CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6 and CYP3A5 polymorphisms in South‐East and East Asian populations: A systematic review

Meta-Analysis of Noncompartmental Pharmacokinetic Parameters to Evaluate the Impact of CYP2C19 and CYP2C9 Genetic Polymorphisms on Abrocitinib Exposure

Abrocitinib is a selective Janus kinase 1 inhibitor approved for the treatment of atopic dermatitis. It is metabolized primarily by cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C19 (approximately 53%) and CYP2C9 (approximately 30%), which form 2 active metabolites. The pharmacologic activity of abrocitinib is attributable to the unbound exposures of abrocitinib and those metabolites with active moiety area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) considered the best measure of the total pharmacological effect. The effect of CYP2C19 and/or CYP2C9 genotypes on abrocitinib and active moiety exposures were evaluated using a meta-analysis of the noncompartmental estimates of exposure pooled from 10 clinical studies. A linear mixed-effects model was developed on the basis of the power model to evaluate the effect of CYP2C19 and/or CYP2C9 genotypes on exposure (i.e., abrocitinib AUC and peak plasma concentration, active moiety AUC and peak plasma concentration). The genotypes were evaluated individually and as a combined phenotype effect. When evaluating the poor metabolizers of CYP2C19 or CYP2C9 individually, the estimated increases were 44.9% and 42.0% in active moiety AUC, respectively. The combined phenotype models showed a 0.6% decrease, and 25.1% and 10.5% increases in the active moiety AUC for "elevated," "mixed," and "reduced" metabolizers, respectively. Overall, the active moiety exposures did not appear to be affected to a clinically meaningful extent by different genotypes of CYP2C19 and/or CYP2C9.

Population pharmacokinetic analysis of zastaprazan (JP-1366), a novel potassium-competitive acid blocker, in patients and healthy volunteers

Zastaprazan (JP-1366) is a novel potassium-competitive acid blocker for the treatment of acid-related disorders. We aimed to establish a population pharmacokinetic (PK) model of zastaprazan, thereby characterizing the PK of zastaprazan in patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) as well as evaluating the impact of various covariates, including CYP2C19 phenotypes, on zastaprazan PK. This population PK analysis included zastaprazan plasma concentration-time data from 92 patients with erosive GERD and 68 healthy volunteers without any gastrointestinal disorders and was performed using nonlinear mixed-effect modeling. Simulations were conducted to predict zastaprazan PK under various dosing regimens in patients with GERD. The plasma PK of zastaprazan was adequately described by a two-compartment model with Erlang-type absorption (six sequential compartments) and first-order elimination. CYP2C19 phenotypes had no significant effect on zastaprazan PK. The disease status was identified as a significant covariate on apparent clearance of zastaprazan, showing lower values in patients with GERD compared to healthy volunteers. However, the model-based simulation indicated that the impact of disease status on zastaprazan exposure was not clinically meaningful. Overall, the current population PK model successfully characterized the observed zastaprazan PK in both patients with GERD and healthy volunteers.

A comprehensive Thai pharmacogenomics database (TPGxD-1): Phenotype prediction and variants identification in 942 whole-genome sequencing data

Computational methods analyze genomic data to identify genetic variants linked to drug responses, thereby guiding personalized medicine. This study analyzed 942 whole-genome sequences from the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) cohort to establish a population-specific pharmacogenomic database (TPGxD-1) in the Thai population. Sentieon (version 201808.08) implemented the GATK best workflow practice for variant calling. We then annotated variant call format (VCF) files using Golden Helix VarSeq 2.5.0 and employed Stargazer v2.0.2 for star allele analysis. The analysis of 63 very important pharmacogenes (VIPGx) reveals 85,566 variants, including 13,532 novel discoveries. Notably, we identified 464 known PGx variants and 275 clinically relevant novel variants. The phenotypic prediction of 15 VIPGx demonstrated a varied metabolic profile for the Thai population. Genes like CYP2C9 (9%), CYP3A5 (45.2%), CYP2B6 (9.4%), NUDT15 (15%), CYP2D6 (47%) and CYP2C19 (43%) showed a high number of intermediate metabolizers; CYP3A5 (41%), and CYP2C19 (9.9%) showed more poor metabolizers. CYP1A2 (52.7%) and CYP2B6 (7.6%) were found to have a higher number of ultra-metabolizers. The functional prediction of the remaining 10 VIPGx genes reveals a high frequency of decreased functional alleles in SULT1A1 (12%), NAT2 (84%), and G6PD (12%). SLCO1B1 reports 20% poor functional alleles, while PTGIS (42%), SLCO1B1 (4%), and TPMT (5.96%) showed increased functional alleles. This study discovered new variants and alleles in the 63 VIPGx genes among the Thai population, offering insights into advancing clinical pharmacogenomics (PGx). However, further validation is needed using other computational and genotyping methods.

