Prevalence of Arcobacter spp. in Humans, Animals and Foods of Animal Origin Including Sea Food from India

Effects of different laying periods on airborne bacterial diversity and antibiotic resistance genes in layer hen houses

Poultry farms are a complex environment for close contact between humans and animals. Accumulating evidence has indicated that pathogens and drug resistance genes in chicken houses may pose a serious threat to public health and economic concerns. However, insufficient knowledge of the indoor aerosol microbiome and resistome profiles of layer hen houses hampers the understanding of their health effects. Environmental surveillance of antibiotic resistance may contribute to a better understanding and management of the human exposure risk of bioaerosols under the environmental conditions of chicken houses. In addition, the chicken house has a long operation cycle, and the bacterial diversity and antibiotic resistance genes of aerosols in different periods may be different. In this study, air samples were collected from 18 chicken houses on three farms, including the early laying period (EL), peak laying period (PL), and late laying period (LL). 16S rRNA gene sequencing and metagenomics were used to study the composition of the bacteria and resistome in aerosols of layer hen houses and the results showed that they varied with laying period. The highest alpha diversity of bacteria was observed in PL bioaerosols. The dominant bacterial phyla included Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria. Three potential pathogenic bacterial genera (Bacteroides, Corynebacterium and Fusobacterium) were found. The most abundant ARG type was aminoglycosides in all laying periods. In total, 22 possible ARG host genera were detected. ARG subtypes and abundance were both higher in LL. Network analysis also showed higher co-occurrence patterns between the bacteria and resistome in bioaerosols. The laying period plays an important role in the bacterial community and resistome in layer house aerosols.

First case of Arcobacter species isolated in pericardial fluid in an HIV and COVID-19 patient with worsening cardiac tamponade

Arcobacter spp. is an emerging pathogen that is increasingly recognized as a cause of human infections. Gastrointestinal manifestations are most described in the case report literature. We present a case of the first documented case of Arcobacter spp. isolated in pericardial fluid in an immunocompromised patient with worsening cardiac tamponade that was successfully managed with an urgent pericardiocentesis and ensuing steroids, antibiotics, and a pericardial drain. The patient had a past medical history of HIV, latent syphilis, PCP pneumonia, ESRD, and hypertension, and presented with worsening dyspnea, subjective fever, myalgias, cough, pleuritic chest pain, and pericardial rub. Diagnostic workup revealed a positive COVID-19 PCR test, elevated high-sensitive cardiac troponins, elevated CRP, elevated D-dimer, and elevated creatinine. An ECG revealed diffuse ST-segment elevation, and imaging showed cardiomegaly with pulmonary vascular congestion and diffuse interstitial edema. Urgent TTE showed a large circumferential pericardial effusion with tamponade physiology present. Culture on aerobic blood agar grew Arcobacter spp. of unknown specific species, and blood cultures were also positive for Arcobacter spp. Treatment involved intravenous meropenem for five days, followed by oral ciprofloxacin, low-dose colchicine, and a tapered dose of ibuprofen. Repeat laboratory data and TTE showed complete resolution of the pericardial effusion and improved left ventricular function. This case highlights the potential for Arcobacter spp. to cause severe infections and the importance of considering it as a possible pathogen in patients with atypical presentations.

Arcobacter species in milk contamination: a prevalence-based systematic review and meta-analysis

AIMS

Milk is consumed raw or minimally processed and plays a role in the dissemination of pathogens of public health concerns. The present investigation is aimed at assessing the occurrence of pathogenic Arcobacter species in 2945 milk samples.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Arcobacter data systematically retrieved from five repositories until 20 February 2022 according to PRISMA principles were logit transformed and fitted using a generalized linear mixed-effects model. The between-study heterogeneity was estimated as I2-value. Leave-one-out cross-validation and funnel plot with Egger's tests were used to assess the hardiness and bias in the model. The global prevalence of Arcobacter genus in the milk was 12% [95% confidence interval (CI): 7-19%; I2 = 87.3%, 95% CI: 83.0-90.6%] and no publication bias observed (Egger's test: P = 0.112). Arcobacter genus prevalence in milk was 13% (95% CI: 5-30%), 10% (95% CI: 1-46%), and 9% (95% CI: 4-19%) in Europe, South America, and Asia, respectively. Arcobacter butzleri was the most prevalent [8% (95% CI: 4-13%)], followed by A. cryaerophilus [0.6% (95% CI: 0.2-33.2%)] and A. skirrowii [0.19% (95% CI: 0.03-1.2%)]. Also, species-specific prevalence of A. butzleri, A. cryaerophilus, and A. skirrowii varied continentally, but the test for species-specific/continental differences was not significantly different (P > 0.5).

The Prevalence of Aliarcobacter Species in the Fecal Microbiota of Farm Animals and Potential Effective Agents for Their Treatment: A Review of the Past Decade

There is an endless demand for livestock-originated food, so it is necessary to elucidate the hazard points for livestock breeding. Pathogens are one of the hazard points that threaten the biosecurity of farm-animal breeding and public health. As a potential foodborne pathogen, Aliarcobacter is a member of the intestinal microbiota of farm animals with and without diarrhea. Aliarcobacter spp. are capable of colonizing livestock intestines and are transmitted through the feces. Hence, they endanger slaughterhouses and milk products with fecal contamination. They also have other, rarer, vertical and horizontal transmission routes, including the offspring that abort in farm animals. Gastrointestinal symptoms and abort cases demonstrate potential financial losses to the industry. Viewed from this perspective, the global circulation of farm-animal products is a significant route for zoonotic agents, including Aliarcobacter. In the last decade, worldwide prevalence of Aliarcobacter in fecal samples has ranged from 0.8% in Italy to 100% in Turkey. Furthermore, antibiotic resistance is recognized as a new type of environmental pollutant and has become a hot topic in animal breeding and the food industry. Increasing antibiotic resistance has become a significant problem impacting productivity. The increase in antimicrobial resistance rates in Aliarcobacter is caused by the misuse of antimicrobial drugs in livestock animals, leading to the acquiring of resistance genes from other bacteria, as well as mutations in current resistance genes. The most resistant strains are A. butzleri, A. cryaerophilus, and A. skirrowii. This review analyzes recent findings from the past decade on the prevalence of Aliarcobacter in the intestinal microbiota and the current effective antibiotics against Aliarcobacter. The paper also highlights that A. cryaerophilus and A. skirrowii are found frequently in diarrheal feces, indicating that Aliarcobacter should be studied further in livestock diarrheal diseases. Moreover, Aliarcobacter-infected farm animals can be treated with only a limited number of antibiotics, such as enrofloxacin, doxycycline, oxytetracycline, and gentamicin.

