Viral disease emergence in shrimp aquaculture: origins, impact and the effectiveness of health management strategies

A unique Ca2+-inhibited C-type lectin in shrimp Fenneropenaeuschinensis

C-type lectins (CTLs) are glycan-binding pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that can bind to carbohydrates on pathogen surfaces, triggering immune responses in shrimp innate immunity. In this study, a unique Ca2+-inhibited CTL named FcLec was identified and characterized in Chinese shrimp Fenneropenaeus chinensis. The full-length cDNA sequence of FcLec was 976 bp (GenBank accession number KU361826), with a 615 bp open reading frame (ORF) encoding 204 amino acids. FcLec possesses a C-type lectin-like domain (CTLD) containing four conserved cysteines (Cys105, Cys174, Cys192, and Cys200) and two sugar-binding site structures (QPD and LNP). The tertiary structure of FcLec deduced revealed three α-helices and eight β-pleated sheets. The mRNA expression levels of FcLec in hemocytes and the hepatopancreas were markedly elevated after stimulation with Vibrio anguillarum and white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). The recombinant FcLec protein exhibited Ca2+-independent hemagglutination and bacterial agglutination, but these activities were observed only in the presence of EDTA to chelate metal ions. These findings suggest that FcLec plays important and functionally distinct roles in the shrimp's innate immune response to bacteria and viruses, enriching the current understanding of the relationship between CTL activity and Ca2+ in invertebrates.

Next-generation neonicotinoid: The impact of cycloxaprid on the crustacean decapod Penaeus vannamei

Cycloxaprid, a new neonicotinoid pesticide, poses ecological risks, particularly in aquatic environments, due to its unique action and environmental dispersal. This study investigated the ecotoxicological effects of various concentrations of cycloxaprid on Penaeus vannamei over 28 days. High cycloxaprid levels significantly altered shrimp physiology, as shown by changes in the hepatosomatic index and fattening. Indicators of oxidative stress, such as increased serum hemocyanin, respiratory burst, and nitric oxide, as well as decreased phenol oxidase activity, were observed. Additionally, elevated activities of lactate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, and isocitrate dehydrogenase indicated disrupted energy metabolism in the hepatopancreas. Notably, analyses of the nervous system revealed marked disturbances in neural signaling, as evidenced by elevated acetylcholine, octopamine, and acetylcholinesterase levels. Transcriptomic analysis highlighted significant effects on gene expression and metabolic processes in the hepatopancreas and nervous system. This study demonstrated that cycloxaprid disrupts neural signaling and oxidative balance in P. vannamei, potentially affecting its growth, and provides key insights into its biochemical and transcriptomic toxicity in aquatic systems.

Developmental toxicity of the neonicotinoid pesticide clothianidin to the larvae of the crustacean Decapoda, Penaeus vannamei

The developmental toxicity effects of neonicotinoid pesticides such as clothianidin have not been fully explored in agricultural applications. This is particularly noteworthy because such pesticides significantly impact the survival rates of invertebrates, with arthropod larvae being particularly vulnerable. This study aimed to address this research gap by specifically investigating the toxicological effects of clothianidin on the developmental stages of the larvae of the economically important aquaculture species Penaeus vannamei. In these experiments, shrimp eggs were exposed to seawater containing different concentrations of clothianidin beginning at N1, and each phase was observed and analyzed to determine its toxic impact on larval development. These results revealed that clothianidin induces an increase in deformity rates and triggers abnormal cell apoptosis. It also significantly reduced survival rates and markedly decreased body length and heart rate in the later stages of larval development (P3). Transcriptomic analysis revealed disruptions in larval DNA integrity, protein synthesis, and signal transduction caused by clothianidin. To survive prolonged exposure, larvae may attempt to maintain their viability by repairing cell structures and enhancing signal transduction mechanisms. This study offers the first empirical evidence of the toxicity of clothianidin to arthropod larvae, underscoring the impact of environmental pollution on aquatic health.

Modulation of host lipid metabolism by virus infection leads to exoskeleton damage in shrimp

The arthropod exoskeleton provides protection and support and is vital for survival and adaption. The integrity and mechanical properties of the exoskeleton are often impaired after pathogenic infection; however, the detailed mechanism by which infection affects the exoskeleton remains largely unknown. Here, we report that the damage to the shrimp exoskeleton is caused by modulation of host lipid profiles after infection with white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). WSSV infection disrupts the mechanical performance of the exoskeleton by inducing the expression of a chitinase (Chi2) in the sub-cuticle epidermis and decreasing the cuticle chitin content. The induction of Chi2 expression is mediated by a nuclear receptor that can be activated by certain enriched long-chain saturated fatty acids after infection. The damage to the exoskeleton, an aftereffect of the induction of host lipogenesis by WSSV, significantly impairs the motor ability of shrimp. Blocking the WSSV-caused lipogenesis restored the mechanical performance of the cuticle and improved the motor ability of infected shrimp. Therefore, this study reveals a mechanism by which WSSV infection modulates shrimp internal metabolism resulting in phenotypic impairment, and provides new insights into the interactions between the arthropod host and virus.

Harnessing probiotics and prebiotics as eco-friendly solution for cleaner shrimp aquaculture production: A state of the art scientific consensus

In recent years, the advancement and greater magnitude of products, which led to the intensification in shrimp aquaculture is the result of utilization of modern tools and synchronization with other fields of science like microbiology and biotechnology. This intensification led to the elevation of disorders such as the development of several diseases and complications associated with biofouling. The use of antibiotics in aquaculture is discouraged due to their certain hazardous paraphernalia. Consequently, there has been a growing interest in exploring alternative strategies, with probiotics and prebiotics emerging as environmentally friendly substitutes for antibiotic treatments in shrimp aquaculture. This review highlighted the results of probiotics and prebiotics administration in the improvement of water quality, enhancement of growth and survival rates, stress resistance, health status and disease resistance, modulation of enteric microbiota and immunomodulation of different shrimp species. Additionally, the study sheds light on the comprehensive role of prebiotics and probiotics in elucidating the mechanistic framework, contributing to a deeper understanding of shrimp physiology and immunology. Besides their role in growth and development of shrimp aquaculture, the eco-friendly behavior of prebiotics and probiotics have made them ideal to control pollution in aquaculture systems. This comprehensive exploration of prebiotics and probiotics aims to address gaps in our understanding, including the economic aspects of shrimp aquaculture in terms of benefit-cost ratio, and areas worthy of further investigation by drawing insights from previous studies on different shrimp species. Ultimately, this commentary seeks to contribute to the evolving body of knowledge surrounding prebiotics and probiotics, offering valuable perspectives that extend beyond the ecological dimensions of shrimp aquaculture.

Anthropogenic Vector Ecology and Management to Combat Disease Spread in Aquaculture

Anthropogenic vectors (transfer mechanisms) can facilitate the introduction and spread of aquatic disease in marine farming regions. Preventing or interrupting pathogen transfers associated with movements of these vectors is key to ensuring productivity and profitability of aquaculture operations. However, practical methods to identify and manage vector risks are lacking. We developed a risk analysis framework to identify disease risks and management gaps associated with anthropogenic vector movements in New Zealand's main aquaculture sectors - Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), green-lipped mussels (Perna canaliculus), and Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas). Vectors within each sector were identified and assigned categorical risk scores for (i) movement characteristics (size, frequency, likelihood of return to sea), (ii) biological association with pathogens (entrainment potential, contribution to previous aquaculture disease outbreaks) and (iii) available best practice biosecurity methods and tools, to inform unmitigated and mitigated risk rankings. Thirty-one vectors were identified to operate within the national network and association with livestock was found to be a primary driver of vector risk rankings. Movements of live growing stock and culture substrates (e.g., mussel ropes) in shellfish farming had high-risk vector profiles that are logistically challenging to address, while vessel vectors were identified as the salmon farming sector's priority. The framework and rankings can be used to inform both research and management priorities in aquaculture and other primary production systems, including risk validation, vector roles in disease epidemiology, compliance with permit conditions, policy development, and treatment options.