Effects of CYP2D6 *10 and *41 Variants in Healthy Chinese Men on the Pharmacokinetics of Dapoxetine

Dapoxetine is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) used to treat premature ejaculation (PE), and is mainly metabolized by CYP2D6, CYP3A4, and flavin-containing monooxygenase 1. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effect of CYP2D6 polymorphism on the pharmacokinetics of dapoxetine in healthy Chinese men. Thirty-nine subjects who received a single oral dose of 30 mg dapoxetine hydrochloride were classified based on their CYP2D6 genotype: *1/*1 (n = 9), *1/*41 (n = 1), *1/*10 (n = 12), *10/*41 (n = 3), or *10/*10 (n = 14). The difference in pharmacokinetic parameters between different genotype groups was analyzed and then scored according to the activity score system. Compared with the wild-type subjects of CYP2D6 *1/*1, the peak plasma concentration (Cmax) and the area under the plasma drug concentration-time curve (AUCinf) of dapoxetine in the *10/*10 and *10/*41 groups were notably increased (P ≤ .05). Significant differences in Cmax, AUC, volume of distribution/bioavailability (V/F) and clearance/bioavailability (CL/F) were observed among dapoxetine activity score groups (P ≤ .05). The AUCinf was increased significantly (154% and 89.73%, P ≤ .05) and the Cmax was increased significantly (73.45% and 42.67%, P ≤ .05) in CYP2D6 *10/*41 subjects, compared with CYP2D6 *1/*1 and *1/*10 subjects. The results obtained indicated that CYP2D6 *10 and *41 polymorphisms have significant effects on the pharmacokinetic properties of dapoxetine.

Association Study of Esomeprazole Pharmacokinetics and CYP2C19 Gene Polymorphisms

To investigate the association between esomeprazole pharmacokinetics and CYP2C19 gene polymorphisms in a cohort of 95 healthy Chinese participants. A cohort of 95 participants was assembled and stratified into 2 distinct groups, receiving either 20 or 40 mg of esomeprazole through oral administration. The subjects encompassed 17 poor metabolizers, 47 intermediate metabolizers, and 31 rapid metabolizers, and their genotypes were ascertained using the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism technique. Esomeprazole plasma concentrations were quantified employing a high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet method. Pharmacokinetic parameters were computed via Phoenix WinNonlin 6.1 software, while SPSS 26.0 facilitated statistical analysis to contrast the pharmacokinetics and the CYP2C19 genotypes. In the aftermath of administering 20 or 40 mg esomeprazole, marked differences were discerned between terminal elimination half-life, maximum concentration/dose, and area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time zero to infinity/dose of esomeprazole (P < .05), with the exception of time to maximum concentration. The findings of this investigation signify a significant association between esomeprazole metabolism and CYP2C19 gene polymorphisms. There were no unprecedented adverse events documented subsequent to the administration of 20 and 40 mg esomeprazole dosages. Esomeprazole has manifested promising safety and tolerability profiles in pertinent clinical trials.

Whole blood hydroxychloroquine: Does genetic polymorphism of cytochrome P450 enzymes have a role?

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease with a wide range of clinical manifestations and multifactorial etiologies ranging from environmental to genetic. SLE is associated with dysregulated immunological reactions, with increased immune complex formation leading to end-organ damages such as lupus nephritis, cutaneous lupus, and musculoskeletal disorders. Lupus treatment aims to reduce disease activity, prevent organ damage, and improve long-term patient survival and quality of life. Antimalarial, hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) is used as a first-line systemic treatment for lupus. It has shown profound efficacy in lupus and its associated conditions. However, wide variation in terms of clinical response to this drug has been observed among this group of patients. This variability has limited the potential of HCQ to achieve absolute clinical benefits. Several factors, including genetic polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 enzymes, have been stipulated as key entities leading to this inter-individual variation. Thus, there is a need for more studies to understand the role of genetic polymorphisms in CYP450 enzymes in the clinical response to HCQ. Focusing on the role of genetic polymorphism on whole blood HCQ in lupus disorder, this review aims to highlight up-to-date pathophysiology of SLE, the mechanism of action of HCQ, and finally the role of genetic polymorphism of CYP450 enzymes on whole blood HCQ level as well as clinical response in lupus.