Genetic characteristics, antimicrobial resistance, and prevalence of Arcobacter spp. isolated from various sources in Shenzhen, China

Arcobacter spp. is a globally emerging zoonotic and foodborne pathogen. However, little is known about its prevalence and antimicrobial resistance in China. To investigate the prevalence of Arcobacter spp. isolated from various sources, 396 samples were collected from human feces, chicken cecum, and food specimens including chicken meat, beef, pork, lettuce, and seafood. Arcobacter spp. was isolated by the membrane filtration method. For 92 strains, the agar dilution method and next-generation sequencing were used to investigate their antimicrobial resistance and to obtain whole genome data, respectively. The virulence factor database (VFDB) was queried to identify virulence genes. ResFinder and the Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database (CARD) were used to predict resistance genes. A phylogenetic tree was constructed using the maximum likelihood (ML) method with core single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). We found that 27.5% of the samples (n = 109) were positive for Arcobacter spp., comprising Arcobacter butzleri (53.0%), Arcobacter cryaerophilus (39.6%), and Arcobacter skirrowii (7.4%). Chicken meat had the highest prevalence (81.2%), followed by seafood (51.9%), pork (43.3%), beef (36.7%), lettuce (35.5%), chicken cecum (8%), and human fecal samples (0%, 0/159). Antimicrobial susceptibility tests revealed that 51 A. butzleri and 40 A. cryaerophilus strains were resistant to streptomycin (98.1, 70%), clindamycin (94.1, 90%), tetracycline (64.7, 52.5%), azithromycin (43.1%, 15%), nalidixic acid (33.4, 35%), and ciprofloxacin (31.3, 35%) but were susceptible to erythromycin, gentamicin, chloramphenicol, telithromycin, and clindamycin (≤10%). A. skirrowii was sensitive to all experimental antibiotics. The virulence factors tlyA, mviN, cj1349, ciaB, and pldA were carried by all Arcobacter spp. strains at 100%, and the following percentages were cadF (95.7%), iroE (23.9%), hecB (2.2%), hecA, and irgA (1.1%). Only one A. butzleri strain (F061-2G) carried a macrolide resistance gene (ereA). One A. butzleri and one A. cryaerophilus harbored resistance island gene clusters, which were isolated from pork and chicken. Phylogenetic tree analysis revealed that A. butzleri, A. cryaerophilus, and A. skirrowii were separated from each other. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the isolation of Arcobacter spp. from vegetables and seafood in China. The resistance island gene cluster found in pork and chicken meat and the presence of virulence factors could be a potential risk to human health.

Prevalence and antibacterial susceptibilities of Arcobacter spp. and Campylobacter spp. from fresh vegetables

This study was aimed at the isolation and identification of Arcobacter spp. and Campylobacter spp. from fresh vegetables sold at district markets in the Kayseri province, and at the determination of the antibacterial susceptibility of the recovered isolates. For this purpose, a total of 175 vegetable samples, including 35 spinach, 35 lettuce, 35 parsley, 35 arugula, and 35 radish samples, were collected. While the pre-enrichment and membrane filtration techniques were used for the isolation of Arcobacter spp., the pre-enrichment and direct inoculation methods were used for the isolation of Campylobacter spp. The isolates were identified by means of phenotypic tests and the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), using genus- and species-specific primers. In addition, the susceptibilities of the isolates to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, enrofloxacin, erythromycin, gentamicin, neomycin, streptomycin, and tetracycline were determined by the disk diffusion method. Out of the 175 vegetable samples tested, 93 (53.14%) were found to be positive for Arcobacter spp., and 119 Arcobacter spp. isolates were recovered from these 93 positive samples. All of the samples examined were found to be negative for Campylobacter spp. One hundred one (86%) and 14 (10%) of the 119 Arcobacter isolates obtained were identified as A. butzleri and A. cryaerophilus, respectively, but four isolates could not be identified at the species level by mPCR. Mixed contamination with more than one species and/or genotypes of Arcobacter was detected in 24 of the positive samples. While all of the Arcobacter isolates were susceptible to erythromycin, gentamicin, streptomycin, and tetracycline, 2 (1.68%), 2 (1.68%), and 5 (4.20%) isolates were resistant to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, enrofloxacin, and neomycin, respectively. Consequently, the determination of a high prevalence of arcobacters and mixed contamination with more than one species and/or genotypes of arcobacters in vegetables often consumed raw by humans demonstrated that the consumption of raw vegetables may be a risk to the public health.

Characterization of Microbiological Quality of Whole and Gutted Baltic Herring

There is growing interest in Baltic herring (Clupea harengus membras) and other undervalued, small-sized fish species for human consumption. Gutting or filleting of small-sized fish is impractical; hence, the aim of this study was to explore the suitability of the whole (ungutted) herring for food use. The microbiological quality of commercially fished whole and gutted herring was analysed with culture-dependent methods combined with identification of bacterial isolates with MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry and culture-independent 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Whole and gutted herring had between 2.8 and 5.3 log₁₀ CFU g⁻¹ aerobic mesophilic and psychrotrophic bacteria and between 2.2 and 5.6 log₁₀ CFU g⁻¹ H₂S-producing bacteria. Enterobacteria counts remained low in all the analysed herring batches. The herring microbiota largely comprised the phyla Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and Actinobacteria (71.7% to 95.0%). Shewanella, Pseudomonas, and Aeromonas were the most frequently isolated genera among the viable population; however, with the culture-independent approach, Shewanella followed by Psychrobacter were the most abundant genera. In some samples, a high relative abundance of the phylum Epsilonbacteraeota, represented by the genus Arcobacter, was detected. This study reports the bacterial diversity present in Baltic herring and shows that the microbiological quality was acceptable in all the analysed fish batches.

Prevalence, antimicrobial susceptibility and virulence gene profiles of Arcobacter species isolated from human stool samples, foods of animal origin, ready-to-eat salad mixes and environmental water

Background

Members of the genus Arcobacter are considered as emerging zoonotic food and waterborne pathogens that cause gastroenteritis and bacteremia in humans. However, the potential risk that Arcobacter species pose to public health remains unassessed in various countries, including Baltic states. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the prevalence, antimicrobial susceptibility and presence of putative virulence genes of Arcobacter isolates recovered from humans, food products and environmental water in Lithuania.

Results

A total of 1862 samples were collected and examined from 2018 to 2020 in the city of Kaunas. Overall, 11.2% (n = 208) of the samples were positive for the presence of Arcobacter spp. The highest prevalence was detected in chicken meat (36%), followed by environmental water (28.1%), raw cow milk (25%), ready-to-eat salad mixes (7.1%) and human stool (1.7%). A. butzleri was the most frequently isolated species (n = 192; 92.3%), followed by A. cryaerophilus (n = 16; 7.7%). Arcobacter spp. antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed unimodally distributed aggregated minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for gentamicin, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, ampicillin and erythromycin. However, a bimodal distribution for azithromycin was found with 96.2% of determined MICs above the epidemiological cut-off value (ECOFF) defined for Campylobacter jejuni (0.25 µg/ml). Majority of the Arcobacter isolates (n = 187; 89.9%) showed high susceptibility to ciprofloxacin with MICs below or equal to the ECOFF value of 0.5 µg/ml. The putative virulence genes cadF (100%), ciaB (100%), cj1349 (99%), tlyA (99%), mviN (97.9%) and pldA (95.8%) were the predominant genes detected among A. butzleri isolates. In contrast, the mviN and ciaB genes were present in all, whereas cj1349 (12.5%), tlyA (25%) and hecA (12.5%) were only detected in few A. cryaerophilus isolates.

Conclusions

Our results demonstrate that food products and environmental water in Lithuania are frequently contaminated with Arcobacter spp. that carry multiple putative virulence genes. Furthermore, A. butzleri were isolated from 1.7% of inpatients. Fluoroquinolones and aminoglycosides were found to be more effective against Arcobacter in comparison to other antimicrobial agents. However, further studies are needed to determine the pathogenic mechanisms and factors that facilitate the spread of Arcobacter infections.

