Comparison of owner-reported health problems with veterinary assessment of geriatric horses in the United Kingdom

UK horse owners and veterinary practitioners' experiences of decision-making for critical cases of colic

BACKGROUND

The survival of horses diagnosed with critical colic (requiring referral or euthanasia) relies on rapid and effective decision-making by the owner and veterinary practitioner.

OBJECTIVES

To explore UK horse owners' and veterinary practitioners' experiences of decision-making for critical cases of equine colic.

STUDY DESIGN

Qualitative study using a phenomenological approach.

METHODS

Individual, semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with 14 horse owners and 13 veterinary practitioners (vets) who had experienced a critical decision (referral or euthanasia) for a horse with colic. A purposive, convenience sample of participants was recruited. Sessions explored participant's experience of colic, including recognition, help-seeking behaviour, and challenges. Thematic analysis was performed on collected data.

RESULTS

Four over-arching themes were identified; 'head', 'heart', 'practicalities' and 'impact'. Owners acknowledged responsibility for their horse's welfare but had different perspectives than vets on the importance of finance ('head'). Both vets and owners described how the horse-human relationship ('heart') often led to conflict during decision-making. The vet-client relationship was influential on decision-making for both owners and vets; involving other people in decision-making was described both positively and negatively by participants ('heart'). 'Practicalities', such as lack of preparedness, transport issues and adverse weather conditions, were identified by both owners and vets as barriers. Owners described a 'rollercoaster' of emotions after a critical decision, with profound impacts on their mental wellbeing, feelings of guilt, and long-term changes in behaviour ('impact'), and a lack of support to manage these feelings.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Small sample size.

CONCLUSIONS

This study describes stakeholder decision-making during critical cases of equine colic. Factors that commonly influenced decisions included an owner's previous knowledge and beliefs, social pressures, logistics and the relationship between the owner and vet. The study highlighted long-term impacts on the owner, including their management and decisions for subsequent horses. These factors should be considered in shared decision-making.

Welfare assessment of stabled horses in five equestrian disciplines

In Serbia, at present, there is very little information about the welfare of horses. The aim of this study was to identify the main welfare issues likely to be encountered in five different categories of horses (Western riding horses, riding school horses, leisure horses, jumping horses, and endurance horses) kept in stabled housing systems. A total of 50 horses were evaluated using the Animal Welfare Indicator (AWIN) welfare assessment protocol for horses. Identified welfare issues in horses were inadequate box dimensions (52%, 26/50), insufficient quantity of bedding material (34%, 17/50), dirty bedding material (52%, 26/50), integument alterations (68%, 34/50), lameness (16%, 8/50), stereotypic behaviors (28%, 14/50), and negative response to human presence (24%, 12/50). The mean scores for alopecia, skin lesions, hardened spots at the mouth corners, horse grimace scale, and human-animal relationship tests in riding school horses were significantly higher (P<0.05; P<0.001) than for other categories of horses. The leisure horses exercised significantly less often (P<0.001) compared with other categories of horses. Additionally, important risks to welfare, identified across all groups of horses, were insufficient social interaction where 14 horses (28%) were unable to have any visual or physical contact with other horses. The results of this study provide the first analysis and valuable insight into the impact of the individual stable housing system on the welfare of different categories of horses in the Balkan region.

Horse Owners' Knowledge of Fundamental Care and their Perceptions on the Implementation of a Mandatory Certificate of Knowledge

The aims of this study were to first determine the extent of owners' fundamental knowledge of equine care, second, gain their opinions on the implementation of a mandatory certificate of knowledge and third, to investigate the association of certification on horse owner knowledge. An online survey comprising 23 questions (18 closed, 5 open) was distributed worldwide via snowball sampling, and completed by 1847 horse owners who were all ≥18 years old from 17 different countries. Almost all (96%, n = 1781) completed surveys were usable. Just over half (52%) of participants held a current equine knowledge certification, and 59% believed a mandatory certificate of knowledge should be necessary to buy, own, or sell a horse. Horse owners with an equine certificate of knowledge were more likely to be in favor of a mandatory certificate (Pearson's Chi-squared = 50.79, df = 1, p < 0.0001). The mean correctly answered knowledge questions was 68%, indicating that approximately 1/3 of horse owners lacked fundamental horse care knowledge. Further examination indicated that participating horse owners showed the least understanding in the behavioral interactions domain (ANOVA F(4, 24) = 4.98, p < 0.01), specifically in relation to pain recognition and learning theory terminology. Arguably, this deficit in knowledge and likely correct application increases the risk of owners using misinformed or inappropriate techniques to manage horse behavior and training, predisposing the horse to experiencing a sub-optimal quality of life. Overall no significant difference was found between the total correct scores of horse owners with or without a certificate (ANOVA F(1, 56) = 0.78, p > 0.05); however, a series of Chi-squared tests revealed that for the more complex questions, horse owners with a certificate scored better than those without (all p < 0.05). Further work is needed to develop an evidence-based assessment framework if mandatory certification of horse owners is to become an effective tool for improving horse welfare and quality of life.

"How long is life worth living for the horse?" A focus group study on how Austrian equine stakeholders assess quality of life for chronically ill or old horses

BACKGROUND

Quality of life (QoL) provides a comprehensive concept underpinning veterinary decision-making that encompasses factors beyond physical health. It becomes particularly pertinent when seeking responsible choices for chronically ill or old horses that emphasise their well-being and a good QoL over the extension of life. How different stakeholders use the concept of QoL is highly relevant when considering the complexity of these decisions in real-life situations.

METHODS

Seven focus group discussions (N = 39) were conducted to gain insights into how stakeholders assess and use equine QoL in veterinary care decisions for chronically ill and/or old horses. The discussions included horse owners (n = 17), equine veterinarians (n = 7), veterinary officers (n = 6), farriers (n = 4), and horse caregivers (n = 5). The combination of deductive and inductive qualitative content analysis of the group discussions focused on identifying both similarities and differences in the views of these groups regarding QoL for old and/or chronically ill horses.

RESULTS

Findings show agreement about two issues: the importance of the individuality of the horse for assessing QoL and the relevance of QoL in making decisions about veterinary interventions. We identified differences between the groups with respect to three issues: the time required to assess QoL, stakeholders' contributions to QoL assessments, and challenges resulting from those contributions. While owners and caregivers of horses emphasised their knowledge of a horse and the relevance of the time they spend with their horse, the veterinarians in the study focused on the differences between their own QoL assessments and those of horse owners. In response to challenges regarding QoL assessments and decision-making, stakeholders described different strategies such as drawing comparisons to human experiences.

CONCLUSIONS

Differences between stakeholders regarding equine QoL assessments contribute to challenges when making decisions about the care of chronically ill or old horses. The results of this study suggest that individual and collaborative reflection about a horse's QoL should be encouraged, for example by developing practicable QoL assessment tools that support relevant stakeholders in this process.