Genetics and Genomics of Infectious Diseases in Key Aquaculture Species

Diseases pose a significant and pressing concern for the sustainable development of the aquaculture sector, particularly as their impact continues to grow due to climatic shifts such as rising water temperatures. While various approaches, ranging from biosecurity measures to vaccines, have been devised to combat infectious diseases, their efficacy is disease and species specific and contingent upon a multitude of factors. The fields of genetics and genomics offer effective tools to control and prevent disease outbreaks in aquatic animal species. In this study, we present the key findings from our recent research, focusing on the genetic resistance to three specific diseases: White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) in white shrimp, Bacterial Necrotic Pancreatitis (BNP) in striped catfish, and skin fluke (a parasitic ailment) in yellowtail kingfish. Our investigations reveal that all three species possess substantial heritable genetic components for disease-resistant traits, indicating their potential responsiveness to artificial selection in genetic improvement programs tailored to combat these diseases. Also, we observed a high genetic association between disease traits and survival rates. Through selective breeding aimed at enhancing resistance to these pathogens, we achieved substantial genetic gains, averaging 10% per generation. These selection programs also contributed positively to the overall production performance and productivity of these species. Although the effects of selection on immunological traits or immune responses were not significant in white shrimp, they yielded favorable results in striped catfish. Furthermore, our genomic analyses, including shallow genome sequencing of pedigreed populations, enriched our understanding of the genomic architecture underlying disease resistance traits. These traits are primarily governed by a polygenic nature, with numerous genes or genetic variants, each with small effects. Leveraging a range of advanced statistical methods, from mixed models to machine and deep learning, we developed prediction models that demonstrated moderate-to-high levels of accuracy in forecasting these disease-related traits. In addition to genomics, our RNA-seq experiments identified several genes that undergo upregulation in response to infection or viral loads within the populations. Preliminary microbiome data, while offering limited predictive accuracy for disease traits in one of our studied species, underscore the potential for combining such data with genome sequence information to enhance predictive power for disease traits in our populations. Lastly, this paper briefly discusses the roles of precision agriculture systems and AI algorithms and outlines the path for future research to expedite the development of disease-resistant genetic lines tailored to our target species. In conclusion, our study underscores the critical role of genetics and genomics in fortifying the aquaculture sector against the threats posed by diseases, paving the way for more sustainable and resilient aquaculture development.

Gross yield driving the mass fluxes of fishery drugs: Evidence of occurrence from full aquaculture cycle in lower Yangtze River Basin

Expanding aquaculture has generated pollutants like fishery drugs in wastewater, which affects the aquatic environments and hinders sustainable development of aquaculture. To evaluate the occurrence, mass fluxes and production factors of fishery drugs in aquaculture, full-aquaculture-cycle monitoring in finfish and crustacean wastewater was conducted in the lower Yangtze River Basin, and 28 pesticides and 15 antibiotics were detected. The results showed that individual fishery drugs varied from ppt to ppb levels. Among them, sulfonamides were dominant with a mean concentration of 105.95 ± 4.13 ng·L-1 in finfish aquacultural wastewater, and insecticides were prevailing in crustacean aquacultural wastewater with a content of 146.56 ± 0.66 ng·L-1. Since the susceptibility to finfish disease determined the aquaculture practice, there were significant differences between two types of aquacultural wastewater. Finfish aquacultural wastewater contained more drugs and reached peak earlier in rapid-growth period, yet crustacean aquacultural wastewater peaked at the harvest period, to prevent against disease. Meanwhile, higher ecological risk, especially for florfenicol, were found in finfish wastewater. With 6 production factors from Good Aquaculture Practice, the gross yield was the most influential factor of drug mass flux, explaining 98 % variance by stepwise regression. Apart from increasing concentrations of fishery drugs in wastewater, regional high-yield aquaculture also significantly impacted the corresponding mass flux. As estimated by linear regression, 1.63 tons of target drugs would be discharged by 1 Mt. aquatic products, and 7.77 tons were discharged from aquaculture in the lower Yangtze River Basin in 2021. This is the first report to quantify mass fluxes of fishery drugs and to highlight gross yield as the most influential factor, which provides guidance for the supervision and regulation of sustainable aquaculture.

Comparison of five commercial kits for isolation of total RNA in samples of WSSV-infected shrimp

Viral diseases are the most serious threat to the expansion and development of shrimp aquaculture. Rapid diagnosis of the white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), a lethal shrimp pathogen, is essential to restrict its spread and reduce the mortality of infected shrimp. This virus has globally affected the shrimp farming industry, with a devastating economic impact. Several studies have focused on the expression of WSSV transcripts to understand the molecular mechanisms governing the pathological development of the disease. Since gene expression studies and molecular diagnostics at the early stages of infection depend on the efficient isolation of high-quality RNA, the extraction methods should be carefully selected. However, previous comparisons of the performance of RNA isolation kits have yet to be systematically investigated. In this study, 5 commercial RNA extraction methods were compared in WSSV-infected shrimp. The highest total RNA yield (ng mg-1 tissue) was obtained using TRIzol. Even though the 260/280 nm absorption ratios showed significant differences, the methods showed good purity values (>2.0). RNA integrity was evaluated in a denaturing agarose gel electrophoresis, and degradation was observed after the total RNA samples were treated with DNase I. Finally, the method that allowed the earlier detection of WSSV transcripts by qRT-PCR was the Zymo Direct-zol RNA MiniPrep kit. This study shows that the amount of observed (or estimated) WSSV transcripts might be affected because of the RNA isolation method. In addition, these results may contribute to improve the accuracy of the results obtained in gene expression studies, for more sensitive and robust detection of WSSV.

Insights into molecular aspects of pathogenesis and disease management in acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND): An updated review

Shrimp aquaculture is a rapidly growing sector that makes a significant economic contribution. However, the aquaculture industry is confronted with significant challenges, and infectious diseases, notably Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND), have emerged as severe threat. AHPND is caused by pathogens carrying the pVA-1 plasmid, which expresses the PirAB toxin, and it has wreaked havoc in shrimp aquaculture, imposing substantial economic burdens. To address this issue, it is crucial to delve into shrimp's immune responses. Therefore, this comprehensive review offers an in-depth examination of AHPND outbreaks, encompassing various facets such as environmental factors, host susceptibility, and the mechanisms employed by the pathogens. Traditional approaches to combat AHPND, primarily relying on chemicals and antibiotics, have raised concerns related to antibiotic resistance and have demonstrated limited success in disease control. Hence this review spotlights recent advancements in molecular diagnostics, therapeutic agents, and research related to shrimp immunity. Understanding these developments is crucial in the ongoing battle against AHPND. In conclusion, this review underscores the pressing need to comprehend the underlying mechanisms of AHPND pathogenesis and emphasizes the importance of developing comprehensive and effective solutions to combat this devastating disease, which continues to threaten the sustainability of shrimp farming.

RNAi-Based Therapy: Combating Shrimp Viral Diseases

Shrimp aquaculture has become a vital industry, meeting the growing global demand for seafood. Shrimp viral diseases have posed significant challenges to the aquaculture industry, causing major economic losses worldwide. Conventional treatment methods have proven to be ineffective in controlling these diseases. However, recent advances in RNA interference (RNAi) technology have opened new possibilities for combating shrimp viral diseases. This cutting-edge technology uses cellular machinery to silence specific viral genes, preventing viral replication and spread. Numerous studies have shown the effectiveness of RNAi-based therapies in various model organisms, paving the way for their use in shrimp health. By precisely targeting viral pathogens, RNAi has the potential to provide a sustainable and environmentally friendly solution to combat viral diseases in shrimp aquaculture. This review paper provides an overview of RNAi-based therapy and its potential as a game-changer for shrimp viral diseases. We discuss the principles of RNAi, its application in combating viral infections, and the current progress made in RNAi-based therapy for shrimp viral diseases. We also address the challenges and prospects of this innovative approach.