Aliarcobacter, Halarcobacter, Malaciobacter, Pseudarcobacter and Poseidonibacter are later synonyms of Arcobacter: transfer of Poseidonibacter parvus, Poseidonibacter antarcticus, 'Halarcobacter arenosus', and 'Aliarcobacter vitoriensis' to Arcobacter as Arcobacter parvus comb. nov., Arcobacter antarcticus comb. nov., Arcobacter arenosus comb. nov. and Arcobacter vitoriensis comb. nov

This paper re-examines the taxonomic positions of recently described Poseidonibacter (P. parvum and P. antarcticus), Aliarcobacter ('Al. vitoriensis'), Halarcobacter ('H. arenosus') and Arcobacter (A. caeni, A. lacus) species, and other species proposed to represent novel genera highly related to the genus Arcobacter. Phylogenomic and several overall genome relatedness indices (OGRIs) were applied to a total of 118 representative genomes for this purpose. Phylogenomic analyses demonstrated the Arcobacter clade to be distinct from other Epsilonproteobacteria, clearly defined and containing closely related species. Aliarcobacter butzleri and Malaciobacter pacificus did not cluster with other members of these proposed genera, indicating incoherence of these genera. Every OGRI measure applied indicated a high level of relatedness among all Arcobacter clade species, including the recently described taxa studied here, and substantially lower between type species representatives for other Epsilonproteobacteria. Where published guidelines were available, OGRI values for Arcobacter clade species were either unsupportive of division into other genera or were at the lowest boundary range (for average amino acid identity). We propose that Aliarcobacter, Halarcobacter, Malaciobacter, Pseudarcobacter, Poseidonibacter and Arcobacter sensu stricto be considered members of a single genus, Arcobacter, and subsequently transfer P. parvum, P. antarcticus, 'Al. vitoriensis' and 'H. arenosus' to Arcobacter as Arcobacter parvum comb. nov., Arcobacter antarcticus comb. nov., Arcobacter vitoriensis comb. nov. and Arcobacter arenosus comb. nov.

First case of diarrhea due to Aliarcobacter butzleri (formerly Arcobacter butzleri) in Ecuador

The first case of acute watery diarrhea disease due to Aliarcobacter butzleri (formerly Arcobacter butzleri) in Ecuador is reported. An infant presented with moderate protein-calorie malnutrition, dehydration and anemia. A curved Gram-negative organism was isolated from stools, having been preliminarily identified by phenotypic characteristics. Definitive identification was achieved by multiplex PCR. Aliarcobacter butzleri was the only pathogenic microorganism isolated. No other entero-pathogens, enterovirus or parasites were found. Our findings strongly suggest that in this specific case, A. butzleri was the etiological agent. Further investigations are needed to develop standardized diagnostic protocols and to establish the prevalence and significance of Aliarcobacter infections in humans.

Structural, functional, resistome and pathogenicity profiling of the Cooum river

The microbial community's structure and functions determine the health, quality, and anthropogenic conditions of the river ecosystems. The presence of Bacteria such as Arcobacter spp, Escherichia spp, and Campylobacters spp, have been shown to reflect the poor water quality of rivers. Apprehension of the microbial community in polluted water bodies is significant because it affects human health and the environment. Culture-independent metagenomic and metatranscriptomic approaches employed in the current study of the Cooum river unraveled the taxonomic classification of diverse microbes, including archaea, bacteria, viruses, and phages. The presence of abundant Macellibacteroides fermentans, Arcobacter bivolvorium, Arcobacter butzleri, Methanothrix soenhngeii, and Bacteroides graminisolvens were noted. Viruses and phages like Caudovirales, Human mastadenovirus C, Siphoviridae, Escherichia phage, Erwinia phage, Synechoccus phage, and Vibrio phage were relatively predominant. Various metabolic pathways like methane, sulfur, and nitrogen metabolism adopted by the microbiome confer dangerous gases. Mechanisms such as secretory systems, signal transduction, Chemotaxis, quorum sensing, transportation of chemicals and ions were significantly enriched. The microbes expressed antimicrobial resistance mechanisms as identified from the genes encoding beta-lactamase enzymes and aminoglycoside phosphotransferase enzymes. Metal resistance mechanisms against copper, tellurium, chromium, and cadmium were plentiful. Presence of human pathogens interactions with Yersinia pestis, Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli, Helicobacter pylori, and Francisella tularensis subsp. tularensis suggested the possibilities of transmission of pathogenesis to humans. The current study is the first to apprehend the detailed microbiome composition of one of the highly polluted rivers in South India. The study elaborated the microbiome's structure, functions, and metabolic potential at a specific site of the polluted river.

Isolation of Arcobacter spp. and identification of isolates by multiplex PCR from various domestic poultry and wild avian species

Purpose

The purpose of the present study was to determine the extent and seasonal prevalence of Arcobacter spp. in domestic poultry and wild birds in the Kars region of Turkey using multiplex polymerase chain reaction (m-PCR).

Methods

In this study, 1570 samples were collected from domestic poultry and wild avian species. The numbers of collected samples were as follows: 182 fecal samples from chickens, geese, and turkeys from family farms in the Kars region in Turkey; 1089 cloacal swab samples from chickens, geese, ducks, turkeys, and quails from family farms in this region; and 299 fecal samples from wild pigeons, crows, and owls in the same region.

Results

Arcobacter spp. were isolated from 17.43%, 35.77%, 3.63%, 6.87%, and 3.33% of the cloacal swab samples obtained from geese, ducks, chickens, turkeys, and quails, respectively. In the stool samples, Arcobacter spp. were isolated from 9.62%, 13.33%, and 4% of chicken, goose, and turkey samples, respectively. In wild birds, the isolation rates of Arcobacter spp. were 6.6%, 12.15%, and 0% in pigeons, crows, and owls, respectively. Using m-PCR, among 171 Arcobacter spp. isolates obtained from poultry and wild birds, 67, 78, 24, and 2 were identified as Arcobacter cryaerophilus, Arcobacter butzleri, Arcobacter skirrowii, and Arcobacter cibarius, respectively.

Conclusions

Both poultry and wild avian species exhibited variable rates of Arcobacter species positivity. The presence of Arcobacter spp. in the digestive tracts of healthy poultry and wild birds may serve as a potential reservoir for the dissemination of these microbes in the environment and their transmission to other animals and humans.

Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Arcobacter species in human stool samples derived from out- and inpatients: the prospective German Arcobacter prevalence study Arcopath

Background

Arcobacter species, particularly A. butzleri, but also A. cryaerophilus constitute emerging pathogens causing gastroenteritis in humans. However, isolation of Arcobacter may often fail during routine diagnostic procedures due to the lack of standard protocols. Furthermore, defined breakpoints for the interpretation of antimicrobial susceptibilities of Arcobacter are missing. Hence, reliable epidemiological data of human Arcobacter infections are scarce and lacking for Germany. We therefore performed a 13-month prospective Arcobacter prevalence study in German patients.