Becoming a matter of veterinary concern

Horses in Great Britain are living into increasingly older age and are often regarded as friends or family members by their owner. The horse is reliant on their owner to meet their needs and this paper discusses how horse owners frame an issue that becomes a matter of veterinary concern within the context of the older horse. Qualitative methods were used to explore the experiences of owners and veterinarians. Data were collected and analysed using a grounded theory approach during the period 2019-2022. Analysis identified that owners undertook an ongoing and iterative process of assessment, monitoring and decision making in relation to the animal and any changes they observed. Matters that became a veterinary concern required the owner to formulate the issue as something that fell within the knowledge domain of the veterinarian. Veterinarians had a medicalised view of older horse health and their perspectives on socially acceptable care were shaped by their understanding of species-specific needs, and whether owners were providing appropriately for those needs. The formulation of a matter of veterinary concern was itself shaped by an owner's experiential knowledge of both veterinary matters and their horse. The extent to which owners felt like they and their individual horse mattered during interactions with veterinarians affected whether they adopted veterinary advice and the nature of future veterinary employment. Findings demonstrate how matters of health, disease, and the role of professionalised forms of medical knowledge, are not static but constantly changing and interacting over time. An issue that became a matter of veterinary concern was contextual, and rooted in individual relationships. The significance of veterinarian-owner interactions in shaping future consumption of veterinary health care may be underestimated.

Equine Musculoskeletal Pathologies: Clinical Approaches and Therapeutical Perspectives-A Review

Musculoskeletal injuries such as equine osteoarthritis, osteoarticular defects, tendonitis/desmitis, and muscular disorders are prevalent among sport horses, with a fair prognosis for returning to exercise or previous performance levels. The field of equine medicine has witnessed rapid and fruitful development, resulting in a diverse range of therapeutic options for musculoskeletal problems. Staying abreast of these advancements can be challenging, prompting the need for a comprehensive review of commonly used and recent treatments. The aim is to compile current therapeutic options for managing these injuries, spanning from simple to complex physiotherapy techniques, conservative treatments including steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, hyaluronic acid, polysulfated glycosaminoglycans, pentosan polysulfate, and polyacrylamides, to promising regenerative therapies such as hemoderivatives and stem cell-based therapies. Each therapeutic modality is scrutinized for its benefits, limitations, and potential synergistic actions to facilitate their most effective application for the intended healing/regeneration of the injured tissue/organ and subsequent patient recovery. While stem cell-based therapies have emerged as particularly promising for equine musculoskeletal injuries, a multidisciplinary approach is underscored throughout the discussion, emphasizing the importance of considering various therapeutic modalities in tandem.

Development, refinement, and validation of an equine musculoskeletal pain scale

Musculoskeletal disease is a common cause of chronic pain that is often overlooked and inadequately treated, impacting the quality of life of humans and horses alike. Lameness due to musculoskeletal pain is prevalent in horses, but the perception of pain by owners is low compared with veterinary diagnosis. Therefore, this study aims to establish and validate a pain scale for chronic equine orthopaedic pain that is user-friendly for horse owners and veterinarians to facilitate the identification and monitoring of pain in horses. The newly developed musculoskeletal pain scale (MPS) was applied to 154 horses (mean age 20 ± 6.4 years SD) housed at an equine sanctuary, of which 128 (83%) suffered from chronic orthopaedic disease. To complete the MPS, the horses were observed and videotaped from a distance while at rest in their box or enclosure. In addition, they received a complete clinical and orthopaedic exam. The need for veterinary intervention to address pain (assessed and executed by the sanctuary independent from this study) was used as a longitudinal health outcome to determine the MPS's predictive validity. To determine the interrater agreement, the MPS was scored for a randomly selected subset of 30 horses by six additional blinded raters, three equine veterinary practitioners, and three experienced equestrians. An iterative process was used to refine the tool based on improvements in the MPS's correlation with lameness evaluated at the walk and trot, predictive validity for longitudinal health outcomes, and interrater agreement. The intraclass correlation improved from 0.77 of the original MPS to 0.88 of the refined version (95% confidence interval: 0.8-0.94). The refined MPS correlated significantly with lameness at the walk (r = 0.44, p = 0.001) and trot (r = 0.5, p < 0.0001). The refined MPS significantly differed between horses that needed veterinary intervention (mean MPS = 8.6) and those that did not (mean MPS = 5.0, p = 0.0007). In summary, the MPS showed good interrater repeatability between expert and lay scorers, significant correlation with lameness at the walk and trot, and good predictive validity for longitudinal health outcomes, confirming its ability to identify horses with orthopaedic health problems.

Development and Preliminary Validation of an Equine Brief Pain Inventory for Owner Assessment of Chronic Pain Due to Osteoarthritis in Horses

An owner-completed questionnaire was designed to monitor the level of chronic pain and impact on quality of life in horses with osteoarthritis (OA). A standardized approach to develop and validate subjective-state scales for clinical use was followed. Scale items were generated through literature review, focus group meetings, and expert panel evaluation. The draft tool was tested for reading level and language ambiguity and piloted in 25 owners/caregivers of horses with osteoarthritis, with factor analysis performed on responses. The resulting revised questionnaire is currently undergoing validation in a larger sample population of 60 OA and 20 sound control horses. In the pilot group, 21 people (84%) found the questionnaire easy to complete and 22 people (88%) found it useful. It could be completed within 5 min by all participants. Readability scores (Flesch Reading Ease Score, Flesch-Kincaid grade level, SMOG index) indicated an English language reading level comparable to that of 6th to 7th grade in the U.S. system (age 11-12 years). Cronbach's alpha of all items in the tool was 0.957, indicating excellent inter-item correlation. Interim analysis for 23 OA horses from the sample population showed good test-retest reliability and higher scores compared to 5 control horses. Full validation must be completed for the instrument to be used in clinical practice.

Use of human behaviour change models to investigate horse owner intention to adopt emergency colic recommendations

BACKGROUND

Behavioural models are widely used within human medicine to understand beliefs and intention associated with major health interventions.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate horse-owner beliefs and practices associated with emergency colic planning.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

METHODS

An online survey incorporating the Trans-Theoretical Model of behaviour change and the Theory of Planned Behaviour was developed to assess owner intention to adopt three areas of emergency colic planning: (1) prevention/recognition, (2) involvement of others and (3) personal preparation. Participants were recruited using a snowball sampling strategy; multivariable logistic regression of data was performed.

RESULTS

There were 701 horse-owners who completed the survey. Respondents fell into one of two categories: no intention to adopt or already implementing emergency planning recommendations. Most agreed that emergency colic plans would improve their horse's welfare (68%) and aid in decision making (78%). Most disagreed that colic was inevitable (66%) and that treatment options were not within their control (69%). Multivariable analysis showed that those who believed emergency plans were worth creating were more likely to adopt preventive (OR: 2.33, 95% CI: 1.27-4.30, p = 0.007) and personal preparation (OR: 1.61, 95% CI: 1.31-1.97, p < 0.001) recommendations. Preventive recommendations were also associated with 'REACT' campaign awareness (OR 2.36, 95% CI: 1.40-3.97, p = 0.001). Favourable behavioural beliefs, such as the acknowledgement of welfare and decision-making benefits, were linked to the involvement of others in planning (OR: 2.93, 95% CI: 1.78-4.81, p < 0.001).

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Potential response bias and small sample size.

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of owners were either unwilling to adopt suggested recommendations or believed that their approach was currently sufficient. Most owners perceived veterinary professionals as most influential on their decision to plan for a colic emergency, highlighting their importance in any educational campaign.