Herbal active small molecule as an immunomodulator for potential application on resistance of common carp against SVCV infection

Herbal immunomodulators are an important part of prevention and control on viral diseases in aquaculture because of their propensity to improve immunity in fish. The present study was conducted to evaluate the immunomodulatory effect and antiviral activity of a synthesized derivative (serial number: LML1022) against spring viremia of carp virus (SVCV) infection in vitro and in vivo. The antiviral data suggested that LML1022 at 100 μM significantly inhibited the virus replication in epithelioma papulosum cyprini (EPC) cells, and may completely inhibit the infectivity of SVCV virion particles to fish cells by affecting the viral internalization. The results in the related stability of water environments also demonstrated that LML1022 had an inhibitory half-life of 2.3 d at 15 °C, which would facilitate rapid degradation of LML1022 in aquaculture application. For in vivo study, the survival rate of SVCV-infected common carp was increased 30% at least under continuous oral injection of LML1022 at 2.0 mg/kg for 7 d treatment. Additionally, pretreatment of LML1022 on fish prior to SVCV infection also obviously reduced the viral loads in vivo as well as an improved survival rate, showing that LML1022 was potential as an immunomodulator. As an immune response, LML1022 significantly upregulated the immune-related gene expression including IFN-γ2b, IFN-I, ISG15 and Mx1, indicating that its dietary administration may improve the resistance of common carp against SVCV infection.

Shrimp MultiPath™ multiplexed PCR white spot syndrome virus detection in penaeid shrimp

White spot syndrome virus (WSSV), which causes white spot disease, is one of the notoriously feared infectious agents in the shrimp industry, inflicting estimated production losses world-wide of up to US$1 billion annually. Cost-effective accessible surveillance testing and targeted diagnosis are key to alerting shrimp industries and authorities worldwide early about WSSV carrier status in targeted shrimp populations. Here we present key validation pathway metrics for the Shrimp MultiPathTM (SMP) WSSV assay as part of the multi-pathogen detection platform. With superior throughput, fast turn-around time, and extremely low cost per test, the SMP WSSV assay achieves a high level of analytical sensitivity (~2.9 copies), perfect analytical specificity (~100%), and good intra- and inter-run repeatability (coefficient of variation <5%). The diagnostic metrics were estimated using Bayesian latent class analysis on data from 3 experimental shrimp populations from Latin America with distinct WSSV prevalence and yielded a diagnostic sensitivity of 95% and diagnostic specificity of 99% for SMP WSSV, which was higher than these parameters for the TaqMan quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays currently recommended by the World Organisation for Animal Health and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. This paper additionally presents compelling data for the use of synthetic double-stranded DNA analyte spiked into pathogen-naïve shrimp tissue homogenate as a means to substitute clinical samples for assay validation pathways targeting rare pathogens. SMP WSSV shows analytical and diagnostic metrics comparable to qPCR-based assays and demonstrates fit-for-purpose performance for detection of WSSV in clinically diseased and apparently healthy animals.

Single von Willebrand factor C-domain protein confers host defense against white spot syndrome virus by functioning as a pattern recognition receptor in Macrobrachium nipponense

The single von Willebrand factor C-domain proteins (SVWCs), also known as Vago, are primarily found in arthropods. Their expression was induced by nutritional status, bacterial and viral infections. Despite the prominence of SVWCs in antiviral immunity, the detailed molecular mechanisms remain poorly explained. SVWC has been proposed to elicit antiviral activities through its function as an interferon analog. In contrast, herein, we illustrate that an SVWC homolog from Macrobrachium nipponense (MnSVWC) confers host defense against white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) and covert mortality nodavirus (CMNV) as a pattern recognition receptor (PRR). qRT-PCR analyses demonstrated that the expression of MnSVWC was enhanced upon WSSV infection in all detected tissues, including gills, nerve cords, and hemocytes. Coating WSSV with recombinant MnSVWC (rMnSVWC) promoted the phagocytic activity of hemocytes and subsequent clearance of invasive WSSV from the prawn. On the other hand, the knockdown of MnSVWC with RNAi improved the proliferation ability of WSSV and CMNV in the prawn. Analysis of ELISA and Co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) showed that rMnSVWC could bind WSSV by interacting with the vesicle proteins VP26 and VP28. Co-IP analysis verified the interaction between MnSVWC and calmodulin, which implies a vesicle protein-SVWC-calmodulin-clathrin-dependent mechanism underlying the hemocyte-mediated phagocytosis against WSSV. Subsequently, MnSVWC was recognized to activate the expression of transcription factor STAT and an interferon-stimulating gene Viperin, illustrating its involvement in modulating humoral immunity via activation of the JAK/STAT pathway after WSSV infection. These findings indicate that MnSVWC could bind to WSSV as a PRR and participate in the promotion of hemocyte-mediated phagocytosis and the activation of the JAK/STAT pathway in prawns.

Ring-stacked capsids of white spot syndrome virus and structural transitions with genome ejection

White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) is one of the largest DNA viruses and the major pathogen responsible for white spot syndrome in crustaceans. The WSSV capsid is critical for genome encapsulation and ejection and exhibits the rod-shaped and oval-shaped structures during the viral life cycle. However, the detailed architecture of the capsid and the structural transition mechanism remain unclear. Here, using cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), we obtained a cryo-EM model of the rod-shaped WSSV capsid and were able to characterize its ring-stacked assembly mechanism. Furthermore, we identified an oval-shaped WSSV capsid from intact WSSV virions and analyzed the structural transition mechanism from the oval-shaped to rod-shaped capsids induced by high salinity. These transitions, which decrease internal capsid pressure, always accompany DNA release and mostly eliminate the infection of the host cells. Our results demonstrate an unusual assembly mechanism of the WSSV capsid and offer structural insights into the pressure-driven genome release.

Effects of length and sequence of long double-stranded RNAs targeting ribonucleotide reductase 2 of white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) on protective efficacy against WSSV

Long double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-mediated RNA interference (RNAi) has been a well-known mechanism against white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) in cultured shrimp. In the present study, we investigated the protective efficacy of dsRNAs targeting the ribonucleotide reductase 2 (rr2) gene of WSSV according to length and target sequence location. To produce different lengths of dsRNAs, the 640 bp rr2 fragment (fragment I) was split into two equal 320 bp fragments (fragment II and III), then each 320 bp fragment was redivided into two 160 bp fragments (fragment IV, V, VI, and VII). After the synthesis of seven kinds of dsRNA fragments, dsRNAs with the same length were mixed with each other, then used for the evaluation of dsRNA's length effect in Penaeus vannamei. The result showed that 160 bp long dsRNAs were as effective as 320 and 640 bp long dsRNAs in the protection of shrimp against WSSV infection, suggesting that the dsRNA length of 160 bp would be enough to be used as RNAi-mediated WSSV suppression in P. vannamei. However, as the 160 bp long dsRNAs used in the length effect experiment were not a single dsRNA population but a mixture of 160 bp dsRNA fragments covering the parent 640 bp long dsRNA, the sequence effect was not included in this RNAi efficacy. In the experiments to know the effect of not only length but also sequence of rr2-targeting long dsRNAs on the protective efficacy against WSSV, dsRNAs with a length of 640 bp (fragment I) and 320 bp (fragment II, III) showed a constant high defense ability, but the protection degree of long dsRNAs with a length of 160 bp was different depending on the kinds of the fragment, suggesting that the RNAi efficacy of some rr2-targeting long dsRNAs with a length of 160 bp might have sequences that are variable according to experimental conditions. In conclusion, this study showed that the protective ability of long dsRNAs in shrimp against WSSV infection can be affected by the length and sequence of the long dsRNAs.

Taurine metabolism is modulated in Vibrio-infected Penaeus vannamei to shape shrimp antibacterial response and survival

BACKGROUND

Numerous microorganisms are found in aquaculture ponds, including several pathogenic bacteria. Infection of cultured animals by these pathogens results in diseases and metabolic dysregulation. However, changes in the metabolic profiles that occur at different infection stages in the same ponds and how these metabolic changes can be modulated by exogenous metabolites in Penaeus vannamei remain unknown.