Results

A total of 4636 human stool samples was included and Arcobacter spp. were identified from 0.85% of specimens in 3884 outpatients and from 0.40% of specimens in 752 hospitalized patients. Overall, A. butzleri was the most prevalent species (n = 24; 67%), followed by A. cryaerophilus (n = 10; 28%) and A. lanthieri (n = 2; 6%). Whereas A. butzleri, A. cryaerophilus and A. lanthieri were identified in outpatients, only A. butzleri could be isolated from samples of hospitalized patients. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Arcobacter isolates revealed high susceptibilities to ciprofloxacin, whereas bimodal distributions of MICs were observed for azithromycin and ampicillin.

Conclusions

In summary, Arcobacter including A. butzleri, A. cryaerophilus and A. lanthieri could be isolated in 0.85% of German outpatients and ciprofloxacin rather than other antibiotics might be appropriate for antibiotic treatment of infections. Further epidemiological studies are needed, however, to provide a sufficient risk assessment of Arcobacter infections in humans.

Occurrence, virulence gene and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Arcobacter sp. isolated from catla (Catla catla) in India

In the present study, a total of 100 catla (Catla catla-major South Asian carp, local name botcha) collected from local fish markets and aquaculture ponds were subjected for isolation and characterization of Arcobacter sp. In all, 21 Arcobacter sp. were isolated, of which 18 (85·7%) were Arcobacter butzleri and three (14%) were A. cryoaerophilus as identified by multiplex PCR. All 18 A. butzleri isolates were positive for mviN, ciaB and tlyA virulence genes, three of A. cryoaerophilus isolates carried mviN gene and none of the isolates were positive for cadF, irgA, cj1349, hecA and hecB genes. All isolates (n = 21) were resistant to penicillin (100%). Meanwhile, 71·43, 23·81, 23·81, 14·29 and 9·52% of the isolates showed resistance towards vancomycin, nalidixic acid, erythromycin, cefixime and kanamycin, respectively. Multidrug resistance was observed in 23·81% of the Arcobacter sp. isolates and none of the isolates were positive for any of the extended spectrum beta-lactamases either by phenotypic or by molecular identification genes (bla_OXA , bla_SHV , bla_TEM , bla_CTX-M1 , bla_CTX-M2 and bla_CTX-M9 groups). The results emphasize the need to implement specific control procedures to reduce the use of antibiotics in aquaculture particularly the ones which are very important in human medicine. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Arcobacter species are emerging food- and water-borne human pathogens. In this study, Arcobacter butzleri was predominant in fish compared to A. cryoaerohilus and A. skirrowii. Higher incidence of arcobacters in fish market samples suggests cross contamination and unhygienic handling of fish in markets. Virulence genes profile and antibiotics resistance of the Arcobacter sp. isolated in current study indicate pathogenic potential of Arcobacter sp. to humans. Occurrence of multidrug-resistant Arcobacter sp. in fish is a major concern in food safety. To our knowledge, this is the first report of Arcobacter sp. from freshwater fish, catla (Catla catla) in India.

Genomic Characterization of Arcobacter butzleri Isolated From Shellfish: Novel Insight Into Antibiotic Resistance and Virulence Determinants

Arcobacter (A.) butzleri is an emerging pathogenic microorganism, whose taxonomy has been recently suggested to be emended to the Aliarcobacter (Al.) butzleri comb. nov. Despite extensive taxonomic analysis, only few fragmented studies have investigated the occurrence and the prevalence of virulence and antibiotic resistance determinants of this species in strains isolated from shellfish. Herein we report for the first time the whole genome sequencing and genomic characterization of two A. butzleri strains isolated from shellfish, with particular reference to the antibiotic, heavy metals and virulence determinants. This study supported the taxonomic assignment of these strains to the Al. butzleri species, and allowed us to identify antibiotic and metal resistance along with virulence determinants, also additional to those previously reported for the only two A. butzleri strains from different environments genomically characterized. Moreover, both strains showed resistance to β-lactams, vanocomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin and susceptibility to aminoglycosides and ciprofloxacin. Beside enlarging the availability of genomic data to perform comparative studies aimed at correlating phenotypic differences associated with ecological niche and geographic distribution with the genetic diversity of A. butzleri spp., this study reports the endowment of antibiotic and heavy metal resistance and virulence determinants of these shellfish-isolated strains. This leads to hypothesize a relatively high virulence of A. butzleri isolated from shellfish and prompt the need for a wider genomic analysis and for in vitro and in vivo studies of more strains isolated from this and other ecological niches, to unravel the mechanism of pathogenicity of this species, and the potential risk associated to their consumption.

The Clean India Mission: Public and animal health benefits

The Clean India Mission is a national campaign that aims for complete elimination of open defecation from the country. In India, 564 million people do not have access to toilets and defecate in the open environment. The 'Millennium development goals' have given increased weightage to elimination of open defecation for improving health, nutrition and productivity of developing country populations. The Indian economy bears an estimated annual total loss (in terms of health, education, access time and tourism) of US$ 54 billion due to lack of toilets, poor hygiene and over US$ 38.5 billion in treatment costs for diseases occurring due to poor hygiene. Out of 1415 human pathogens, at least more than 10% of pathogens are transmitted through the faecal-oral route. The practice of open defecation helps pathogens persist in the environment and cause diseases. This review focuses on the current status and harms of open defecation, as well as the public and animal health benefits of implementing 'The Clean India Mission' in India.

Isolation and molecular characterization of Arcobacter butzleri and Arcobacter cryaerophilus from the pork production chain in Brazil

ABSTRACT: Arcobacter is an emerging zoonotic pathogen, and the major transmission routes to humans are the handling or consumption of contaminated raw/undercooked food products of animal origin, water and seafood. The isolation and identification of Arcobacter species are not routine in clinical laboratories; therefore, its true incidence in human infections may be underestimated. The present study aimed to isolate and characterize Arcobacter from carcasses and fecal samples collected at swine slaughterhouses and from meat markets in São Paulo State, Brazil. The isolates were identified using multiplex-PCR to differentiate the species and analyzed by single-enzyme amplified fragment length polymorphism (SE-AFLP). Arcobacter spp. were isolated from 73.0% of swine carcasses, 4% of fecal samples and 10% of pork samples. A. butzleri was the most prevalent species identified, followed by A. cryaerophilus. Interestingly, the carcasses presented higher frequency of A. butzleri isolation, whereas only A. cryaerophilus was isolated from fecal samples. SE-AFLP enabled the characterization of A. butzleri and A. cryaerophilus into 51 and 63 profiles, respectively. The great genetic heterogeneity observed for both species corroborates previous reports. This study confirms the necessity for a standard isolation protocol and the improvement of molecular tools to further elucidate Arcobacter epidemiology.