Finnish and Swedish riding school pupils' motivation towards participation in non-riding education

Many horse enthusiasts have insufficient knowledge about horse behavior and welfare (BW) and learning and human-horse communication (LC), which poses a risk for both horse welfare and human safety. The main objective of this study was to investigate why riding school pupils participate or do not participate in non-riding education in BW and LC, using Self-determination theory (SDT). SDT posits that the quality of motivation is related to the individual's basic psychological needs. A convenience sample of 568 riding school pupils from Finland and Sweden completed an online questionnaire. The results showed that forty percent of the riding schools offered education in BW, and thirty-two in LC. Twenty-seven percent of the respondents participated in education in BW, and twenty-five in LC at their riding school. The respondents were autonomously motivated to participate in education, i.e., they would participate because it is interesting and personally important. Perceived needs satisfaction at the riding school predicted autonomous motivation to participate. Education was offered to a greater extent in Swedish riding schools and Swedish respondents participated more often, as well as experienced more autonomous motivation, relatedness and competence satisfaction compared with Finnish respondents. To our knowledge, this study is the first to explore riding school pupils' motivation towards non-riding education.

Multi-Omic Temporal Landscape of Plasma and Synovial Fluid-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Using an Experimental Model of Equine Osteoarthritis

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) contribute to osteoarthritis pathogenesis through their release into joint tissues and synovial fluid. Synovial fluid-derived EVs have the potential to be direct biomarkers in the causal pathway of disease but also enable understanding of their role in disease progression. Utilizing a temporal model of osteoarthritis, we defined the changes in matched synovial fluid and plasma-derived EV small non-coding RNA and protein cargo using sequencing and mass spectrometry. Data exploration included time series clustering, factor analysis and gene enrichment interrogation. Chondrocyte signalling was analysed using luciferase-based transcription factor activity assays. EV protein cargo appears to be more important during osteoarthritis progression than small non-coding RNAs. Cluster analysis revealed plasma-EVs represented a time-dependent response to osteoarthritis induction associated with supramolecular complexes. Clusters for synovial fluid-derived EVs were associated with initial osteoarthritis response and represented immune/inflammatory pathways. Factor analysis for plasma-derived EVs correlated with day post-induction and were primarily composed of proteins modulating lipid metabolism. Synovial fluid-derived EVs factors represented intermediate filament and supramolecular complexes reflecting tissue repair. There was a significant interaction between time and osteoarthritis for CRE, NFkB, SRE, SRF with a trend for osteoarthritis synovial fluid-derived EVs at later time points to have a more pronounced effect.

Rate of obesity within a mixed-breed group of horses in Ireland and their owners' perceptions of body condition and useability of an equine body condition scoring scale

BACKGROUND

Equine obesity is a significant health and welfare concern. The proportion of domestic horse populations that are overweight are as high as 45%. As the primary decision-makers for their horses' care, owners are theoretically ideally placed to identify whether their horses are appropriately conditioned, however, research in other countries has shown that many owners are unable to accurately judge their horse's body condition. In this study, through the comparison of body condition scoring (BCS) performed by an expert and the horse owners and interviews with owners, we aimed to identify the proportion of horses that were overweight or obese, to assess the accuracy of horse owners' BCS assessment both prior to and after receiving information and instructions on body condition scoring, and to identify common themes amongst owners' views regarding BCS assessment and the Henneke BCS system.

RESULTS

Forty-five percent of the horses in this study were overweight or obese. The agreement between the owners and an equine veterinarian regarding the horses' BCS was fair to good both prior to (κ = .311, P < 0.001; ICC = .502, P < 0.001) and after (κ = .381, P < 0.001; ICC = .561, P < 0.001) receiving information and instructions on scoring. Three quarters of the owners who took part in the study did not use any method of monitoring their horse's body condition. Thematic analysis of owner responses was varied, with the most common theme being an awareness of the need to monitor or make changes to their horse's condition with responses in this theme split between owners who felt in control and those who did not. Owner feedback on the utility and useability of the scorning system was that it was useful however parts are too technical or need improvement.

CONCLUSIONS

Equine obesity is a significant problem in this population in Ireland. Horse owners' ability to accurately judge their horse's condition does not improve with provision of instructions on body condition scoring. These results combined with owners' feedback on the Henneke BCS system indicate that it is not a tool that can be reliably used by owners.

Survey of the knowledge and perceptions of horse owners in Ireland of common clinical conditions and their impact

BACKGROUND

As the primary decision-maker for their horse's health and welfare, owners' knowledge of clinical conditions may impact their horse's health. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the emotional impact of equine illness on the owner can be severe but research is lacking.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate horse owners' self-declared knowledge of eight common equine health conditions and perceptions of the quality of information available; to ascertain respondents' perceptions of the severity of impact on their horse of the conditions and potential emotional impact on themselves and to establish the factors of greatest concern to owners when their horse has a health condition and influential factors on end-of-life decisions.

STUDY DESIGN

Online survey of horse owners.

METHODS

An online survey comprising three sections was created: respondent demographics; vignettes of clinical conditions; concerns and decision-making regarding illness and euthanasia. Vignettes focused on arthritis; Pars Pituitary Intermedia Dysfunction; Equine Metabolic Syndrome (EMS); gastric ulcers; high intestinal worm burden; dermatophilosis ('mud rash'); quidding and head tossing; and equine asthma. Respondents were self-selecting. The survey was circulated for completion by horse owners residing in Ireland and Northern Ireland obtaining 491 valid responses.

RESULTS

Respondents declared that they had the highest knowledge of mud rash, with 84.1% rating their knowledge as very good compared to 42% of respondents for EMS. There was positive correlation between the perceived impact on their horse and emotional impact on the owner for all conditions ranging from weak (arthritis 0.36, P < 0.001) to strong (EMS 0.62, P < 0.001). Pain, discomfort, and quality of life were reported as the most common concerns when their horse has a medical condition or when considering euthanasia.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Potential bias among respondents towards computer literate owners, with good literacy and interest in equine health conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Knowledge of equine health conditions, perceived impact of conditions on the horse and emotional impact on their owners varied significantly between conditions.

Does housing system affect horse welfare? The AWIN welfare assessment protocol applied to horses kept in an outdoor group-housing system: The 'parcours'

Outdoor group housing is generally reported as being beneficial to the welfare of horses compared to single boxes, being considered to show greater similarities with the living conditions of feral horses, allowing full expression of behaviours such as grazing, social interactions and free movement. However, concerns persist regarding the ability to maintain a good nutritional state and the possibility of acquiring injury. No data reporting a comprehensive assessment of welfare for horses in outdoor group-housing systems are currently available. The present study aimed at applying a scientifically valid welfare assessment protocol to group-housed outdoor horses in 'parcours', a particular management system used in the south of France. 'Parcours' are semi-natural areas, grazed by domestic herbivores located in lowland, mountain, or marsh. One hundred and seventy-one horses older than a year pertaining to six farms and kept on 'parcours' were evaluated by a trained veterinarian using a modified version of the second level Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) welfare assessment protocol for horses. No major welfare issues were detected. Horses in 'parcours' displayed few abnormal behaviours, they could move freely for most of the day and interact with conspecifics, maintaining a healthy state of nutrition and a good relationship with humans. The main welfare concerns were related to the presence of superficial integument alterations such as alopecia, difficulty in reaching quality controlled water sources and a lack of shelter. As the number of facilities involved in this study is relatively limited, further harmonised data collection should aim to enlarge the sample size and allow comparison with different outdoor group-housing conditions.