RESULTS

Here, we collected gastrointestinal tract (GIT) samples from healthy, diseased, and moribund P. vannamei in the same aquaculture pond for histological, metabolic, and transcriptome profiling. We found that diseased and moribund shrimp with empty GITs and atrophied hepatopancreas were mainly infected with Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio harveyi. Although significant dysregulation of crucial metabolites and their enzymes were observed in diseased and moribund shrimps, diseased shrimp expressed high levels of taurine and taurine metabolism-related enzymes, while moribund shrimp expressed high levels of hypoxanthine and related metabolism enzymes. Moreover, a strong negative correlation was observed between taurine levels and the relative abundance of V. parahaemolyticus and V. harveyi. Besides, exogenous taurine enhanced shrimp survival against V. parahaemolyticus challenge by increasing the expression of key taurine metabolism enzymes, mainly, cysteine dioxygenase (CDO) and cysteine sulfinic acid decarboxylase (CSD).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study revealed that taurine metabolism could be modulated by exogenous supplementation to improve crustacean immune response against pathogenic microbes. Video Abstract.

Infectivity and Transmissibility of Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease Associated Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Frozen Shrimp Archived at −80 °C

Acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) caused by Vibrio parahaemolyticus (VpAHPND) has been reported in commodity shrimp, but the potential risk of its global spread via frozen shrimp in the shrimp trade is yet to be fully explored. We hypothesized that frozen shrimp with AHPND could be a source of VpAHPND transmission; thus, the infectivity of frozen shrimp with AHPND was evaluated using a shrimp bioassay. To prepare infected frozen shrimp, 12 Penaeus vannamei (average weight, 2 g) were exposed to VpAHPND by immersion in water with a VpAHPND concentration of 1.55 × 107 CFU mL−1; once dead, the shrimp were stored at −80 °C for further analysis. After two weeks, a PCR assay was used to confirm AHPND positivity in frozen shrimp (n = 2), and VpAHPND was reisolated from the hepatopancreases of these shrimp. For the infectivity test, 10 P. vannamei (average weight, 4 g) were fed with the hepatopancreases of VpAHPND -infected frozen shrimp (n = 10). After feeding, 70% of the shrimp died within 118 h, and the presence of VpAHPND was confirmed using a PCR assay and histopathology examination; moreover, VpAHPND was successfully reisolated from the hepatopancreases of the dead shrimp. We are the first to evaluate the potential transmissibility of VpAHPND in frozen shrimp, and our results suggest that frozen shrimp with AHPND are a potential source of disease spreading between countries during international trade.

Shrimp bacterial and parasitic disease listed in the OIE: A review

Shrimp aquaculture industry has steadily increased with demand and development of aquaculture technology. In recent years, frequent diseases have become a major risk factor for shrimp aquaculture, such as a drastically reduced the production of shrimp and causing national economic loss. Among them, shrimp bacterial diseases such as hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) and necrotizing hepatopancreatitis (NHP-B) and parasitic disease such as Aphanomyces astaci (crayfish plague) are emerging and evolving into new types. OIE (World Organization for Animal Health) regularly updates information on diseases in the Aquatic Code and Aquatic Manual, but in-depth information on the shrimp diseases are lacking. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to provide information necessary for the response and prevention of shrimp diseases by understanding the characteristics and diagnosis of shrimp diseases designated by OIE.

Viral Shrimp Diseases Listed by the OIE: A Review

Shrimp is one of the most valuable aquaculture species globally, and the most internationally traded seafood product. Consequently, shrimp aquaculture practices have received increasing attention due to their high value and levels of demand, and this has contributed to economic growth in many developing countries. The global production of shrimp reached approximately 6.5 million t in 2019 and the shrimp aquaculture industry has consequently become a large-scale operation. However, the expansion of shrimp aquaculture has also been accompanied by various disease outbreaks, leading to large losses in shrimp production. Among the diseases, there are various viral diseases which can cause serious damage when compared to bacterial and fungi-based illness. In addition, new viral diseases occur rapidly, and existing diseases can evolve into new types. To address this, the review presented here will provide information on the DNA and RNA of shrimp viral diseases that have been designated by the World Organization for Animal Health and identify the latest shrimp disease trends.

Galectin, another lectin from Fenneropenaeus merguiensis contributed in shrimp immune defense

Numerous lectins act as pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in the innate immune system of invertebrates. Here, a galectin (FmGal) was isolated from hemocytes of Fenneropenaeus merguiensis. FmGal contained one open reading frame encoding a peptide of 338 amino acids. The primary sequence of FmGal comprised a carbohydrate recognition domain with a specific galactose binding site. The FmGal transcripts were found mostly in hemocytes of healthy shrimp. The expression of FmGal was up-regulated upon challenge with Vibrio parahaemolyticus and white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). Gene-silencing with FmGal double-stranded RNA resulted in extreme down-regulation of FmGal. Knockdown with a co-injection of pathogens reduced the survival rate of shrimp. Recombinant protein of FmGal (rFmGal) required Ca²⁺ to agglutinate pathogenic bacteria and exhibited sugar-specificity to galactose, lactose, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA). The ELISA-validated binding of rFmGal revealed higher affinity to LTA than LPS. rFmGal did not exhibit antibacterial activity but could enhance the phagocytosis and encapsulation of pathogenic invaders by hemocytes. Encapsulation was suppressed by galactose and lactose. Moreover, rFmGal also promoted the in vivo clearance of V. parahaemolyticus. FmGal, a galectin in F. merguiensis, participated in shrimp immunity, functioning as a PRR which might be involved in certain cellular responses.

Probiotic Effects of a Marine Purple Non-Sulfur Bacterium, Rhodovulum sulfidophilum KKMI01, on Kuruma Shrimp (Marsupenaeus japonicus)

Purple non-sulfur bacteria (PNSB) are used as probiotics in shrimp aquaculture; however, no studies have examined the probiotic effects of PNSB in shrimp at the gene expression level. In this study, we examined the effects of a marine PNSB, Rhodovulum sulfidophilum KKMI01, on the gene expression of kuruma shrimp (Marsupenaeus japonicus). Short-term (3 days) effects of R. sulfidophilum KKMI01 on the gene expression in shrimp were examined using small-scale laboratory aquaria experiments, while long-term (145 days) effects of R. sulfidophilum KKMI01 on the growth performance and gene expression were examined using 200-ton outdoor aquaria experiments. Gene expression levels were examined using qRT-PCR. Results of the short-term experiments showed the upregulation of several molting-related genes, including cuticle proteins, calcification proteins, and cuticle pigment protein, suggesting that PNSB stimulated the growth of shrimp. The upregulation of several immune genes, such as prophenoloxidase, antimicrobial peptides, and superoxide dismutase, was also observed. In the 145-day outdoor experiments, the average body weight at harvest time, survival rate, and feed conversion ratio were significantly improved in PNSB-treated shrimp, and upregulation of molting and immune-related genes were also observed. When PNSB cells were added to the rearing water, the effective dosage of PNSB was as low as 10³ cfu/mL, which was more than a million times dilution of the original PNSB culture (2–3 × 10⁹ cfu/mL), indicating that R. sulfidophilum KKMI01 provides a feasible and cost-effective application as a probiotic candidate in shrimp aquaculture.