Elevations in Norclobazam Concentrations and Altered Mental Status in CYP2C19 Poor Metabolizer Phenotype: A Case Report

Clobazam is a 1,5-benzodiazepine frequently used as an adjunctive agent for refractory seizures and status epilepticus. Clobazam undergoes metabolism to an active metabolite norclobazam which is subsequently hydroxylated by CYP2C19, a cytochrome with several pharmacogenetic variants. Patients with poor metabolizer phenotypes may have elevated norclobazam levels and subsequent adverse effects. We present a case of an Asian American male receiving clobazam at a standard therapeutic dose for seizure disorder who became comatose secondary to significantly elevated norclobazam concentrations. Genetic testing revealed the patient was a poor CYP2C19 metabolizer, accounting for the impaired clearance. Clinicians should be aware of the patient populations at risk for these genetic polymorphisms and adjust initial doses based on package labeling or consider therapeutic drug monitoring to avoid adverse effects.

The impact of gene polymorphism and hepatic insufficiency on voriconazole dose adjustment in invasive fungal infection individuals

Voriconazole (VRZ) is a broad-spectrum antifungal medication widely used to treat invasive fungal infections (IFI). The administration dosage and blood concentration of VRZ are influenced by various factors, posing challenges for standardization and individualization of dose adjustments. On the one hand, VRZ is primarily metabolized by the liver, predominantly mediated by the cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C19 enzyme. The genetic polymorphism of CYP2C19 significantly impacts the blood concentration of VRZ, particularly the trough concentration (Ctrough), thereby influencing the drug's efficacy and potentially causing adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Recent research has demonstrated that pharmacogenomics-based VRZ dose adjustments offer more accurate and individualized treatment strategies for individuals with hepatic insufficiency, with the possibility to enhance therapeutic outcomes and reduce ADRs. On the other hand, the security, pharmacokinetics, and dosing of VRZ in individuals with hepatic insufficiency remain unclear, making it challenging to attain optimal Ctrough in individuals with both hepatic insufficiency and IFI, resulting in suboptimal drug efficacy and severe ADRs. Therefore, when using VRZ to treat IFI, drug dosage adjustment based on individuals' genotypes and hepatic function is necessary. This review summarizes the research progress on the impact of genetic polymorphisms and hepatic insufficiency on VRZ dosage in IFI individuals, compares current international guidelines, elucidates the current application status of VRZ in individuals with hepatic insufficiency, and discusses the influence of CYP2C19, CYP3A4, CYP2C9, and ABCB1 genetic polymorphisms on VRZ dose adjustments and Ctrough at the pharmacogenomic level. Additionally, a comprehensive summary and analysis of existing studies' recommendations on VRZ dose adjustments based on CYP2C19 genetic polymorphisms and hepatic insufficiency are provided, offering a more comprehensive reference for dose selection and adjustments of VRZ in this patient population.

Factors Influencing Blood Concentration of Voriconazole and Therapeutic Drug Monitoring in Patients with Child–Pugh Class C Cirrhosis