Survey on the recognition, attitudes, and experience of horse owners during episodes of equine colic in Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil

Horse owners are crucial in recognizing colic because they are responsible for identifying the signs of colic and deciding whether to seek veterinary intervention. Common reasons for delayed response to clinical issues include lack of understanding or knowledge of the subject and difficulty in recognizing subtle clinical signs of abdominal pain. Examining horse owners' basic knowledge of colic, their motivations, obstacles in seeking veterinary care, and their responses to the various clinical symptoms manifested during colic will identify current knowledge gaps and decision-making barriers. This study aimed to examine the experiences, recognition, and attitudes of horse owners during an episode of equine colic in Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil. A cross-sectional study was conducted using questionnaires in Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil. The sample consisted of horse owners, competitors of any equestrian modality (provided that they were responsible for a horse at the time of the application of the questionnaire), or individuals who had previously owned a horse. There were differences related to the recognition and attitudes adopted towards colic in horses compared to the studies performed in other countries. The overall results of this study highlight the need for educational campaigns for horse owners to fill knowledge gaps about colic and the need for a clearer picture of colic, including what it is, the predisposing factors, and the range of symptoms. Additionally, this knowledge will equip horse owners to appropriately respond to these symptoms.

Small non-coding RNA landscape of extracellular vesicles from a post-traumatic model of equine osteoarthritis

Extracellular vesicles comprise an as yet inadequately investigated intercellular communication pathway in the field of early osteoarthritis. We hypothesised that the small non-coding RNA expression pattern in synovial fluid and plasma would change during progression of experimental osteoarthritis. In this study, we conducted small RNA sequencing to provide a comprehensive overview of the temporal expression profiles of small non-coding transcripts carried by extracellular vesicles derived from plasma and synovial fluid for the first time in a posttraumatic model of equine osteoarthritis. Additionally, we characterised synovial fluid and plasma-derived extracellular vesicles with respect to quantity, size, and surface markers. The different temporal expressions of seven microRNAs in plasma and synovial fluid-derived extracellular vesicles, eca-miR-451, eca-miR-25, eca-miR-215, eca-miR-92a, eca-miR-let-7c, eca-miR-486-5p, and eca-miR-23a, and four snoRNAs, U3, snord15, snord46, and snord58, represent potential biomarkers for early osteoarthritis. Bioinformatics analysis of the differentially expressed microRNAs in synovial fluid highlighted that in early osteoarthritis these related to the inhibition of cell cycle, cell cycle progression, DNA damage and cell proliferation as well as increased cell viability and differentiation of stem cells. Plasma and synovial fluid-derived extracellular vesicle small non-coding signatures have been established for the first time in a temporal model of osteoarthritis. These could serve as novel biomarkers for evaluation of osteoarthritis progression or act as potential therapeutic targets.

Quality of Life within Horse Welfare Assessment Tools: Informing Decisions for Chronically Ill and Geriatric Horses

Equine Quality of Life (QoL) is an important concern in decision making in veterinary medicine and is especially relevant for chronically ill or geriatric horses towards the end of their lives. To our knowledge, there is no currently available QoL assessment tool for chronically ill or geriatric horses that assesses equine QoL defined as the horse's evaluation of their life. However, tools exist to assess equine welfare in different contexts. Hence, the aims of this study were to analyse how equine welfare, QoL, well-being and happiness assessment tools label, define and operationalise the concepts and to discuss the tools' suitability to assess equine QoL in the context of end-of-life decisions for chronically ill or geriatric horses. Fourteen articles were found through a systematic literature search, describing ten equine welfare assessment tools and one approach to integrating equine QoL in veterinary practice that suggests QoL assessment parameters. We discuss that some welfare assessment tools have the potential to support the development of a QoL assessment tool informing decisions towards the end of horses' lives if they are adjusted to focus on the horses' experiences, to provide an integration into an overall QoL grade and are tailored to chronically ill or geriatric horses.

A Survey-Based Analysis of Injuries to Horses Associated with Transport by Road in New Zealand

Simple Summary

The road transport of horses poses a significant welfare issue. This study describes the injuries sustained by horses during road transport in New Zealand in general alongside factors associated with injury while in a moving vehicle. More than 1100 New Zealand horse industry participants were surveyed on their horse transport experiences and equine industry activities. Of the survey participants, approximately a fifth reported at least one horse injured during road transport during the two years covered by the survey. Most injuries (81%) occurred in transit when transported with one (39%) or more than one (21%) other horse. Most commonly, the hindlimbs, the head, or the forelimbs were injured (59% of horses). Injuries ranged from bruises to severe trauma. Factors associated with injury included horses used for eventing, not always checking the fitness of horses for transport, the use of a tail guard or bandage, a stallion guard in the vehicle, loose bedding on the floor, and behavioural problems. Overall, this survey identified a significant number of injuries and related euthanasia in horses transported by road in New Zealand and key factors associated with these injuries.

Abstract

Negative outcomes associated with the road transport of horses are a significant welfare issue. This study aimed to describe the injuries sustained by horses during road transport in New Zealand and factors associated with trauma while in transit. New Zealand horse industry participants were surveyed on their horse transport experiences and equine industry involvement. Participants were solicited through horse organisations. The data were tabulated, and a logistic regression was performed to identify significant (p < 0.05) factors associated with transport-related injury. In total, 201/1133 (17.7%/2 years) eligible surveys reported at least one horse injured during road transport. Most incidents occurred in transit (137/169; 81%), or when transported with one (76/193; 39.4%) or more (41/193; 21.2%) other horses. Most commonly, the hindlimbs, the head, or the forelimbs were injured (59.1%; 110/186 horses), ranging in severity from bruises to catastrophic orthopaedic trauma necessitating euthanasia. Eventing, not always checking horses’ fitness for transport, using a tail guard or bandage, a stallion guard in the vehicle, bedding type on the floor, and behavioural problems were associated with injuries. This survey identified a significant incidence of injury and related death when horses are transported by road in New Zealand, and the key risk factors associated with the odds of injury.

Pain severity scores for common equine disorders as provided by horse owners and equine veterinarians

BACKGROUND

Understanding factors influencing assessment of pain in horses will facilitate communication between veterinarians and horse owners.

OBJECTIVES

To compare estimates of pain experienced by horses as provided by veterinarians and horse owners and to determine factors associated with individuals who perceive horses to be experiencing extreme pain or minimal pain.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

METHODS

Internet-based questionnaires for horse owners and veterinarians included items related to recognition of pain in horses, estimated degree of pain experienced by horses, and demographic information. Variables associated with perception of a high or low degree of pain were investigated using logistic regression analyses.