Intensification of Penaeid Shrimp Culture: An Applied Review of Advances in Production Systems, Nutrition and Breeding

Intensification of the shrimp sector, also referred to as vertical expansion, has been predominately driven by consecutive incidences of global disease outbreaks, which have caused enormous economic loss for the main producer countries. A growing segment of the shrimp farming industry has opted to use production systems with higher density, biosecurity, and operating control to mitigate the risks posed by disease. However, successful super-intensive shrimp production is reliant on an advanced understanding of many important biological and economic parameters in the farming system, coupled with effective monitoring, to maintain optimal production. Compared to traditional extensive or semi-intensive systems, super-intensive systems require higher inputs of feed, energy, labor, and supplements. These systems are highly sensitive to the interactions between these different inputs and require that the biological and economical parameters of farming are carefully balanced to ensure success. Advancing nutritional knowledge and tools to support consistent and efficient production of shrimp in these high-cost super-intensive systems is also necessary. Breeding programs developing breeding-lines selected for these challenging super-intensive environments are critical. Understanding synergies between the key areas of production systems, nutrition, and breeding are crucial for super-intensive farming as all three areas coalesce to influence the health of shrimp and commercial farming success. This article reviews current strategies and innovations being used for Litopenaeus vannamei in production systems, nutrition, and breeding, and discusses the synergies across these areas that can support the production of healthy and high-quality shrimp in super-intensive systems. Finally, we briefly discuss some key issues of social license pertinent to the super-intensive shrimp farming industry.

Differential STAT gene expressions of Penaeus monodon and Macrobrachium rosenbergii in response to white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) and bacterial infections: Additional insight into genetic variations and transcriptomic highlights

Diseases have remained the major issue for shrimp aquaculture industry for decades by which different shrimp species demonstrated alternative disease resistance or tolerance. However, there had been insufficient studies on the underlying host mechanisms of such phenomenon. Hence, in this study, the main objective involves gaining a deeper understanding into the functional importance of shrimp STAT gene from the aspects of expression, sequence, structure, and associated genes. STAT gene was selected primarily because of its vital signalling roles in stress, endocrine, and immune response. The differential gene expressions of Macrobrachium rosenbergii STAT (MrST) and Penaeus monodon STAT (PmST) under White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) and Vibrio parahaemolyticus/VpAHPND infections were identified through qPCR analysis. Notably, during both pathogenic infections, MrST demonstrated significant gene expression down-regulations (during either early or later post-infection time points) whereas PmST showed only significant gene expression up-regulations. Important sequence conservation or divergence was highlighted through STAT sequence comparison especially amino acid alterations at 614 aa [K (Lysine) to E (Glutamic Acid)] and 629 aa [F (Phenylalanine) to V (Valine)] from PmST (AY327491.1) to PmST (disease tolerant strain). There were significant differences observed between in silico characterized structures of MrST and PmST proteins. Important functional differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the aspects of stress, endocrine, immune, signalling, and structural were uncovered through comparative transcriptomic analysis. The DEGs associated with STAT functioning were identified including inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor, hsp90, caspase, ATP binding cassette transmembrane transporter, C-type Lectin, HMGB, ALF1, ALF3, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, and TBK1. The main findings of this study are STAT differential gene expression patterns, sequence divergence, structural differences, and associated functional DEGs. These findings can be further utilized for shrimp health or host response diagnostic studies. STAT gene can also be proposed as a suitable candidate for future studies of shrimp innate immune enhancement.

Co-Infection of Infectious Hypodermal and Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus (IHHNV) and White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) in the Wild Crustaceans of Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago, India

The present study was intended to screen the wild crustaceans for co-infection with Infectious Hypodermal and Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus (IHHNV) and White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) in Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago, India. We screened a total of 607 shrimp and 110 crab samples using a specific polymerase chain reaction, and out of them, 82 shrimps (13.5%) and 5 (4.5%) crabs were found positive for co-infection of IHHNV and WSSV. A higher rate of co-infection was observed in Penaeus monodon and Scylla serrata than other shrimp and crab species. The nucleotide sequences of IHHNV and WSSV obtained from crab in this present study exhibited very high sequence identity with their counterparts retrieved from various countries. Histopathological analysis of the infected shrimp gill sections further confirmed the eosinophilic intra-nuclear cowdry type A inclusion bodies and basophilic intra-nuclear inclusion bodies characteristics of IHHNV and WSSV infections, respectively. The present study serves as the first report on co-infection of WSSV and IHHNV in Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago, India and accentuates the critical need for continuous monitoring of wild crustaceans and appropriate biosecurity measures for brackishwater aquaculture.

Diagnostic Molecular Investigation of White Spot Syndrome Virus Finds No Infection in Wild White Shrimp and Brown Shrimp along the Texas Gulf Coast

White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) is a virulent disease that disrupts shrimp farm operations throughout the world. While the United States has had only limited outbreaks of WSSV within the past several decades, it is important to ensure that this disease does not infect wild penaeid shrimp populations. In Texas, there is a potential for WSSV to spread to wild penaeid populations in the Gulf of Mexico via infected imported nonnative bait shrimp, imported broodstock, or wild crustacean hosts. Due to these potential threats, the Texas Parks and Wildlife Coastal Fisheries Division monitored WSSV in wild brown shrimp Farfantepenaeus aztecus and white shrimp Litopenaeus setiferus from seven major bay systems along the Texas coast during 2019. While no positive samples were detected from the collected shrimp, a power analysis illustrated a potential for low-level WSSV prevalence within Texas shrimp populations that would not be detectable by this monitoring survey. Overall, WSSV does not appear to be a major threat in the Texas region of the Gulf of Mexico, but continual observation and monitoring of wild penaeid shrimp is necessary to protect this resource from future WSSV outbreaks.

Metabolic Alterations in Shrimp Stomach During Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease and Effects of Taurocholate on Vibrio parahaemolyticus

Acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND), a recently emerged bacterial shrimp disease, has increased shrimp mortality and caused huge economic losses in many Asian countries. However, molecular factors underlying pathogenesis of this disease remain largely unknown. Our objective was to characterize metabolic alterations in shrimp stomach during AHPND and determine effects of taurocholate on AHPND-causing Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Based on metabolomics, pathways for lipid metabolism and for primary bile acid (BA) synthesis were majorly affected following AHPND infection. Bile acid metabolites, namely taurocholate, were downregulated in the metabolomics database. This prompted us to study effects of taurocholate on biofilm formation, PirAB ^vp toxin release and biofilm detachment capabilities in AHPND-causing V. parahaemolyticus. Treatment of this bacterium with high concentration of taurocholate, a primary bile acid, induced biofilm formation, PirAB ^vp toxin release and facilitated the dispersion of bacterial cells. Taken together, our findings suggest that AHPND infection can affect the lipid metabolites in shrimp stomach, and further suggest that the primary bile acid taurocholate is important for the virulence of AHPND-causing V. parahaemolyticus.

Studies on infectious myonecrosis virus (IMNV) and infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV) in cultured penaeid shrimp in Egypt

The present study aimed to diagnose infectious myonecrosis virus (IMNV) and infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV) among cultured penaeid shrimp (Penaeus semisulcatus, n = 120) collected from private farms in 2 Egyptian provinces (Damietta and North Sinai) along the Mediterranean coast. The collected shrimp were subjected to clinical examination, histopathology, molecular characterization, and phylogenetic analysis. Most of the shrimp infected with IMNV showed a distinctive appearance resembling cooked shrimp and white necrosis on distal abdominal segments and tail fans. Simultaneously, IHHNV-infected cases displayed opaque abdominal muscles, white milky to buff mottling on the shell, and a pathognomonic runt-deformity syndrome. Histopathological examination of infected specimens revealed muscular edema, hemocyte infiltration, deformities, Zenker's necrosis, and eosinophilic intra-nuclear inclusion bodies (Cowdry type A). PCR results gave predictable amplicon sizes of 139 and 81 bp and confirmed the presence of IMNV and IHHNV with a total prevalence of 37.5 and 25%, respectively. A homology search by BLAST analysis showed that the retrieved isolates putatively belonged to IMNV and IHHNV based on 96.3 to 97% nucleotide identity to the corresponding open reading frame gene of each virus. The phylogenetic analysis clearly showed genetic similarity and cross-lineage between our isolates and other isolates from Egypt, the USA, Brazil, Indonesia, China, Korea, Taiwan, and Ecuador. In conclusion, gross inspection and histopathology may aid in the diagnosis of viral diseases; however, molecular tools are indispensable for confirming a possible infection. The current study recommends strict regulations during live shrimp transportation and implementing health control certificates over all imports and exports, especially in developing countries, including Egypt.

