids. For the extraction of lipids from microbial biomass cell disruption is most important, because efficiency of cell disruption directly influences subsequent downstream operations and overall extraction efficiencies. A multitude of cell disruption and lipid extraction methods are available, conventional as well as newly emerging methods, which will be described and discussed in terms of large scale applicability, their potential in a modern biorefinery and their influence on product quality. Furthermore, an overview is given about applications of microbial lipids or derived fatty acids with emphasis on food applications.

The effect of partial-fat substitutions with encapsulated and unencapsulated fish oils on the technological and eating quality of beef burgers over storage

The effects of fat substitution (≤ 15%) with commercial encapsulated and unencapsulated fish oils on the technological and eating quality of beef burgers over storage [modified atmosphere packs (80% O2:20% CO2); constantly illuminated retail display at 4 °C; for 15 days] were studied using design of experiment (DOE). Burger formulations comprised beef shin (59.5%), salt (0.5%), vitamin E (0.015%) combined with varying levels of beef-fat/fish oils depending on the treatment. Increasing amounts of encapsulated and unencapsulated fish oils in burgers increased polyunsaturated fatty acid content (P < 0.001). Storage decreased (P < 0.001) a* values, which was in agreement with oxymyoglobin data. Vitamin E inclusion in burgers resulted in higher (P < 0.01) oxymyoglobin values. TBARS values increased (P < 0.001) over storage as expected. Fat substitution with unencapsulated oils increased cook loss (P < 0.001) and decreased hardness (P < 0.05) compared to other treatments. Optimisation predicted a burger formulation with 7.8% substitution in beef-fat with encapsulated fish oil. Panellists scored the optimised burger formulation (P < 0.05) lower than controls for overall acceptability.

Nano- and microdelivery systems for marine bioactive lipids

There is an increasing body of evidence of the positive impact of several marine lipids on human health. These compounds, which include ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, have been shown to improve blood lipid profiles and exert anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective effects. The high instability of these compounds to oxidative deterioration and their hydrophobicity have a drastic impact in their pharmacokinetics. Thus, the bioavailability of these compounds may be affected, resulting in their inability to reach the target sites at effective concentrations. In this regard, micro/nanoparticles can offer a wide range of solutions that can prevent the degradation of targeted molecules, increase their absorption, uptake and bioavailability. In this work we will present the options currently available concerning micro- and nanodelivery systems for marine lipids; with emphasis on micro/nanoparticles; such as micro/nanocapsules and emulsions. A wide range of bottom-up approaches using casein, chitosan, cyclodextrins, among others; will be discussed.

Development of food-grade nanoemulsions and emulsions for delivery of omega-3 fatty acids: opportunities and obstacles in the food industry

Consumption of biologically active amounts of omega-3 fatty acids is linked to improved human health, which has partly been attributed to their important role in brain development and cardiovascular health. Western diets are relatively low in omega-3 fatty acids and many consumers turn to supplements or functional foods to increase their intake of these healthy lipids. Fish oil is one of the most widely used sources of omega-3 fatty acid for supplementation and has greater health benefits than plant sources because of its higher concentration of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The incorporation of omega-3 fatty acids into foods and beverages is often challenging due to their low water-solubility, poor oxidative stability, and variable bioavailability. Nanoemulsions offer a promising way to incorporate omega-3 fatty acids into liquid food systems like beverages, dressing, sauces, and dips. Nanoemulsions are colloidal dispersions that contain small oil droplets (r<100 nm) that may be able to overcome many of the challenges of fortifying foods and beverages with omega-3 fatty acids. The composition and fabrication of nanoemulsions can be optimized to increase the chemical and physical stability of oil droplets, as well as to increase the bioavailability of omega-3 fatty acids.