What Is Known and Objective. CYP2C19 is an important influencing factor for voriconazole trough plasma concentration (Cmin); however, it is not verified in Child–Pugh C (CP-C) cirrhosis patients, and no voriconazole dosage regimen is recommended for these patients in the package insert. This retrospective study identified CYP2C19 and other factors influencing voriconazole Cmin for CP-C cirrhosis, and obtained an appropriate method of application of voriconazole for them. Methods. A total of 66 patients with CP-C cirrhosis who accepted voriconazole therapy were involved. The voriconazole Cmin, clinical characteristics, CYP2C19 genotype, and adverse effects (AEs) were recorded and analyzed. Results. Unlike other research studies, voriconazole Cmin was not different among normal metabolizers (NMs), intermediate metabolizers (IMs), and poor metabolizers (PMs) of the CYP2C19 enzyme in CP-C cirrhosis ( $P$  > 0.05). The maintenance dose regimen for voriconazole was the only independent influencing factor for Cmin ( $P$  = 0.045; OR = 3.753; 95% CI, 1.029–13.694). At about 1/3 of the recommended maintenance dose, only 16.7% (8/48) had Cmin >5.5 μg/mL, 4.5% (3/48) had Cmin <1 μg/mL, and only one AE happened. There were four voriconazole-related AEs that happened in this study, and three AEs occurred (3/4, 75%) when the maintenance dose was not adjusted with therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM). What Is New and Conclusion. Voriconazole Cmin did not significantly vary according to CYP2C19 enzyme metabolization status (being an NM, IM, or PM) in CP-C cirrhosis. Reducing the maintenance dose of voriconazole to approximately 1/3 the standard maintenance dose and administering in combination with TDM in patients with CP-C cirrhosis are recommended.

Pharmacogenomics of Cancer Pain Treatment Outcomes in Asian Populations: A Review

In advanced cancer, pain is a poor prognostic factor, significantly impacting patients' quality of life. It has been shown that up to 30% of cancer patients in Southeast Asian countries may receive inadequate analgesia from opioid therapy. This significant under-management of cancer pain is largely due to the inter-individual variability in opioid dosage and relative efficacy of available opioids, leading to unpredictable clinical responses to opioid treatment. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) cause the variability in opioid treatment outcomes, yet their association in Asian populations remains unclear. Therefore, this review aimed to evaluate the association of SNPs with variability in opioid treatment responses in Asian populations. A literature search was conducted in Medline and Embase databases and included primary studies investigating the association of SNPs in opioid treatment outcomes, namely pharmacokinetics, opioid dose requirements, and pain control among Asian cancer patients. The results show that CYP2D6*10 has the most clinical relevance in tramadol treatment. Other SNPs such as rs7439366 (UGT2B7), rs1641025 (ABAT) and rs1718125 (P2RX7) though significant have limited pharmacogenetic implications due to insufficient evidence. OPRM1 rs1799971, COMT rs4680 and ABCB1 (rs1045642, rs1128503, and rs2032582) need to be further explored in future for relevance in Asian populations.

Introduction of new alternative pipeline using multiplexed fast COLD‑PCR together with sequencing approach highlighting pharmacoeconomics by detection of CYP variants

In precision medicine, multiple factors are involved in clinical decision-making because of ethnic and racial genetic diversity, family history and other health factors. Although advanced techniques have evolved, there is still an economic obstacle to pharmacogenetic (PGx) implementation in developing countries. The aim of the present study was to provide an alternative pipeline that roughly estimate patient carrier type and prescreen out wild-type samples before sequencing or genotyping to determine genetic status. Fast co-amplification at lower denaturation temperature (COLD)-PCR was used to differentiate genetic variant non-carriers from carriers. The majority of drugs are hepatically cleared by cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes and genes encoding CYP enzymes are highly variable. Of all the CYPs, CYP2 family of CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP2D6 isoforms have clinically significant impact on drugs of PGx testing. Therefore, five variants associated with these CYPs were selected for preliminary testing with this novel pipeline. For fast COLD-PCR, the optimal annealing temperature and critical denaturation temperature were determined and evaluated via Sanger sequencing of 27 randomly collected samples. According to precise Tc, to perform in a single-reaction is difficult. However, in this study, this issue was resolved by combination of precise Tc using 10+10+20 cycles. The results showed 100% sensitivity and specificity, with perfect agreement (κ=1.0) compared with Sanger sequencing. The present study provides a prescreening platform by introducing multiplex fast COLD-PCR as a pharmacoeconomic implementation. Our study just present in five variants which are not enough to describe patient metabolic status. Therefore, other actional genetic variants are still needed to cover the actual patient's genotypes. Nevertheless, the proposed method can well-present its efficiency and reliability for serving as a PGx budget platform in the future.

Association between CYP2D6 phenotype and recurrence of Plasmodium vivax infection in south Korean patients

Background

Primaquine is activated by CYP2D6 in the hepatocytes. In Korea, primaquine is the only hypnozoitocidal agent used for patients with vivax malaria. Thus, patients with poor CYP2D6 activity could have an increased risk of primaquine failure and subsequent relapse. The study sought to identify the association between CYP2D6 phenotype and recurrence of malaria in Korean patients.