RNAi-based antiviral immunity of shrimp

As a kind of important economic marine crustaceans in aquaculture, shrimp can be infected by more than 20 viruses. To fight against the virus invasion, shrimp have developed the innate immunity, including RNA interference (RNAi). RNAi, mediated by short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) or microRNAs (miRNAs), plays important roles in virus-host interactions. At present, RNAi is considered to be an efficient antiviral response of shrimp. The siRNA-based RNAi, first recognized as an antiviral response of animals to resist RNA viruses, has emerged in animals as an efficient antiviral strategy against the invasion of DNA viruses and RNA viruses. In shrimp, as well as in other animals, siRNA contains a seed region (2nd-7th nt) and a supplementary region (12th-17th nt). Based on the findings in shrimp and other animals, miRNAs are essential regulators of virus-host interactions, such as virus infection/latency, and host apoptosis, autophagy and phagocytosis. Except for the seed sequence (2nd-7th), the complementary bases (to the target mRNA sequence) of a miRNA 9th-18th non-seed sequence are essential for the miRNA targeting. So far, rapidly growing evidences have supported the existence of functional RNAi machinery in shrimp. In this review, we summarize the progress of RNAi in the antiviral immune response of shrimp. The potential applications of RNAi to control shrimp diseases were also summarized.

The shrimp nephrocomplex serves as a major portal of pathogen entry and is involved in the molting process

The ever-growing human population faces problems providing sufficient animal proteins. For shellfish, wild catch is supplemented by aquaculture to meet this increasing global demand. However, aquaculture faces serious problems with infectious diseases. One of the main problems for oriented disease control is lack of information on pathogen entry in the host. The present study fully describes the anatomy of the shrimp’s excretory organ, the antennal gland, identifying the organ as a major portal candidate. Additional findings show that pathogens may indeed enter through this organ naturally, infecting shrimp. We also demonstrate involvement in molting. These insights into the molting process and pathogen entry open doors in fundamental biology and the potential development of disease control measures.

Viruses, such as white spot syndrome virus, and bacteria, such as Vibrio species, wreak havoc in shrimp aquaculture [C. M. Escobedo-Bonilla et al., J. Fish. Dis. 31, 1–18 (2008)]. As the main portal of entry for shrimp-related pathogens remain unclear, infectious diseases are difficult to prevent and control. Because the cuticle is a strong pathogen barrier, regions lacking cuticular lining, such as the shrimp’s excretory organ, “the antennal gland,” are major candidate entry portals [M. Corteel et al., Vet. Microbiol. 137, 209–216 (2009)]. The antennal gland, up until now morphologically underexplored, is studied using several imaging techniques. Using histology-based three-dimensional technology, we demonstrate that the antennal gland resembles a kidney, connected to a urinary bladder with a nephropore (exit opening) and a complex of diverticula, spread throughout the cephalothorax. Micromagnetic resonance imaging of live shrimp not only confirms the histology-based model, but also indicates that the filling of the diverticula is linked to the molting cycle and possibly involved therein. Based on function and complexity, we propose to rename the antennal gland as the “nephrocomplex.” By an intrabladder inoculation, we showed high susceptibility of this nephrocomplex to both white spot syndrome virus and Vibrio infection compared to peroral inoculation. An induced drop in salinity allowed the virus to enter the nephrocomplex in a natural way and caused a general infection followed by death; fluorescent beads were used to demonstrate that particles may indeed enter through the nephropore. These findings pave the way for oriented disease control in shrimp.

Tilapia lake virus: The story so far

Tilapia lake virus (TiLV) is a highly contagious pathogen that has detrimental effects on tilapia farming. This virus was discovered in 2014 and has received tremendous global attention from the aquaculture sector due to its association with high fish mortalities and its strong economic impact on the tilapia aquaculture industry. Currently, TiLV has been reported in 16 countries, and this number is continuing to rise due to improved diagnostic assays and surveillance activities around the world. In this review, we summarize the up-to-date knowledge of TiLV with regard to TiLV host species, the clinical signs of a TiLV infection, the affected tissues, pathogenesis and potential disease risk factors. We also describe the reported information concerning the virus itself: its morphology, genetic make-up and transmission pathways. We review the current methods for virus detection and potential control measures. We close the review of the TiLV story so far, by offering a commentary on the major TiLV research gaps, why these are delaying future TiLV research and why the TiLV field needs to come together and proceed as a more collaborative scientific community if there is any hope limiting the impact of this serious virus.

Identification and functional characterization of a novel C-type lectin from the kuruma shrimp, Marsupenaeus japonicus

C-type lectins (CTLs) are immune molecules that are crucial to the invertebrate innate immune system with the primary function of recognizing invading pathogens. In the present study, a novel CTL was cloned from Marsupenaeus japonicus (MjCTL), and its tissue distribution and expression patterns over time in response to white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) and Vibrio parahaemolyticus were further investigated. The open reading frame (ORF) of MjCTL was 513 bp and encoded a polypeptide of 170 amino acids, which contained a signal peptide and a carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) that are typical for CTLs. MjCTL was primarily expressed in the hepatopancreas and weakly expressed in hemocytes, gill, stomach, intestine, heart, muscle and eyestalk. The expression level of MjCTL in the hepatopancreas was dramatically increased at 48 h post-injection with WSSV at a dosage of 1 × 10⁵ virions. Glutathione-S-transferase (GST) pull-down assays showed that MjCTL could directly bind to several WSSV envelope proteins, including VP19, VP24, VP26 and VP28. Moreover, MjCTL displayed antibacterial activity against V. parahaemolyticus. Our results indicated that MjCTL exhibited multiple functions in innate immune response against pathogens.

Effective suppression of yellow head virus replication in Penaeus monodon hemocytes using constitutive expression vector for long-hairpin RNA (lhRNA)

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is employed to down-regulate the expression of specific genes of shrimp viral pathogens through the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway. The administration of dsRNA into shrimp has been shown to be an effective strategy to block yellow head virus (YHV) progression. In this study, a vector (pLVX-AcGFP1-N1) was developed to introduce a long-hairpin RNA (lhRNA) silencing cassette under a CMV promoter, so-called "pLVX-lhRdRp", against the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) gene of YHV. A primary culture of hemocytes isolated from Penaeus monodon was transfected with the pLVX-lhRdRp vector, generating transcripts of lhRNAs as early as 12 h post transfection. Twelve hours prior to YHV challenge, the primary hemocyte cell culture was transfected with pLVX-lhRdRp, whereas control groups were transfected with pLVX-AcGFP1-N1 or no transfection. The group treated with pLVX-lhRdRp significantly suppressed YHV replication at 24-72 h after YHV challenge. The results from RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry confirmed that both mRNA and protein expression of YHV were effectively inhibited by the pLVX-lhRdRp vector. Thus, our hemocyte culture and dsRNA expression plasmid with constitutive promoter have potential as a platform to test DNA constructs expressing long-hairpin RNA against pathogenic viral infection and as a RNAi-based DNA vaccine in shrimp.

Exploration of the virome of the European brown shrimp (Crangon crangon)

Crangon crangon is economically a very important species. Recently, promising culture attempts have been made, but a major problem is the uncontrollable mortality during the grow-out phase. As of yet, the life cycle of C. crangon is not closed in captivity so wild-caught individuals are used for further rearing. Therefore, it is important to investigate the virome of C. crangon both in wild-caught animals as in cultured animals. In recent years, next-generation-sequencing (NGS) technologies have been very important in the unravelling of the virome of a wide range of environments and matrices, such as soil, sea, potable water, but also of a wide range of animal species. This will be the first report of a virome study in C. crangon using NGS in combination with the NetoVIR protocol. The near complete genomes of 16 novel viruses were described, most of which were rather distantly related to unclassified viruses or viruses belonging to the Picornavirales, Bunyavirales Nudiviridae, Parvoviridae, Flaviviridae, Hepeviridae, Tombusviridae, Narnaviridae, Nodaviridae, Sobemovirus. A difference in virome composition was observed between muscle and hepatopancreatic tissue, suggesting a distinct tissue tropism of several of these viruses. Some differences in the viral composition were noted between the cultured and wild shrimp, which could indicate that in sub-optimal aquaculture conditions some viruses become more abundant. This research showed that a plethora of unknown viruses is present in C. crangon and that more research is needed to determine which virus is potentially dangerous for the culture of C. crangon.