RESULTS

Final data sets included responses from 553 horse owners and 263 veterinarians. Pain scores varied widely and differences in median scores from horse owners and veterinarians were small. Horse owners providing high pain ratings were more likely to have < 10 horses (odds ratio [OR] = 2.0, 95% CI = 1.1 - 3.5) and to not have a college degree (OR = 1.5, 95% CI = 1.0-2.2). Those providing low pain ratings were less likely to own < 10 horses (OR = 0.6, 95% Confidence Interval [CI] = 0.4 - 0.9). Veterinarians providing high pain ratings were more likely to be employed in a mixed animal practice (OR = 2.8, 95% CI = 1.3 - 5.9) and to lack board-certification in a veterinary specialty (OR = 2.1, 95% CI = 1.1 - 4.2). Veterinarians providing low pain ratings were more likely to be male (OR = 2.4, 95% CI = 1.3 - 4.2).

MAIN LIMITATIONS

The respondent population may be biased because of the method of questionnaire distribution and associated sampling bias. Respondents were primarily from the United States.

CONCLUSIONS

Assessments of the degree of pain horses are experiencing vary widely among horse owners and equine veterinarians.

Recumbency as an Equine Welfare Indicator in Geriatric Horses and Horses with Chronic Orthopaedic Disease

Recumbency is a prerequisite for horses achieving rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and completing a full sleep cycle. An inability to lie down due to environmental insecurities or pain results in REM sleep deficiency, which can cause substantial impairment of welfare and health. Therefore, the present study used wearable automated sensor technology on 83 horses housed in an animal sanctuary to measure and compare the recumbency, locomotion, and standing time budgets of geriatric horses with and without chronic lameness to younger adult sound and lame horses. Recumbency times ranged from 0 to 319 min per day with an overall mean of 67.4 (±61.9) minutes; the time budget for locomotion was 19.1% (±11.2% s.d.) and for standing 75.6% (±13.1 s.d.). Interestingly, neither age nor lameness due to chronic orthopedic disease had a significant influence on recumbency times in this study. Eight horses showed symptoms of REM deficit. These horses had significantly shorter lying times (7.99 ± 11.4 min) and smaller locomotion time budgets than the other horses enrolled in this study (73.8 ± 61.8 min), indicating a general compromise of well-being. Thus, wearable sensor technology can be used to identify horses with low recumbency times at risk for REM sleep deficiency and to assess and monitor equine welfare objectively.

Caring for the Older Horse: A Conceptual Model of Owner Decision Making

The number of aged horses in the UK has been growing over recent years, with many horses remaining active and being cared for into old age. However, increasing age is paralleled with a heightened risk of morbidity and mortality; therefore, owners of older horses must manage changes in their horse, making decisions about management and health care provision. In this paper, we discuss data collected from an open-access online discussion forum, where forum users sought advice arising from concerns about their older horse. Qualitative data analysis was performed using grounded theory methods. A conceptual model was developed to demonstrate the multifaceted ways in which ageing affects the human-horse relationship and impacts upon outcomes for the horse. The model reflects the dynamic nature of caring for an older horse to accommodate change over time-outcomes for the horse shift as the context of day-to-day life changes. The model provides novel insight into how decisions around older horse care are made.

The Physical Activity-Dependent Hematological and Biochemical Changes in School Horses in Comparison to Blood Profiles in Endurance and Race Horses

Blood testing is one of the most important ways to improve performance, facilitate recovery and monitor the training of endurance and race horses. However, little is known about the physical activity-dependent changes of blood parameters in horses used for pleasure and in riding schools. This study aimed to perform routine blood tests for training monitoring of sport horses in three different horse types of use. Then the values of blood indicators were compared between school, endurance and race horses to find similarities in the physical activity-dependent profile. The study was carried out on 15 endurance, 15 race and 15 school healthy horses who underwent the typical effort for their disciplines. The hemogram parameters, creatine phosphokinase (CPK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), blood lactate (LAC), and total serum protein (TSP) concentrations were measured using the same protocol and equipment. Measurements of main hematological and biochemical physical activity-dependent parameters were conducted before, immediately after and 30 min after training. In school horses, the physical activity-dependent increase of WBC (40.9%) and CPK (76.4%) was similar to endurance horses, whereas an increase of RBC (19.1%), HGB (18.6%) and HCT (19.4%) were more similar to race horses. The moderate effort-dependent increase of LAC concentration (2775%) was lower than in race horses (7526%) and higher than in endurance horses (390%). Limiting the training or work monitoring assessment of school horses to only the endurance or racing blood profile may result in the omission of significant changes in hematological and biochemical parameters.

Riding Soundness-Comparison of Subjective With Objective Lameness Assessments of Owner-Sound Horses at Trot on a Treadmill

Lameness is a symptom indicative of pain or injury of the locomotor apparatus. Lame horses generally should not be ridden. However, owners' ability to assess lameness has been questioned. This study's aim was to use subjective lameness assessments and objective gait analysis to generate a descriptive overview of movement and weight-bearing asymmetries of owner-sound riding horses. 235 horses were subjectively assessed in a field study, and the owner's perception of their horse's orthopedic health was recorded through an online survey. 69 horses were re-evaluated by gait analysis at an equine hospital. During trot on an instrumented treadmill, the gait was scored by a veterinarian using lameness grades from 0/5 (sound) to 3/5 (moderate lameness visible at trot). Movement asymmetry of the head (HDmin) and pelvis (PDmin) and weight-bearing asymmetry were quantified simultaneously. The prevalence of subjectively scored lameness grade ≥2/5 in one or more limbs was 55% during study part 1 and 74% during study part 2. Movement asymmetry of the head and/or pelvis exceeding HDmin ≥12 mm and/or PDmin ≥6 mm was found in 57% of the horses. 58% showed weight-bearing asymmetries between contralateral front and/or hind limbs of ≥3% body mass. Gait analysis showed considerable variability of movement and weight-bearing asymmetry values, sometimes independent of the clinical lameness grade, especially in the forehand. Several horses with lameness grade ≤1/5 had asymmetry values greater than mentioned thresholds. The analysis of movement and weight-bearing asymmetry revealed that these objective variables did not necessarily act uniformly and therefore should be interpreted with caution.

COVID-19: Impact on United Kingdom Horse Owners

COVID-19 was declared a global pandemic on 11 March 2020; the United Kingdom (UK) implemented quarantine measures shortly afterward, resulting in rapid changes in how owners managed and interacted with their horses. This study provides a rapid analysis of the initial impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on the management of UK leisure and competition horses. A 17 question online survey was distributed via equestrian social media sites to ascertain the impact of COVID-19 on horse and yard management and on human-horse interactions. Frequency analysis combined with Chi-squared and thematic analyses identified the impact of COVID-19 on UK horse owners. Major changes within horse management and horse-human interactions were reported for the majority of horse owners (>65%), regardless of the establishment type or region. Social distancing and visiting restrictions were implemented at most yards, but nearly half were not providing hand sanitization or disinfection protocols for the shared areas/equipment to prevent cross-contamination between users. The financial impact of the pandemic combined with restricted access to veterinary professionals resulted in owners expressing concerns that horse health and welfare may be compromised as a result. Horse owners also felt that the reduced opportunities for horse-human interactions were negatively affecting their mental health and wellbeing.