Methods

A total of 102 patients with vivax malaria were prospectively enrolled from eight institutions in Korea. An additional 38 blood samples from patients with recurred vivax malaria were provided by the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency. Malaria recurrence was defined as more than one episode of vivax malaria in the same or consecutive years. CYP2D6 star alleles, phenotypes, and activity scores were examined.

Results

Genotyping for CYP2D6 was successful in 101 of the prospectively enrolled patients and 38 samples from the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency, of which 91 were included in the no-recurrence group and 48 were included in the recurrence group. Reduced CYP2D6 activity (intermediate metabolizer) phenotype was more common in the recurrence group than in the no-recurrence group (OR, 2.33 (95% CI, 1.14–4.77); p = 0.02). Patients with lower CYP2D6 activity had a higher probability of recurrence (p = 0.029).

Conclusion

This study suggests that CYP2D6 polymorphism may affect primaquine efficacy and thus Plasmodium vivax recurrence in Korea.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12936-022-04311-6.

Racial/Ethnic Differences in the Pharmacokinetics of Antipsychotics: Focusing on East Asians

Empirical clinical studies have suggested that East Asian patients may require lower dosages of psychotropic drugs, such as antipsychotics, lithium, and antidepressants, than non-Asians. Both the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of a drug can affect the clinical response of an illness. The levels of antipsychotics used for the treatment of schizophrenia may affect patient clinical responses; several factors can affect these levels, including patient medication adherence, body weight (BW) or body mass index, smoking habits, and sex. The cytochrome P450 (CYP) system is a major factor affecting the blood levels of antipsychotics because many antipsychotics are metabolized by this system. There were notable genetic differences between people of different races. In this study, we determined the racial or ethnic differences in the metabolic patterns of some selected antipsychotics by reviewing therapeutic drug monitoring studies in East Asian populations. The plasma concentrations of haloperidol, clozapine, quetiapine, aripiprazole, and lurasidone, which are metabolized by specific CYP enzymes, were determined to be higher, under the same daily dose, in East Asian populations than in Western populations.

Do Apixaban Plasma Levels Relate to Bleeding? The Clinical Outcomes and Predictive Factors for Bleeding in Patients with Non-Valvular Atrial Fibrillation

Apixaban can significantly prevent stroke events in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF), as can be observed from the large, randomized, controlled trial conducted in the present study. However, the real-world evidence of bleeding events related to the apixaban plasma levels in Asian populations is limited. This study aimed to investigate the apixaban plasma levels and clinical outcomes among NVAF patients receiving apixaban, including determining the risk factors associated with bleeding during routine care. Seventy-one patients were included in the study. The median values were 112.79 (5–95th percentiles: 68.69–207.8) μg/L and 185.62 (5–95th percentiles: 124.06–384.34) μg/L for the apixaban trough (C_trough) and apixaban peak plasma levels (C_peak), respectively. Stroke and bleeding were found in 8 (11.27%) and 14 patients (19.72%), respectively. There was no statistical significance for C_trough and C_peak in the stroke and non-stroke groups, respectively. The median of C_trough (139.15 μg/L) in patients with bleeding was higher than that in the non-bleeding group (108.14 μg/L), but there was no statistical significance. However, multivariate analyses showed that bleeding history (odds ratio (OR): 17.62; 95% confidence interval (CI): 3.54–176.64; and p-value = 0.002) and C_trough (OR: 1.01; 95%: CI 1.00–1.03; and p-value = 0.038) were related to bleeding events. Almost all of the patients presented apixaban plasma levels within the expected range. Interestingly, bleeding events were associated with the troughs of the apixaban plasma levels and bleeding history.

Population pharmacokinetics model for escitalopram in Chinese psychiatric patients: effect of CYP2C19 and age

Objective: To establish a population pharmacokinetic model in Chinese psychiatric patients to characterize escitalopram pharmacokinetic profile to identify factors influencing drug exposure, and through simulation to compare the results with the established therapeutic reference range.