Metabolic responses of shrimp Palaemonetes sinensis to isopod Tachaea chinensis parasitization

Tachaea chinensis, a parasitic isopod, negatively affects the production of several commercially important shrimp species in China. The mechanism of parasite-host interaction cannot be accurately described by transcriptomic and proteomic approaches individually. Here, comparative metabolite profiling was used to achieve a broad coverage of primary metabolite changes in Chinese grass shrimp Palaemonetes sinensis following T. chinensis parasitization. In total, 66 metabolites were significantly differentially accumulated between the control and infected groups; of these, 19 were upregulated and 47 were downregulated after T. chinensis infection. Moreover, the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis revealed that 10 pathways were significantly enriched. The protein digestion and absorption pathways were highly enriched, followed by the mineral absorption, aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, biosynthesis of amino acids, and metabolic metabolism pathways. Parasitization by T. chinensis enhanced the glycolytic pathway and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle in P. sinensis, thereby releasing more energy for swimming, foraging, and evading predation. Glucogenic amino acids such as alanine, histidine, glutamine, and proline were consumed to generate glutamate and enhance the TCA cycle. Nucleotide-related metabolic pathways were downregulated, possibly because T. chinensis can secrete molecules to degrade nucleotides and inhibit hemostasis and inflammatory responses. These results suggest that the isopod parasite can increase the host's metabolic burden by enhancing the host's TCA cycle and secreting molecules to degrade host proteins, thereby enabling the parasite to feed on the host and inhibit an inflammatory response. The results will be a valuable contribution to understanding the metabolic responses of crustaceans to isopod parasitism.

Projecting global mariculture diversity under climate change

Previous studies have focused on changes in the geographical distribution of terrestrial biomes and species targeted by marine capture fisheries due to climate change impacts. Given mariculture's substantial contribution to global seafood production and its growing significance in recent decades, it is essential to evaluate the effects of climate change on mariculture and their socio-economic consequences. Here, we projected climate change impacts on the marine aquaculture diversity for 85 of the currently most commonly farmed fish and invertebrate species in the world's coastal and/or open ocean areas. Results of ensemble projections from three Earth system models and three species distribution models show that climate change may lead to a substantial redistribution of mariculture species richness potential, with an average of 10%-40% decline in the number of species being potentially suitable to be farmed in tropical to subtropical regions. In contrast, mariculture species richness potential is projected to increase by about 40% at higher latitudes under the 'no mitigation policy' scenario (RCP 8.5) by the mid-21st century. In Exclusive Economic Zones where mariculture is currently undertaken, we projected an average future decline of 1.3% and 5% in mariculture species richness potential under RCP 2.6 ('strong mitigation') and RCP 8.5 scenarios, respectively, by the 2050s relative to the 2000s. Our findings highlight the opportunities and challenges for climate adaptation in the mariculture sector through the redistribution of farmed species and expansion of mariculture locations. Our results can help inform adaptation planning and governance mechanisms to minimize local environmental impacts and potential conflicts with other marine and coastal sectors in the future.

Detection of infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus and white spot syndrome virus in whiteleg shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) imported from Vietnam to South Korea

In this study, whiteleg shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) imported from Vietnam were collected from South Korean markets, and examined for 2 viruses: infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV, recently classified as decapod penstyldensovirus-1), and white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). Among 58 samples, we detected IHHNV in 23 samples and WSSV in 2 samples, using polymerase chain reaction and sequencing analyses. This is the first report of IHHNV and WSSV detection in imported shrimp, suggesting that greater awareness and stricter quarantine policies regarding viruses infecting shrimp imported to South Korea are required.

Antibacterial and Antiviral Activities of Local Thai Green Macroalgae Crude Extracts in Pacific white Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)

Macroalgae are potentially excellent sources of bioactive secondary metabolites useful for the development of new functional ingredients. This study was conducted to determine the antimicrobial efficacy of the hot water crude extracts (HWCEs) of three species of local Thai green macroalgae Ulva intestinalis (Ui), U. rigida (Ur), and Caulopa lentillifera (Cl) and a commercial ulvan from U. armoricana (Ua). Chemical analysis indicated that the HWCE of Ur showed the highest sulfate content (13.9% ± 0.4%), while that of Ua contained the highest uronic acid and carbohydrate contents (41.47% ± 4.98% and 64.03% ± 2.75%, respectively), which were higher than those of Ur (32.75% ± 1.53% and 51.02% ± 3.72%). Structural analysis of these extracts by Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy revealed that these HWCEs are complex with a signal at 1250 cm-1 corresponding to S=O stretching vibrations, while the signals at 850 cm-1 were attributed to the C-O-S bending vibration of the sulfate ester in the axial position. These HWCEs showed the growth suppression against some pathogenic Vibrio spp. Interestingly, the HWCEs from Ui at concentrations of 5 and 10 mg/mL completely inhibited white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) in shrimp injected with HWCE-WSSV preincubated solutions. This inhibitory effect was further confirmed by the reduction in viral loads and histopathology of surviving and moribund shrimp.

The Complete Genome of an Endogenous Nimavirus (Nimav-1_LVa) From the Pacific Whiteleg Shrimp Penaeus (Litopenaeus) Vannamei

White spot syndrome virus (WSSV), the lone virus of the genus Whispovirus under the family Nimaviridae, is one of the most devastating viruses affecting the shrimp farming industry. Knowledge about this virus, in particular, its evolution history, has been limited, partly due to its large genome and the lack of other closely related free-living viruses for comparative studies. In this study, we reconstructed a full-length endogenous nimavirus consensus genome, Nimav-1_LVa (279,905 bp), in the genome sequence of Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei breed Kehai No. 1 (ASM378908v1). This endogenous virus seemed to insert exclusively into the telomeric pentanucleotide microsatellite (TAACC/GGTTA)n. It encoded 117 putative genes, with some containing introns, such as g012 (inhibitor of apoptosis, IAP), g046 (crustacean hyperglycemic hormone, CHH), g155 (innexin), g158 (Bax inhibitor 1 like). More than a dozen Nimav-1_LVa genes are involved in the pathogen-host interactions. We hypothesized that g046, g155, g158, and g227 (semaphorin 1A like) were recruited host genes for their roles in immune regulation. Sequence analysis indicated that a total of 43 WSSV genes belonged to the ancestral/core nimavirus gene set, including four genes reported in this study: wsv112 (dUTPase), wsv206, wsv226, and wsv308 (nucleocapsid protein). The availability of the Nimav-1_LVa sequence would help understand the genetic diversity, epidemiology, evolution, and virulence of WSSV.

Global distribution of white spot syndrome virus genotypes determined using a novel genotyping assay

White spot disease, caused by infection with white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), is a serious panzootic affecting prawn aquaculture. The disease has spread rapidly around the prawn-culturing regions of the world through a number of previously identified mechanisms. The ability to distinguish and trace strains of WSSV is of great benefit to identify, and then limit, the translocation routes of the disease. Here, we describe a novel genotyping method using 34 short tandem repeat regions of the viral genome concurrently. This technique is highly sensitive to strain differences when compared to previous methods. The efficacy of the described method is demonstrated by testing WSSV isolates from around the globe, showing regional genotypic differences. The differences in the genotypes were used to create a global minimum spanning network, and in most cases the observed relationships were substantiated with verification of transboundary movement. This novel panel of STR markers will provide a valuable epidemiological tool for white spot disease. We have applied this to an outbreak of the disease in Queensland, Australia, that occurred in 2016. While the results indicate that the source of this outbreak currently remains cryptic, the analyses have provided valuable insights with which to further study the origins of the strains involved.