Arcobacter: an emerging food-borne zoonotic pathogen, its public health concerns and advances in diagnosis and control - a comprehensive review

Arcobacter has emerged as an important food-borne zoonotic pathogen, causing sometimes serious infections in humans and animals. Newer species of Arcobacter are being incessantly emerging (presently 25 species have been identified) with novel information on the evolutionary mechanisms and genetic diversity among different Arcobacter species. These have been reported from chickens, domestic animals (cattle, pigs, sheep, horses, dogs), reptiles (lizards, snakes and chelonians), meat (poultry, pork, goat, lamb, beef, rabbit), vegetables and from humans in different countries. Arcobacters are implicated as causative agents of diarrhea, mastitis and abortion in animals, while causing bacteremia, endocarditis, peritonitis, gastroenteritis and diarrhea in humans. Three species including A. butzleri, A. cryaerophilus and A. skirrowii are predominantly associated with clinical conditions. Arcobacters are primarily transmitted through contaminated food and water sources. Identification of Arcobacter by biochemical tests is difficult and isolation remains the gold standard method. Current diagnostic advances have provided various molecular methods for efficient detection and differentiation of the Arcobacters at genus and species level. To overcome the emerging antibiotic resistance problem there is an essential need to explore the potential of novel and alternative therapies. Strengthening of the diagnostic aspects is also suggested as in most cases Arcobacters goes unnoticed and hence the exact epidemiological status remains uncertain. This review updates the current knowledge and many aspects of this important food-borne pathogen, namely etiology, evolution and emergence, genetic diversity, epidemiology, the disease in animals and humans, public health concerns, and advances in its diagnosis, prevention and control.

Virulence gene profiles of Arcobacter species isolated from animals, foods of animal origin, and humans in Andhra Pradesh, India

Aim::

This study aimed to detect putative virulence genes in Arcobacter species of animal and human origin.

Materials and Methods::

A total of 41 Arcobacter isolates (16 Arcobacter butzleri, 13 Arcobacter cryaerophilus, and 12 Arcobacter skirrowii) isolated from diverse sources such as fecal swabs of livestock (21), raw foods of animal origin (13), and human stool samples (7) were subjected to a set of six uniplex polymerase chain reaction assays targeting Arcobacter putative virulence genes (ciaB, pldA, tlyA, mviN, cadF, and cj1349).

Results::

All the six virulence genes were detected among all the 16 A. butzleri isolates. Among the 13 A. cryaerophilus isolates, cadF, ciaB, cj1349, mviN, pldA, and tlyA genes were detected in 61.5, 84.6, 76.9, 76.9, 61.5, and 61.5% of isolates, respectively. Among the 12 A. skirrowii isolates, cadF, ciaB, cj1349, mviN, pldA, and tlyA genes were detected in 50.0, 91.6, 83.3, 66.6, 50, and 50% of isolates, respectively.

Conclusion::

Putative virulence genes were detected in majority of the Arcobacter isolates examined. The results signify the potential of Arcobacter species as an emerging foodborne pathogen.

Comparative isolation and genetic diversity of Arcobacter sp. from fish and the coastal environment

Arcobacter species are emerging food-borne and water-borne human pathogens associated mostly with food animals and their environment. The present study was aimed to isolate Arcobacter species from fish, shellfish and coastal water samples using two methods and to determine their genetic diversity. Of 201 samples of fish, shellfish and water samples analysed, 66 (32·8%) samples showed the presence of Arcobacter DNA from both Arcobacter enrichment broth and Bolton broth. Arcobacters were isolated from 58 (87·8%) and 38 (57·5%) of Arcobacter DNA-positive samples using Arcobacter blood agar and Preston blood agar, respectively. Arcobacter sp. identified by biochemical tests were further analysed by a genus-specific PCR, followed by a multiplex-PCR and 16S rRNA-RFLP. From both the methods, four different Arcobacter species namely Arcobacter butzleri, Arcobacter skirrowii, Arcobacter mytili and Arcobacter defluvii were isolated, of which A. butzleri was the predominant species. Enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC)-PCR fingerprint analysis revealed that the arcobacters isolated in this study were genetically very diverse and no specific genotype was found associated with a specific source (seafood or water). Since pathogenic arcobacters are not known to be natural inhabitants of coastal marine environment, identifying the sources of contamination will be crucial for effective management of this problem.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Arcobacter sp. are emerging food- and water-borne human pathogens. In this study, comparison of two selective media suggested Arcobacter blood agar to be more efficient in yielding Arcobacter sp. from seafood. Furthermore, the isolation of Arcobacter sp. such as Arcobacter butzleri, A. skirrowii, A. mytili and A. defluvii from seafood suggests diverse sources of contamination of seafood by Arcobacter sp. Analysis of enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus sequence-PCR patterns of A. butzleri showed high genetic diversity and lack of clonality among the isolates. Arcobacter contamination of seafood is an emerging issue both from seafood safety and seafood trade point of view.

Isolation and Identification of Arcobacter Species from Costa Rican Poultry Production and Retail Sources

Arcobacter is a gram-negative rod recognized as a potential food- and waterborne pathogen; nevertheless, little is known about the effects of this pathogen on human and animal health. Although Arcobacter species are commonly found in nature, poultry is suspected to be the main vehicle for the transmission of this pathogen. The aims of this work were to determine the prevalence of Arcobacter spp. in broilers produced in Costa Rica for human consumption and to analyze the pathogenic capacity of the isolates through the detection of virulence genes. One hundred fifty-two samples of cecal content (87 farms), 104 samples of carcass rinse after chiller (six processing plants), and 96 carcass rinses from as many retail stores were analyzed. The suspicious isolates were identified using genus-specific PCR, and species-level identification was achieved with a multiplex PCR. Virulence genes were identified using the protocol described by L. Douidah, L. de Zutter, J. Baré, P. De Vos, P. Vandamme, O. Vandenberg, A.-M. Van den Abeele, and K. Houf (J. Clin. Microbiol. 50:735-741, 2012), which includes nine different virulence genes. The overall isolation frequency of Arcobacter was 6.5% (n = 23). Eight (34.8%) of the isolates came from cecal content, 2 (8.7%) were isolated from samples taken after chiller, and 13 (56.5%) were from retail stores. The species isolated included A. thereius (30.4%), A. butzleri (21.7%), A. skirrowii (4.3%), and A. cibarius (4.3%). The remaining samples were classified as Arcobacter sp. Gene tlyA was the most prevalent virulence gene, present in 9 of 23 samples analyzed; genes hecA and pldA were present in one only strain each. A strain of A. butzleri isolated from a retail store presented the highest number of virulence genes (five), and 11 samples did not present any of the genes analyzed. The results obtained suggest that the presence of virulent Arcobacter isolates in the poultry production chain from Costa Rica could be a risk for individuals who consume the contaminated product.

Occurrence of Arcobacter spp. and correlation with the bacterial indicator of faecal contamination Escherichia coli in bivalve molluscs from the Central Adriatic, Italy

A total of 162 samples of bivalve molluscs (45 mussels and 117 clams) collected between December 2012 and 2014 from harvesting areas of the Central Adriatic were analysed by a culturing method for the presence of Arcobacter spp. Species identification was performed by PCR and sequencing analysis of a fragment of the rpoB gene. Overall, Arcobacter species were detected in 30% of samples, specifically 33% clams and 22% mussels. A. butzleri was the most common species (20% of the samples), followed by A. cryaerophilus (9%) and A. skirrowii (1%). A seasonal association of A. butzleri contamination was detected. A. butzleri was significantly more commonly recovered from samples collected during the winter-spring period (29%) than from those of the summer-autumn (8%). A. cryaerophilus was cultured from 6% to 11% of the samples collected in summer-autumn and winter-spring, respectively, but these differences were not statistically significant. A. skirrowii was recovered from a sample of mussels harvested in May 2014. To identify associations between the occurrence of Arcobacter spp. and E. coli levels, samples were divided into groups generating results with E. coli at >230MPN/100g and E. coli at ≤230MPN/100g, the latter corresponding to EU microbiological criteria allowed for live bivalve molluscs at retail level. A. butzleri was significantly more commonly detected in samples with higher E. coli levels (48%) than in those with lower levels of E. coli (10%), providing evidence for considering E. coli as an index organism for A. butzleri contamination in bivalve molluscs.