Methods: Demographic information, dosing regimen, CYP2C19 genotype, concomitant medications, and liver and kidney function indicators were retrospectively collected for inpatients taking escitalopram with therapeutic drug monitoring from 2018 to 2021. Nonlinear mixed-effects modeling was used to model the pharmacokinetic characteristics of escitalopram. Goodness-of-fit plots, bootstrapping, and normalized prediction distribution errors were used to evaluate the model. Simulation for different dosing regimens was based on the final estimations.

Results: The study comprised 106 patients and 337 measurements of serum sample. A structural model with one compartment with first-order absorption and elimination described the data adequately. The population-estimated apparent volume of distribution and apparent clearance were 815 and 16.3 L/h, respectively. Age and CYP2C19 phenotype had a significant effect on the apparent clearance (CL/F). CL/F of escitalopram decreased with increased age, and CL/F of poor metabolizer patients was significantly lower than in extensive and immediate metabolizer patients. The final model-based simulation showed that the daily dose of adolescents with poor metabolizer might be as high as 15 mg or 20 mg and referring to the therapeutic range for adults may result in overdose and a high risk of adverse effects in older patients.

Conclusion: A population pharmacokinetics model of escitalopram was successfully created for the Chinese population. Depending on the age of the patients, CYP2C19 genotype and serum drug concentrations throughout treatment are required for adequate individualization of dosing regimens. When developing a regimen for older patients, especially those who are poor metabolizers, vigilance is required.

Effective low-dose sirolimus regimen for kaposiform haemangioendothelioma with Kasabach-Merritt phenomenon in young infants

AIMS

Management of kaposiform haemangioendotheliomas (KHE) with Kasabach-Merritt phenomenon is challenging in young infants who are subjected to developmental pharmacokinetic changes. Sirolimus, sometimes combined with corticosteroids, can be used as an effective treatment of KHE. Simultaneously, toxicities such as interstitial pneumonitis related to the use of sirolimus may be fatal. As infants have a very low CYP3-enzyme expression at birth, which rises during ageing, we hypothesize that a reduced metabolization of sirolimus might lead to high sirolimus serum levels and low dose may be sufficient without the side effects.

METHODS

A case series of 5 infants with kaposiform haemangioendothelioma with Kasabach-Merritt phenomenon was analysed retrospectively. All infants were treated with sirolimus 0.2 mg/m2 every 24 or 48 hours according to their age. Prednisone was added to the therapy for additional effect in 4 patients.

RESULTS

In all patients, low dose of sirolimus led to therapeutic sirolimus levels (4-6 ng/mL). All infants (aged 4 days-7 months) had a complete haematological response, without serious adverse events. In all patients, the Kasabach-Merritt phenomenon resolved, the coagulation profile normalized and tumour size reduction was seen.

CONCLUSION

Low-dose sirolimus treatment is safe for infants with kaposiform haemangioendothelioma and Kasabach-Merritt phenomenon. It is essential to realize that during the first months of life, metabolism is still developing and enzymes necessary to metabolise drugs like sirolimus still have to mature. To avoid toxic levels, the sirolimus dosage should be based on age and the associated pharmacological developments.

Population pharmacogenomics: an update on ethnogeographic differences and opportunities for precision public health

Both safety and efficacy of medical treatment can vary depending on the ethnogeographic background of the patient. One of the reasons underlying this variability is differences in pharmacogenetic polymorphisms in genes involved in drug disposition, as well as in drug targets. Knowledge and appreciation of these differences is thus essential to optimize population-stratified care. Here, we provide an extensive updated analysis of population pharmacogenomics in ten pharmacokinetic genes (CYP2D6, CYP2C19, DPYD, TPMT, NUDT15 and SLC22A1), drug targets (CFTR) and genes involved in drug hypersensitivity (HLA-A, HLA-B) or drug-induced acute hemolytic anemia (G6PD). Combined, polymorphisms in the analyzed genes affect the pharmacology, efficacy or safety of 141 different drugs and therapeutic regimens. The data reveal pronounced differences in the genetic landscape, complexity and variant frequencies between ethnogeographic groups. Reduced function alleles of CYP2D6, SLC22A1 and CFTR were most prevalent in individuals of European descent, whereas DPYD and TPMT deficiencies were most common in Sub-Saharan Africa. Oceanian populations showed the highest frequencies of CYP2C19 loss-of-function alleles while their inferred CYP2D6 activity was among the highest worldwide. Frequencies of HLA-B*15:02 and HLA-B*58:01 were highest across Asia, which has important implications for the risk of severe cutaneous adverse reactions upon treatment with carbamazepine and allopurinol. G6PD deficiencies were most frequent in Africa, the Middle East and Southeast Asia with pronounced differences in variant composition. These variability data provide an important resource to inform cost-effectiveness modeling and guide population-specific genotyping strategies with the goal of optimizing the implementation of precision public health.