An effective white spot syndrome virus challenge test for cultured shrimp using different biomass of the infected papilla

White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) is one of the most virulent pathogens of cultured penaeid shrimp. Several control strategies are used commonly to mitigate the economic losses caused by the pathogen, such as application of antiviral products at farm level. One of the most practical method for the screening of potential anti-WSSV products is through challenge tests. Therefore, it is essential to develop simple, reproducible and effective bioassays able to simulate specific mortality levels. The purpose of this study was to develop a simple and reproducible bioassay that simulate different mortality levels by varying the proportion of WSSV-infected and noninfected shrimp tissues administered to susceptible shrimp during a per os challenge test. This method mimics one of the natural transmission routes of WSSV infection in shrimp and could be applied to identify potential antiviral products to different cultured shrimp species susceptible to WSSV. Here we report: •A simple and economic method to evaluate therapeutic antiviral products against WSSV through a challenge test, that uses different biomass amounts of WSSV-infected papilla.•Allows to simulate a wide and reproducible range of mortalities observed in shrimp farms.•A challenge test that simulates one mode of natural WSSV infection in shrimp.

Penaeus monodon IKKs Participate in Regulation of Cytokine-Like System and Antiviral Responses of Innate Immune System

The IKK-NF-κB signaling cascade is one of the crucial responsive mechanisms in inflammatory and immune responses. The key kinase proteins called inhibitor of kappa B kinases (IKKs) serve as the core elements involved in cascade activation. Here, the complete ORFs of IKK homologs, PmIKKβ, PmIKKε1, and PmIKKε2, from the black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon were identified and characterized for their functions in shrimp antiviral responses. The PmIKK transcripts were widely expressed in various examined tissues and the PmIKKε protein was detected in all three types of shrimp hemocytes. Only the PmIKKε1 and PmIKKε2 were responsive to white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), yellow head virus (YHV) and a bacterium Vibrio harveyi infection, while the PmIKKβ exhibited no significant response to pathogen infection. On the contrary, suppression of PmIKKβ and PmIKKε by dsRNA-mediated RNA interference (RNAi) resulted in a rapid death of WSSV-infected shrimp and the significant reduction of an IFN-like PmVago4 transcript. Whereas, the mRNA levels of the antimicrobial peptides, ALFPm3 and CrustinPm5, and a transcription factor, PmDorsal were significantly increased, those of ALFPm6, CrustinPm1, CrustinPm7, PmVago1, PmRelish, and PmCactus were unaffected. Overexpression of PmIKKβ and PmIKKε in HEK293T cells differentially activated the NF-κB and IFNβ promoter activities, respectively. These results suggest that the PmIKKβ and PmIKKε may act as common factors regulating the expression of immune-related genes from various signaling pathways. Interestingly, the PmIKKs may also contribute a possible role in shrimp cytokine-like system and cross-talking between signaling transductions in innate immune responses.

Intercropping of marine finfish in shrimp ponds: A maiden feasibility study

Diversification of shrimp farming with marine finfish in a farmer participatory research model was attempted. The study is intended to find an economically viable finfish culture during the fallow period of shrimp farms. The Silver pompano, Trachinotus blochi iintercropped with Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei culture in coastal shrimp ponds was assessed for growth, survival, and economic viability. During the grow-out period of 100 days, fishes grew from 40.23 ± 1.40 g to 256.56 ± 1.08 g in weight and 12.83 ± 0.19 cm to 25.11 ± 0.09 cm in length. The daily weight gain (DWG) and daily length gain (DLG) were 2.16 g/day and 0.12 cm/day, respectively. Relative growth rate (RGR) and specific growth rate (SGR) recorded for weight was 537.80% in 100 days and 1.85% per day, respectively. Pompano has exhibited its sturdiness and adaptability to the land-based culture system as evidenced by an overall survival percentage of 89.8% including nursery and grow-out phases. The realized feed conversion ratio was 1.94. The culture period of 100 days is found to be enough to attain a desirable harvest size of 250 g. The projected production potential of the experimental demonstration farm of 4500 m2 water spread area for culture was 16.2 tonnes/cycle with a benefit-cost ratio (BCR) of 1.34 over operational cost. The present participatory trial empirically proved the viability of Silver pompano as an intercrop in coastal shrimp ponds. Thus, the introduction of Pompano in shrimp ponds is recommended and can be promoted for sustainable intercropping with shrimp farming along the Indian coast for improving people's livelihoods.

White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) in cultured juvenile blue crabs Callinectes sapidus: oral versus injection exposure, and feeding frequency effects

The efficacy of oral versus injection exposure and the effect of feeding frequency on the transmission of white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) in cultured juvenile blue crabs Callinectes sapidus were investigated. Crabs in Group 1 (G-1, n = 48) were exposed once orally to 100 mg of WSSV-infected shrimp tissue mg-1 of body weight (BW). The oral inoculum contained 2.6 × 109 WSSV genome copies mg-1 tissue. Group 2 (G-2, n = 46) received the same dosage once weekly for 5 wk. Group 3 (G-3, n = 12) was injected with 0.01 ml (2.6 × 107 genome copies 0.01 ml-1) WSSV inoculum g-1 BW. Group 4 (G-4, n = 12) was injected with 0.01 ml WSSV-negative shrimp serum and saline mixture g-1 BW. Dead and moribund animals were frozen at -80°C. After 37 d, all remaining crabs were frozen. Genomic DNA from gill tissue was evaluated for the presence and quantity of WSSV using TaqMan real-time PCR. All G-3 animals died and tested positive. No G-4 animals died or tested positive. In the fed groups, WSSV prevalence was approximately 16%, but viral load was higher and survival was lower in G-2 compared to G-1. Injected animals carried a higher viral load than fed animals, and dead animals had higher viral loads than live animals. Blue crab juveniles are susceptible to WSSV, but oral exposure does not efficiently transmit WSSV in juvenile blue crabs. Some animals can die from WSSV if repeatedly exposed.

Silver nanoparticles enhance survival of white spot syndrome virus infected Penaeus vannamei shrimps by activation of its immunological system

The global aquaculture has shown an impressive growth in the last decades contributing with a major part of total food fish supply. However, it also helps in the spread of diseases that in turn, causes great economic losses. The White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) is one of the major viral pathogen for the shrimp aquaculture industry. Several attempts to eliminate the virus in the shrimp have been addressed without achieving a long-term effectiveness. In this work, we determine the capacity of the commercial non-toxic PVP-coated silver nanoparticles to promote the response of the immune system of WSSV-infected shrimps with or without an excess of iron ions. Our results showed that a single dose of metallic silver in the nanomolar range (111 nmol/shrimp), which is equivalent to 12 ng/mL of silver nanoparticles, produces 20% survival of treated infected shrimps. The same concentration administered in healthy shrimps do not show histological evidence of damage. The observed survival rate could be associated with the increase of almost 2-fold of LGBP expression levels compared with non-treated infected shrimps. LGBP is a key gene of shrimp immunological response and its up-regulation is most probably induced by the recognition of silver nanoparticles coating by specific pathogen-associated molecular pattern recognition proteins (PAMPs) of shrimp. Increased LGBP expression levels was observed even with a 10-fold lower dose of silver nanoparticles (1.2 ng/shrimp, 0.011 nmol of metallic silver/shrimp). The increase in LGBP expression levels was also observed even in the presence of iron ion excess, a condition that favors virus proliferation. Those results showed that a single dose of a slight amount of silver nanoparticles were capable to enhance the response of shrimp immune system without toxic effects in healthy shrimps. This response could be enhanced by administration of other doses and might represent an important alternative for the treatment of a disease that has still no cure, white spot syndrome virus.