Mixed methods investigation of the use of telephone triage within UK veterinary practices for horses with abdominal pain: A Participatory action research study

BACKGROUND

Telephone triage is an integral part of modern patient care systems in human medicine, and a key component of veterinary practice care systems. There is currently no published research on telephone triage within the veterinary profession.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate current approaches to telephone triage of horses with abdominal pain (colic) in veterinary practice and develop new resources to support decision-making.

STUDY DESIGN

Participatory action research using mixed-methods approach.

METHODS

An online survey assessed current approaches to telephone triage of horses with colic in UK veterinary practices. Structured group and individual interviews were conducted with four equine client care (reception) teams on their experiences around telephone triage of colic. Evidence-based resources, including an information pack, decision flow chart and recording form, were developed and implemented within the practices. Participant feedback was obtained through interviews six months after implementation of the resources.

RESULTS

There were 116 participants in the online survey. Management and client care staff (53/116) felt less confident giving owner advice (p<0.01) and recognising critical indicators (p = 0.03) compared to veterinary surgeons and nurses (63/116). Thirteen themes were identified in the survey relating to owner advice; exercise and owner safety were most frequently mentioned, but conflicting guidance was often given. Fourteen client care staff were interviewed. They were confident recognising colic during a telephone conversation with an owner and identified the most common signs of critical cases as sweating and recumbency. The new resources received positive feedback; the decision flow chart and information on critical indicators were identified as most useful. After resource implementation, there was an increase in confidence in recognising critical cases and giving owners advice.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Limited sample population.

CONCLUSIONS

This study described existing approaches to telephone triage, identified variations in advice given, and worked with client care teams to develop new resources to aid decision-making.

An exploration of clinical reasoning and practices used by physiotherapists in the rehabilitation of horses following interspinous ligament desmotomy surgery

INTRODUCTION

Clinical reasoning has not been studied in veterinary physiotherapy and so the methods used and factors involved are unknown. Similarly, the practices of veterinary physiotherapists within a certain rehabilitation programme have not been documented. The aim of this study was to explore the clinical reasoning and practices of veterinary physiotherapists during rehabilitation of horses following interspinous ligament desmotomy surgery.

METHODOLOGY

A qualitative approach was taken and six members of the Association of Chartered Physiotherapists in Animal Therapy were interviewed using a semi-structured approach. The data were transcribed and analysed using Thematic Analysis.

RESULTS

Five themes were identified as relevant to the participants clinical reasoning. These related to structure of the assessment, modalities and reasoning of treatment, involvement of owner and veterinarian and the impact of comorbidities. The data highlight several different factors that influence clinical reasoning and decision making throughout the rehabilitation. An insight into practices involved is also documented.

CONCLUSION

The process of clinical reasoning and decision making described appears complex. The input of both owner and veterinarian are evidently important and require the physiotherapists consideration. Decisions regarding assessment and treatment are influenced by many factors. A mixture of clinical experience and research evidence were used as support.

Insulin dysregulation in a population of Finnhorses and associated phenotypic markers of obesity

Background

Obesity and insulin dysregulation (ID) predispose horses to laminitis. Determination of management practices or phenotypic markers associated with ID may benefit animal welfare.

Objectives

Determine ID status of a population of Finnhorses using an oral sugar test (OST) and compare phenotypes and management factors between ID and non‐ID Finnhorses.

Animals

One hundred twenty‐eight purebred Finnhorses ≥3 years of age.

Methods

Owners were recruited using an online questionnaire regarding signalment, history, feeding, and exercise of their horses. Selected contributing stables within a predefined area were visited. Phenotypic markers of obesity and the weight of each horse were recorded. After fasting overnight, horses received 0.45 mL/kg corn syrup PO. Serum samples before and at 60 and 90 minutes after syrup administration were analyzed for insulin by chemiluminescent assay. Horses met ID criteria if insulin concentrations were ≥33 μIU/mL at T0, ≥66 μIU/mL at T60 or T90 or some combination thereof. Associations between phenotypic markers, feeding and exercise variables, and ID were examined using mixed effects logistic regression modeling.

Results

Several phenotypic markers of obesity were significant on univariable analysis but in the final multivariable model, only obesity (body condition score  ≥8) was associated with ID (P = .04). Over half of the horses (60% [95% confidence interval (CI), 51%‐68%]) were considered overweight or obese whereas 16% (95% CI, 10%‐23%) were classified as having ID.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Because obesity is associated with ID in cold‐blooded type horses, objective monitoring of phenotypic markers by owners may be beneficial for health outcomes.

Husbandry, Use, and Orthopedic Health of Horses Owned by Competitive and Leisure Riders in Switzerland

The use of horses in competitive sports receives increasing criticism from the public, mainly due to the potential for injury. However, it is unclear if orthopedic and other health issues are more common in competition horses than those in leisure horses. The aim of this study was to assess husbandry, use, and orthopedic health in Swiss riding horses and to compare these aspects between horses owned by self-identified competitive riders (CR) and leisure riders (LR) in Switzerland. A total of 237 owners completed an online survey providing information on their athletic ambitions, their horse's husbandry, health, training, and tack. Two experienced veterinarians assessed gait irregularities, muscular development, and back pain in the horses and evaluated saddle fit. Compared with horses owned by competitive riders (CH), a higher proportion of horses kept by leisure riders (LH) were kept unshod, under more natural conditions, and turned out with other horses. LH were exercised less frequently, and LR trained less frequently with instructors. CR reported less time since the last saddle check and the use of more training aids during riding. No differences between the two groups could be found in orthopedic health, muscular development, or back pain, but LH had higher body condition scores and a slightly higher proportion of saddles with at least one fit problem. Our data revealed no increased prevalence of the assessed health problems in competition horses compared with leisure horses in Switzerland. However, suboptimal saddle fit and muscular development, back pain, and gait irregularity are frequent in both groups and deserve more attention.

The Equine Gastrointestinal Microbiome: Impacts of Age and Obesity

Gastrointestinal microbial communities are increasingly being implicated in host susceptibilities to nutritional/metabolic diseases; such conditions are more prevalent in obese and/or older horses. This controlled study evaluated associations between host-phenotype and the fecal microbiome / metabolome. Thirty-five, Welsh Mountain pony mares were studied across 2 years (Controls, n = 6/year, 5–15 years, Body Condition Score (BCS) 4.5–6/9; Obese, n = 6/year, 5–15 years, BCS > 7/9; Aged, n = 6 Year 1; n = 5 Year 2, ≥19 years old). Animals were individually fed the same hay to maintenance (2% body mass as daily dry matter intake) for 2 (aged / obese) or 4 (control), 4-week periods in a randomized study. Outset phenotype was determined (body fat%, markers of insulin sensitivity). Feces were sampled on the final 3 days of hay feeding-periods and communities determined using Next Generation Sequencing of amplified V1–V2 hypervariable regions of bacterial 16S rRNA. Copy numbers for fecal bacteria, protozoa and fungi were similar across groups, whilst bacterial diversity was increased in the obese group. Dominant bacterial phyla in all groups were Bacteroidetes > Firmicutes > Fibrobacter. Significant differences in the bacterial communities of feces were detected between host-phenotype groups. Relative to controls, abundances of Proteobacteria were increased for aged animals and Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Actinobacteria were increased for obese animals. Over 500 bacterial operational taxonomic units (OTUs) differed significantly between host-phenotype groups. No consistent pattern of changes in discriminant OTUs between groups were maintained across groups and between years. The core bacterial populations contained 21 OTUs, 6.7% of recovered sequences. Distance-based Redundancy Analyses separated fecal bacterial communities with respect to markers of obesity and insulin dysregulation, as opposed to age. Host-phenotype had no impact on the apparent digestibility of dietary GE or DM, fecal volatile fatty acid concentrations or the fecal metabolome (FT-IR). The current study demonstrates that host-phenotype has major effects on equine fecal microbial population structure. Changes were predominantly associated with the obese state, confirming an obesity-associated impact in the absence of nutritional differences. Clear biomarkers of animal-phenotype were not identified within either the fecal microbiome or metabolome, suggesting functional redundancy within the gut microbiome and/or metabolome.