Comparative Detection and Quantification of Arcobacter butzleri in Stools from Diarrheic and Nondiarrheic People in Southwestern Alberta, Canada

Arcobacter butzleri has been linked to enteric disease in humans, but its pathogenicity and epidemiology remain poorly understood. The lack of suitable detection methods is a major limitation. Using comparative genome analysis, we developed PCR primers for direct detection and quantification ofA. butzleri DNA in microbiologically complex matrices. These primers, along with existing molecular and culture-based methods, were used to detectA. butzleri and enteric pathogens in stools of diarrheic and nondiarrheic people (n= 1,596) living in southwestern Alberta, Canada, from May to November 2008. In addition, quantitative PCR was used to compare A. butzleridensities in diarrheic and nondiarrheic stools.Arcobacter butzleriwas detected more often by PCR (59.6%) than by isolation methods (0.8%). Comparison by PCR-based detection found no difference in the prevalence ofA. butzleri between diarrheic (56.7%) and nondiarrheic (45.5%) individuals. Rates of detection in diarrheic stools peaked in June (71.1%) and October (68.7%), but there was no statistically significant correlation between the presence ofA. butzleri and patient age, sex, or place of habitation. Densities ofA. butzleriDNA in diarrheic stools (1.6 ± 0.59 log10 copies mg(-1)) were higher (P= 0.007) than in nondiarrheic stools (1.3 ± 0.63 log10copies mg(-1)). Of the 892 diarrheic samples that were positive for A. butzleri, 74.1% were not positive for other bacterial and/or viral pathogens. The current study supports previous work suggesting that A. butzleri pathogenicity is strain specific and/or dependent on other factors, such as the level of host resistance.

One day to one hour: how quickly can foodborne pathogens be detected?

Foodborne pathogens pose serious public health risks. Rapid, accurate technologies to detect a low number of target cells (1 cell/25-325 g sample) and microbial toxins are in demand in order to assess product safety in hours to up to 1 day. Varied pathogen loads and the complexity of food present a major challenge. Current culture methods, while accurate, are lengthy. New methods, using brief culturing and detection kits (antibody based, nucleic acid amplification or nano/biosensors) or a culture-independent approach coupled with nucleic acid amplification, traditionally used for viruses/parasites, can be used to obtain results in hours. A strategic approach involving two-step, rapid, high-throughput screening to rule out negatives followed by a confirmatory test could accomplish product testing in 1 h to 1 day.

Zoonotic species of the genus Arcobacter in poultry from different regions of Costa Rica

In recent years, emerging pathogens have received special attention due to their consequences for public health. Given that Arcobacter has been isolated in Costa Rica from commercial meat poultry samples, the aim of this research was to determine its isolation frequency from laying hens, broilers, ducks, and geese and to compare two types of samples, namely, cloacal swabs and stool collection. Arcobacter was isolated from 22 (11%) of the 200 samples examined. Fifteen (55%), eight (30%), and four (15%) of the isolated strains were identified as A. butzleri, A. cryareophilus, and Arcobacter spp., respectively. Also, there is a statistically significant difference among the isolation frequencies of Arcobacter for the types of samples evaluated, yielding more isolates from stool samples than from cloacal swab collection. This work describes the distribution of Arcobacter in farm animals as potential sources for its spread from animal-derived products.

Insights in the pathogenesis and resistance of Arcobacter: A review

Arcobacter genus currently comprises 18 recognized species, among which Arcobacter butzleri, Arcobacter cryaerophilus and Arcobacter skirrowii have been associated with human and animal disease. Although these organisms, with special emphasis A. butzleri, are emerging as clinical pathogens, several aspects of their epidemiology and virulence are only starting to be clarified. In vitro human and animal cell culture assays have been used to show that several Arcobacter species can adhere to and invade eukaryotic cells, induce an immune response and produce toxins that damage host cells. In addition, data from genome sequencing highlighted several potential markers that may be helpful candidates for the study and understanding of these mechanisms; however, more work is necessary to clarify the molecular mechanisms involved in Arcobacter virulence. Arcobacter can be considered a relatively robust organism showing to be able to survive in adverse conditions, as the ones imposed by food processing and storage. Moreover, these bacteria have shown increased antibiotic resistance, along with high multidrug resistance. In this review, we seek to update the state-of-the-art concerning Arcobacter distribution, its interaction with the host, the trends of antibiotic resistance, its ability to survive, and finally the use of natural antimicrobials for control of Arcobacter.

Genotyping and genetic diversity of Arcobacter butzleri and Arcobacter cryaerophilus isolated from different sources by using ERIC-PCR from India

BACKGROUND

Arcobacters are important zoonotic pathogens and are transmitted through food and water. They are implicated in causing enteritis in animals and humans. Among the Arcobacter species, a wide genetic diversity has been documented, which reflects continuous evolving nature of these pathogens.

OBJECTIVES

To genotype and to know the genetic diversity of Arcobacter spp. (Arcobacter butzleri and Arcobacter cryaerophilus) isolated from different sources in India.

METHODS

Enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus-polymerase chain reaction (ERIC-PCR) was performed using genomic DNA of 49 Arcobacter isolates (27 A. butzleri and 22 A. cryaerophilus), recovered from a total of 506 samples of chicken meat, poultry skin, dairy cow milk and human stool as template and employing published primers.

RESULTS

ERIC sequence was found to be present in all the 27 A. butzleri isolates which were grouped into 18 subtypes, while it was present in 20 out of 22 A. cryaerophilus isolates which were grouped into 14 subtypes. Less variation was observed within sequences of both the Arcobacter species as revealed in dendrogram analysis. The genotyping of A. butzleri isolates showed the presence of 2-8 distinct bands (∼150 to ∼1600 bp), while A. cryaerophilus showed 1-10 distinct bands (∼120 to ∼2900 bp).

CONCLUSION

This study is the first report regarding genetic diversity of Indian Arcobacter isolates using ERIC-PCR. Close clustering between arcobacters of human and animal origin are indicative of probable zoonotic significance. So for these purposes, further explorative studies are suggested which would also help revealing the possibility of epidemiological relationships of different Arcobacter spp. as well as their public health concerns.