A Survey-Based Investigation of Human Factors Associated With Transport Related Injuries in Horses

Injuries resulting from road transport are common in horses and are a potential welfare concern, as well as, a source of economic loss. An online cross sectional survey was used to determine the prevalence of road transport related injuries to horses in New Zealand and the association of human factors including demographics, industry background, training and the horse handling experience of the respondents with transport related injury. The survey generated 1133 valid responses that were analyzed using descriptive statistics, univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis. At least one injured horse was reported by 201/1133 (17.7%) respondents as occurring during the two previous years. Only 191 respondents chose to provide further information on when the injury occurred and most injuries (133/191; 69.6%) occurred in transit. The respondent perceived possible reason for injury was reported by 190, and was most frequently thought to be either horse-associated (87/190; 45.8%) or associated with a driver mistake (18/190; 9.5%). Variables that remained as significantly associated with injury in a multivariate model focusing on human factors were experience in horse handling, the industry sector, and the amateur or professional involvement with the horse industry. The odds of injury associated with professionals may reflect greater exposure due to more frequent transport and larger numbers of horses in their care than amateurs. Findings confirm that human factors are associated with the risk of an injury during transport. Although further studies are required to determine if any of these relationships are causative, education on transport best practices with consideration of these factors may mitigate their influence.

Respiratory disease and sero-epidemiology of respiratory pathogens in the working horses of Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Pathogens are frequently implicated in equine respiratory disease. In Ethiopia, respiratory disease is a frequent cause for presentation at veterinary clinics and a priority concern for users of working horses. However, there is little existing literature on possible aetiologies.

OBJECTIVES

Determine prevalence of respiratory signs and exposure to major respiratory pathogens through a serological survey.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional.

METHODS

Systematically selected horses from 19 sites in central Ethiopia were examined clinically and sampled once (August-December 2013). A face-to-face interview collected data on horses' management and history. Serological testing targeted equine influenza virus (EIV), equine herpesviruses-1 (EHV-1) and -4 (EHV-4), equine rhinitis viruses A (ERAV) and B (ERBV), equine arteritis virus (EAV) and Streptococcus equi subspecies equi (S. equi).

RESULTS

Owners reported a recent history of coughing in 38% of horses and nasal discharge in 7%. No animals were observed coughing during examination but 6% had a nasal discharge. Antibodies towards S. equi, were most prevalent (8%, 33/350). Antibodies to EAV were confirmed in one animal (0.3%). Low antibody titres to EHV-1/4 and ERA/BV suggested prior exposure but antibodies to EIV were not detected. Multivariable, multilevel logistic regression analysis for risk factors associated with S. equi serostatus showed higher odds of seropositivity in younger animals and those working less frequently.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

A single serological sample cannot describe dynamic changes in antibodies. Sampling horses at the place of work may result in healthy-worker bias.

CONCLUSIONS

S. equi may be endemic in this population and contributing, in part, to the occurrence of respiratory disease. Low prevalence of antibodies to viruses, with the exception of EIV, indicates these pathogens are present, but unlikely a predominant cause of respiratory signs and noninfectious causes of disease should also be investigated. Working horses in this region would be vulnerable to incursion of equine influenza.

Prevalence of owner-reported ocular problems and veterinary ocular findings in a population of horses aged ≥15 years

BACKGROUND

Previous studies suggest that ocular disease is common among aged horses but owners may fail to identify or underestimate their clinical relevance.

OBJECTIVES

To document the prevalence of owner-reported ocular disease in horses aged ≥15 years. In a subset of these horses, to document ophthalmic findings from veterinary examination and compare with owner-reported ocular disease, and to determine risk factors for veterinary ophthalmic findings.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

METHODS

Owners of aged horses completed a survey on management, clinical signs and medical history. Risk factors for the presence of ocular disease as reported by the owner were determined. A subset of these horses underwent an ophthalmological examination. Risk factors for the presence of ocular disease detected during this examination were determined. Agreement between owner-reported data and veterinary ophthalmic findings was assessed.

RESULTS

Abnormal ocular findings were detected in 287/327 horses aged ≥15 years that underwent a complete ophthalmic examination, whereas the presence of ocular disease as reported by the horse-owners was only 3.3%. Agreement between owner-reported ocular disease and results of the veterinary examination was low for all categories analysed. An owner-reported history of ocular discharge was associated with increased odds of veterinary-reported diminished vision. Increasing age was associated with increased odds of the presence of an eye abnormality (any) and cataracts. Appaloosa horses had increased odds of cataract compared with other breeds. Horses in work were less likely to have an eye abnormality.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Volunteer bias may have influenced our results with owners of sick horses or those more concerned about their horses more likely to volunteer at the initial recruitment phase.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed a high prevalence of ocular lesions in aged horses which was not reflected in owner-reported disease. This has highlighted problems in obtaining information on ocular conditions from horse-owners.

Managing Aged Animals in Zoos to Promote Positive Welfare: A Review and Future Directions

Simple Summary

Many animals experience physical and behavioral changes as they age. Age-related changes in physical or mental ability can limit the opportunities for animals to experience positive well-being. As animals in zoos are living longer than ever, understanding common physical, cognitive, and behavioral changes associated with ageing across species can help inform management practices. This review aggregates information about common age-related changes across a wide number of species, discusses the potential welfare impacts of these changes for ageing animals, and suggests methods for caretakers to maximize positive welfare opportunities for ageing animals under human care.

Abstract

Improvements in veterinary care, nutrition, and husbandry of animals living in zoos have led to an increase in the longevity of these animals over the past 30 years. In this same time period, the focus of animal welfare science has shifted from concerns over mitigating negative welfare impacts to promoting positive welfare experiences for animals. For instance, providing opportunities for animals to exert agency, solve problems, or acquire rewards are all associated with positive welfare outcomes. Many common age-related changes result in limitations to opportunities for positive welfare experiences, either due to pain or other physical, cognitive, or behavioral limitations. This review aggregates information regarding common age-related physical and behavioral changes across species, discusses how age-related changes may limit positive welfare opportunities of aged animals in human care, and suggests potential management methods to help promote positive welfare for animals at all life stages in zoos and aquariums.

Horse-keeping practices in Australia: findings from a national online survey of horse owners

OBJECTIVE

To gain an understanding of general horse-keeping practices in Australia, including shelter, social contact, exercise, watering and supplementary feeding.

METHODS

An online survey was conducted with 505 owners in relation to one 'representative' horse in their care.

RESULTS

The majority (83%) of horses were managed at pasture. Approximately one-quarter of those horses were housed alone (26%) or with one companion animal (27%). If horses were confined to a stable or small yard, the most recorded means of exercise was riding (65%) at a daily frequency (60%). Over half of the horse owners provided water in a trough or drinker with an automatic refill system (58%) and most horse owners supplied hay to their horses (82%), most commonly in combination with grazing. Areas of potential concern included one-quarter of stabled horses being prevented from unmediated social and physical contact with conspecifics and one-fifth of stabled horses being exercised less than daily.

CONCLUSION

The horse-keeping profile in this study should be considered in the public communication of guidelines as well as interactions between veterinarians and clients.

Improving working equine welfare in 'hard-win' situations, where gains are difficult, expensive or marginal

Purpose

Brooke is a non-government organisation with working equine welfare programmes across Africa, Asia and Latin America. In 2014, staff from ten country programmes were asked to identify ‘no-win’ situations (subsequently reframed as ‘hard-wins’)—where improving equine welfare is proving difficult, expensive and/or marginal—in order to inform strategic decisions on how to approach, manage and mitigate for such situations.

Methods

The Delphi-type consultation process had three phases. Round 1 posed five questions in the form of a workshop, survey and semi-structured interviews. Round 2 re-presented key themes and sense-checked initial conclusions. Round 3 reviewed the nature and prevalence of hard-win situations at an international meeting of all participants.

Results

Reasons given for hard-win situations included: no economic or social benefit from caring for working animals; poor resource availability; lack of empathy for working equids or their owners among wider stakeholders; deep-seated social issues, such as addiction or illegal working; areas with a high animal turnover or migratory human population; lack of community cooperation or cohesion; unsafe areas where welfare interventions cannot be adequately supported. Participants estimated the prevalence of hard-win situations as 40–70% of their work. They suggested some current ways of working that may be contributing to the problem, and opportunities to tackle hard-wins more effectively.

Conclusion and animal welfare implications

Respondents agreed that if equine welfare improvements are to span generations of animals, interventions cannot rely on relatively simple, technical knowledge-transfer strategies and quick-wins alone. Programmes need to be more flexible and iterative and less risk-averse in their approaches to embedding good equine welfare practices in all relevant actors. Consultation recommendations informed development of Brooke’s new global strategy, a revised organisational structure and redefinition of roles and responsibilities to streamline ways to approach hard-wins in the complex environments and socio-economic contexts in which working equids are found.

Maternal obesity increases insulin resistance, low-grade inflammation and osteochondrosis lesions in foals and yearlings until 18 months of age

INTRODUCTION

Obesity is a growing concern in horses. The effects of maternal obesity on maternal metabolism and low-grade inflammation during pregnancy, as well as offspring growth, metabolism, low-grade inflammation, testicular maturation and osteochondrotic lesions until 18 months of age were investigated.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Twenty-four mares were used and separated into two groups at insemination according to body condition score (BCS): Normal (N, n = 10, BCS ≤4) and Obese (O, n = 14, BCS ≥4.25). BCS and plasma glucose, insulin, triglyceride, urea, non-esterified fatty acid, serum amyloid A (SAA), leptin and adiponectin concentrations were monitored throughout gestation. At 300 days of gestation, a Frequently Sampled Intravenous Glucose Tolerance Test (FSIGT) was performed. After parturition, foals' weight and size were monitored until 18 months of age with plasma SAA, leptin, adiponectin, triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4) and cortisol concentrations measured at regular intervals. At 6, 12 and 18 months of age, FSIGT and osteoarticular examinations were performed. Males were gelded at one year and expression of genes involved in testicular maturation analysed by RT-qPCR.

RESULTS

Throughout the experiment, maternal BCS was higher in O versus N mares. During gestation, plasma urea and adiponectin were decreased and SAA and leptin increased in O versus N mares. O mares were also more insulin resistant than N mares with a higher glucose effectiveness. Postnatally, there was no difference in offspring growth between groups. Nevertheless, plasma SAA concentrations were increased in O versus N foals until 6 months, with O foals being consistently more insulin resistant with a higher glucose effectiveness. At 12 months of age, O foals were significantly more affected by osteochondrosis than N foals. All other parameters were not different between groups.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, maternal obesity altered metabolism and increased low-grade inflammation in both dams and foals. The risk of developing osteochondrosis at 12 months of age was also higher in foals born to obese dams.

Equine Welfare Assessment: Exploration of British Stakeholder Attitudes Using Focus-Group Discussions

The equine industry in Great Britain has not been subject to the same pressures as the farming industry to engage with welfare assessment, but this may change as concern about equine welfare increases. Stakeholder attitudes toward welfare assessment may impact the implementation of welfare assessment practices. Focus-group discussions regarding welfare assessment were conducted with 6 equine stakeholder groups: leisure horse owners (caregivers; n = 4), grooms (n = 5), veterinary surgeons (n = 3), welfare scientists (n = 4), welfare charity workers (n = 5), and professional riders (n = 4). Three themes emerged from the discussions: (a) Participants predominantly interpreted welfare assessment as a means of identifying and correcting poor welfare in an immediate way; (b) participants believed that horse welfare varied over time; and (c) attributes of the assessor were viewed as an important consideration for equine welfare assessment. The views of equine industry members give insight into the value welfare assessments may have to the industry and how equine welfare assessment approaches can achieve credibility within the industry and increase the positive impact of welfare assessments on equine welfare.

Musculoskeletal Disease in Aged Horses and Its Management

Musculoskeletal disorders are the most prevalent health problem in aging horses. They are not life threatening, but are painful and an important welfare issue. Chronic joint disease (osteoarthritis) and chronic laminitis are the most prevalent. Treating osteoarthritis in the elderly horse is similar to treating performance horses, but aims at providing a stable situation with optimal comfort. Immediate medical treatment of flare-ups, long-term pain management, and adaptation of exercise and living conditions are the mainstays of treatment. Laminitis in the geriatric horse is related often to pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction, which may be treated with additional pergolide.

Demographics, Management, Preventive Health Care and Disease in Aged Horses

Gerontology has become increasingly important in equine veterinary medicine, with aged animals representing a significant proportion of the equine population. Horses are defined as geriatric or aged from age 15 years onwards but can have a life span of more than 40 years. Despite a high level of owner concern for the well-being of their geriatric animal, provision of preventive health care may be suboptimal. Owners seem to under-recognize some of the most prevalent diseases identified in geriatric horses. This review focuses on the demographic characteristics of the equine geriatric population and management and preventive care practices of older horses.

Welfare, Quality of Life, and Euthanasia of Aged Horses

Duration of ownership strengthens the human-horse bond, affecting decision-making about the horse's welfare, quality of life (QoL), and euthanasia. Most owners consider their geriatric horses to have good or excellent QoL; however, increasing age is negatively associated with QoL. Management factors are important. The most common reasons for euthanasia include musculoskeletal disorders or lameness, colic, and nonspecific chronic diseases. The decision to euthanize is difficult, so the advice of the veterinarian and QoL are important. This article focuses on the human-horse bond, assessment of QoL, reasons for euthanasia, and owner experiences of mortality.