Wonder world of phages: potential biocontrol agents safeguarding biosphere and health of animals and humans- current scenario and perspectives

Darwin's theory of natural selection and concept of survival of fittest of Wallace is a universal truth which derives the force of life among all live entities on this biosphere. Issues regarding food safety along with increased drug resistance and emerging zoonotic infections have proved that multidisciplinary efforts are in demand for human and animal welfare. This has led to development of various novel therapies the list of which remains incomplete without mentioning about phages. Homologous and non-homologous recombination along with point mutation and addition of new genes play role in their evolution. The rapid emergence of the antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria have created keen interest in finding necessary alternatives to check microbial infections and there comes the importance of phages. Phages kill the bacteria either by lysis or by releasing holins. Bacteriophages; the viruses that live on bacteria are nowadays considered as the best biocontrol agents. They are used as replacers of antibiotics; food industry promoter; guard of aquatic life as well as of plants; pre-slaughter treatment agents; Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) food additives; Typing agent of bacteria; active tool of super bug therapy; in post harvest crops and food and during post infection and also to combat intracellular pathogens viz. Mycobacteria and Mycoplasma. Cyanophages/phycophages are particularly useful in controlling blooms produced by various genera of algae and cyanobacteria. By performing centrifugation studies and based on electron microscopy certain virus like particles containing ds RNA have been confirmed as mycophages. They are well proven as threat to pathogenic fungi (both fungal hyphae and yeast). Those that infect yeasts are called zymophages. Virophages have exquisite specificity for their viral host, hence can extensively be used for genetic studies and can also act as evolutionary link. After the discovery of very first virophage till now, a total of 3 virophages have been discovered including the Sputnik virophages that are used to study genetic recombination. Virophages also find their application in antiviral therapy; as engineer of ecological system etc. In brief, present review deals with various dimensions of these beneficial viruses that are being used and can be successfully used in future for safeguarding biosphere including animal and human health.

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA (LAMP): a new diagnostic tool lights the world of diagnosis of animal and human pathogens: a review

Diagnosis is an important part in case of animal husbandry as treatment of a disease depends on it. Advancement in molecular biology has generated various sophisticated tools like Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), its versions along with pen-side diagnostic techniques. Every diagnostic test however has both advantages and disadvantages; PCR is not an exception to this statement. To ease the odds faced by PCR several non-PCR techniques which can amplify DNA at a constant temperature has become the need of hour, thus generating a variety of isothermal amplification techniques including Nucleic Acid Sequence-Based Amplification (NASBA) along with Self-Sustained Sequence Replication (3SR) and Strand Displacement Amplification (SDA) and Loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) test. LAMP stands out to be a good and effective diagnostic test for empowering in developing countries as it does not require sophisticated equipments and skilled personnel and proves to be cost-effective. Performance of LAMP mainly relies on crafting of six primers (including 2 loop primers) ultimately accelerating the reaction. LAMP amplifies DNA in the process pyrophosphates are formed causing turbidity that facilitates visualisation in a more effective way than PCR. The Bst and Bsm polymerase are the required enzymes for LAMP that does not possess 5'-3' exonuclease activity. Results can be visualized by adding DNA binding dye, SYBR green. LAMP is more stable than PCR and real-time PCR. Non-involvement of template DNA preparation and ability to generate 10(9) copies of DNA are added benefits that make it more effective than NASBA or 3SR and SDA. Thus, it fetches researcher's interest in developing various versions of LAMP viz., its combination with lateral flow assay or micro LAMP and more recently lyophilized and electric (e) LAMP. Availability of ready to use LAMP kits has helped diagnosis of almost all pathogens. LAMP associated technologies however needs to be developed as a part of LAMP platform rather than developing them as separate entities. This review deals with all these salient features of this newly developed tool that has enlightened the world of diagnosis.

Food-borne pathogens of animal origin-diagnosis, prevention, control and their zoonotic significance: a review

The term food borne diseases or food-borne illnesses or more commonly food poisoning are used to denote gastrointestinal complications that occur following recent consumption of a particular food or drink. Millions of people suffer worldwide every year and the situation is quiet grave in developing nations creating social and economic strain. The food borne pathogens include various bacteria viz., Salmonella, Campylobacter, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica, Staphylococcus, Arcobacter, Clostridium perfringens, Cl. botulinum and Bacillus cereus and helminths viz., Taenia. They also include protozoa viz., Trichinella, Sarcocystis, Toxoplasma gondii and Cryptosporidium parvum. The zoonotic potential and the ability to elaborate toxins by many of the microbes causing fatal intoxication are sufficient to understand the seriousness of the situation. The viral agents being host specific their transmission to humans through food of animal origin is not yet confirmed although these animal viruses are similar to that of viruses infecting human. Food-borne bacteria; protozoa and helminthes have complex distribution pattern in the environment and inside the host system. This along with complexity of the maintenance chain and life cycle (of parasites) has made it difficult for epidemiologist and diagnostician to undertake any immediate safety measures against them. Serological and molecular diagnostic tests viz. ELISA, Latex agglutination test, Lateral flow assays, Immunomagnetic separation assays, molecular assays viz. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), multiplex PCR, immuno-PCR, Realtime PCR, Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD)-PCR, DNA microarrays and probes are widely used. Along with these LAMP assays, Capillary Electrophoresis-Single Strand Confirmation polymorphism (CE-SSCP); Flow cytometry, FISH, Biosensors, Direct epifluorescent filter technique, nanotechnology based methods and sophisticated tools (ultrasonography, magnetic resonance imaging and chlonangio-pancreatography) have aided in the diagnosis greatly. Most of the food-borne illnesses are self-limiting but in many instances antibiotics are recommended. With the increased drug resistance however use of chicken immunoglobulin, bacteriophage therapy, probiotics and herbs are gaining much importance these days. Adoption of proper prevention and control measures (including cooking procedures; hygiene, strict adherence to HACCP principles, public awareness and disease surveillance and monitoring) are the need of hour. All these have been discussed vividly in this review to help epidemiologists, diagnosticians, clinicians and above all common people so as to enable them avoid negligence regarding such serious issue.

Genus-specific PCR assay for screening Arcobacter spp. in chicken meat

BACKGROUND

The number of emerging pathogenic species described within the genus Arcobacter has increased rapidly during the last few years. In this work a genus-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was developed for detection of the species of Arcobacter most commonly associated with foods. The assay uses primers designed to amplify an 85 bp DNA fragment on the 16S rRNA gene and was applied to the detection of Arcobacter spp. in retail chicken meat.

RESULTS

Primer specificity was tested against a panel of Arcobacter spp., related Campylobacter and Helicobacter spp. and other food bacteria. Arcobacter primers consistently and selectively amplified the expected DNA fragment in all tested Arcobacter spp. Bacterial control primers confirmed the presence of amplifiable DNA in the samples. The applicability of the PCR assay to food was validated through screening of fresh retail chicken samples for the presence of Arcobacter spp., with a result of 45% (23 out of 51) positive samples.

CONCLUSION

The genus-specific PCR assay developed has the potential to be used as a quick and sensitive alternative method for the survey of Arcobacter contamination in meats.

Listeria monocytogenes infection in poultry and its public health importance with special reference to food borne zoonoses

Listeriosis is a disease that causes septicemia or encephalitis in humans, animals and birds. Although, the disease is rare and sporadic in poultry but if occurs then causes septicemia or sometimes localized encephalitis. Occasionally, the disease is seen in young chicks and the causative agent, like in humans and animals, is Listeria monocytogenes. The organism is capable to infect almost all animals and poultry; however, outbreaks of listeriosis are infrequent in birds. It is widely distributed among avian species and chickens, turkeys, waterfowl (geese, ducks), game birds, pigeons, parrots, wood grouse, snowy owl, eagle, canaries, which appear to be the most commonly affected. Chickens are thought to be the carriers of Listeria and also the prime reservoirs for the infection and thus contaminate the litter and environment of the poultry production units. Listeriosis is often noticed along with other poultry diseases such as coccidiosis, infectious coryza, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis and parasitic infections, signifying the opportunistic nature of the organism. Intestinal colonization of poultry and the presence of L. monocytogenes in feces represent a potential source of the organism for listeriosis in ruminants. Man gets infection from raw broiler meat due to Listeria contamination and unhygienic conditions of the processing area, rather than acquiring direct infection from birds. With the changing food habits of the people, the health consciousness is also increasing and since listeriosis has now been recognized as an emerging food borne zoonoses. Therefore, this review has been compiled to make aware the poultry producers and the consumers of poultry meat/products regarding the importance of the disease and its public health significance.

Immunomodulators in day to day life: a review

There are ongoing trends of immunomodulation to combat a vast range of human and animal diseases including the incurable diseases like viral diseases, cancers, autoimmune diseases and inflammatory conditions. Animate as well as non-animate factors, surrounding us are interacting with our immune system. A balanced diet should contain all essential components from energy to vitamin and trace minerals. Each of these constituent has a very special effect on the immune system starting from their development to active role in immunity therefore, the outcome of their deficiency often ends in disease. Edible items which we consume like various vegetables, spices, herbs, fruits etc., are also equally responsible in manipulation of our system either in positive or negative way. Water has biggest share in our body and acts as the main medium to support the activities of the different system of body without exception of immune system. Proper environmental temperature is essential to maintain body's functions and experiments carried out regarding the effect of temperature suggest that extremes of the temperature are often cause immunosuppression directly by acting on the cells of immunity or indirectly through inducing stress and thereby increasing production of catecholamine which are potent anti-immune molecules. Various pathogenic as well as non-pathogenic bacteria cause immune suppression and immune potentiation, respectively. Proper exercise hold a prime position in the healthy life as it supports immunity and keeps disease away. The present review deals with all these immunomodulators having both positive and negative impact on the health status of an individual.

Prevalence and genetic diversity of arcobacter in food products in the north of Spain

The bacterial contamination of food products can cause serious public health problems. Interest in Arcobacter contamination has increased due to the relationship between these bacteria and human enteritis. We studied the prevalence and genetic diversity of Arcobacter species at the retail level in the province of Alava in Basque Country, Spain. The results showed a high genetic diversity and indicated the regular presence of the main Arcobacter spp. associated with human enteric illness in food products. Arcobacter butzleri, Arcobacter cryaerophilus, and Arcobacter skirrowii were detected with an overall prevalence close to 40% and were isolated from 15 (42.8%) fresh cow's milk samples, 12 (73.3%) shellfish samples, 11 (55%) chicken samples, 2 (10%) pork samples, and 1 (5%) beef sample. The results indicate the need to investigate the impact of Arcobacter spp. on public health.

Isolation and identification of zoonotic species of genus arcobacter from chicken viscera obtained from retail distributors of the metropolitan area of San José, Costa Rica

Arcobacter is a genus of growing importance worldwide; some of its species are considered emerging enteropathogens and potential zoonotic agents. In Costa Rica, as well as in other countries, its isolation has been reported, so the objective of this project was to evaluate and identify the presence of Arcobacter in chicken viscera sold in the metropolitan area of San José, Costa Rica, as well as to determine the antimicrobial resistance patterns associated with it. One hundred fifty samples of chicken viscera including heart, liver, and other gastrointestinal organs were purchased from 15 supermarkets and 15 local retailers. De Boer and Houf broths were used as enrichment media; isolation was done with Arcobacter-selective medium and with membrane filtration with blood agar. Typical colonies were identified with genus-specific PCR, and species identification was made with multiplex PCR. Susceptibility to ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, gentamicin, and tetracycline was done with the Epsilometer test. The isolation frequency of Arcobacter genus obtained in this study was of 17.3%. A total of 33 isolates were obtained from the poultry samples, and according to the multiplex PCR methodology, 22 (66.7%) isolates were identified as Arcobacter butzleri, 8 (24.2%) as Arcobacter cryaerophilus, and 1 (3.1%) as Arcobacter skirrowii. Two strains were not identified. No statistical significant difference was found when the source of samples was compared. Resistance toward chloramphenicol was 68.75%, followed by ampicillin (43.75%) and ciprofloxacin (18.75%); all strains were susceptible to tetracycline.

Novel and emerging therapies safeguarding health of humans and their companion animals: a review

Modern medicine has helped to a great extent to eradicate and cure several diseases of mankind and animals. But the existence of incurable diseases like cancer, Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), diabetes or rheumatoid arthritis, side effects of allopathic medicine, increasing trend of antibiotic resistance and chemicals and biopesticides causing dietary risk have made the situation more critical than ever before. Thus, it has become a matter of concern for the scientists and researchers to develop novel therapies. Bacteriophage therapy to treat pathogenic bacterial infections, virophage therapy for conservation of global system and avian egg yolk antibody therapy for designing prophylactic strategies against Gastrointestinal (GI) diseases are interesting approaches. Others include the use of cytokines as adjunctive immunomodulators, gene therapy focusing on diseases caused by single gene defects, RNAi technology to suppress specific gene of interest and apoptins for cancer treatment. Stem cell therapy against several diseases and ailments has also been discussed. The use of nanoparticles for better drug delivery, even though costly, has been given equal importance. Nevertheless, immunomodulation, be it through physiological, chemical or microbial products, or through essential micronutrients, probiotics, herbs or cow therapy prove to be cost-effective, causing minimum adverse reactions when compared to allopathy. Development in the field of molecular biology has created an enormous impact on vaccine development. The present review deals with all these novel and emerging therapies essential to safeguard the health of humans and companion animals.

Emerging pathogen Arcobacter spp. in acute gastroenteritis: molecular identification, antibiotic susceptibilities and genotyping of the isolated arcobacters

The aims of this study were as follows: (i) to isolate Arcobacter spp. from the stool samples of patients with gastroenteritis; (ii) to identify them with molecular methods; (iii) to genotype them using enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC)-PCR; and (iv) to determine their antibiotic susceptibilities. For the study, a total of 3287 diarrhoeal stool samples submitted to the Microbiology Laboratory of the Kayseri Training and Research Hospital, Kayseri, Turkey, between 2010 and 2011 were analysed. Campylobacter blood-free selective medium supplemented with cefoperazone, amphotericin B and teicoplanin was used for isolation. Medium inoculated with stool samples was incubated microaerobically at 37 °C for 72-96 h. Phenotypic tests, a genus-specific PCR and a multiplex PCR were used to identify the arcobacters, whilst ERIC-PCR was used for genotyping and the antibiotic susceptibilities of the isolates were detected by E-test. Arcobacter spp. were isolated from nine of the 3287 samples. These nine isolates were identified as Arcobacter butzleri and all showed different ERIC-PCR profiles. All nine isolates were resistant to ampicillin and susceptible to gentamicin, tetracycline, erythromycin and ciprofloxacin. As far as is known, this is the first study in which A. butzleri has been isolated from human acute gastrointestinal infections in Turkey. According to these results, it is recommended that, when investigating the aetiology of infections of the digestive system in humans, Arcobacter spp. be considered for inclusion. The results of this study should contribute to our knowledge related to A. butzleri infections in humans.