Effects of Pharmacogenomic Testing in Clinical Pain Management: Retrospective Study

BACKGROUND

The availability of pharmacogenomic (PGx) methods to determine the right drug and dosage for individualized patient treatment has increased over the past decade. Adoption of the resulting PGx reports in a clinical setting and monitoring of clinical outcomes is a challenging and long-term commitment.

OBJECTIVE

This study summarizes an extended PGx deep sequencing panel intended for medication dosing and prescription guidance newly adopted in a pain management clinic. The primary outcome of this retrospective study reports the number of cases and types of drugs covered, for which PGx data appears to have assisted in optimal drug prescription and dosing.

METHODS

A PGx panel is described, encompassing 23 genes and 141 single-nucleotide polymorphisms or indels, combined with PGx dosing guidance and drug-gene interaction (DGI) and drug-drug interaction (DDI) reporting to prevent adverse drug reactions (ADRs). During a 2-year period, patients (N=171) were monitored in a pain management clinic. Urine toxicology, PGx reports, and progress notes were studied retrospectively for changes in prescription regimens before and after the PGx report was made available to the provider. An additional algorithm provided DGIs and DDIs to prevent ADRs.

RESULTS

Among patient PGx reports with medication lists provided (n=146), 57.5% (n=84) showed one or more moderate and 5.5% (n=8) at least one serious PGx interaction. A total of 96 (65.8%) patients showed at least one moderate and 15.1% (n=22) one or more serious DGIs or DDIs. A significant number of active changes in prescriptions based on the 102 PGx/DGI/DDI report results provided was observed for 85 (83.3%) patients for which a specific drug was either discontinued or switched within the defined drug classes of the report, or a new drug was added.

CONCLUSIONS

Preventative action was observed for all serious interactions, and only moderate interactions were tolerated for the lack of other alternatives. This study demonstrates the application of an extended PGx panel combined with a customized informational report to prevent ADRs and improve patient care.

A physiologically based pharmacokinetic model of clopidogrel in populations of European and Japanese ancestry: An evaluation of CYP2C19 activity

Treatment response to clopidogrel is associated with CYP2C19 activity through the formation of the active H4 metabolite. The aims of this study were to develop a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model of clopidogrel and its metabolites for populations of European ancestry, to predict the pharmacokinetics in the Japanese population by CYP2C19 phenotype, and to investigate the effect of clinical and demographic factors. A PBPK model was developed and verified to describe the two metabolic pathways of clopidogrel (H4 metabolite, acyl glucuronide metabolite) for a population of European ancestry using plasma data from published studies. Subsequently, model predictions in the Japanese population were evaluated. The effects of CYP2C19 activity, fluvoxamine coadministration (CYP2C19 inhibitor), and population-specific factors (age, sex, BMI, body weight, cancer, hepatic, and renal dysfunction) on the pharmacokinetics of clopidogrel and its metabolites were then characterized. The predicted/observed ratios for clopidogrel and metabolite exposure parameters were acceptable (twofold acceptance criteria). For all CYP2C19 phenotypes, steady-state AUC0-τ of the H4 metabolite was lower for the Japanese (e.g., EM, 7.69 [6.26-9.45] ng·h/ml; geometric mean [95% CI]) than European (EM, 24.8 [20.4-30.1] ng·h/ml, p < .001) population. In addition to CYP2C19-poor metabolizer phenotype, fluvoxamine coadministration, hepatic, and renal dysfunction were found to reduce H4 metabolite but not acyl glucuronide metabolite concentrations. This is the first PBPK model describing the two major metabolic pathways of clopidogrel, which can be applied to populations of European and Japanese ancestry by CYP2C19 phenotype. The differences between the two populations appear to be determined primarily by the effect of varying CYP2C19 liver activity.

Adverse Drug Reactions of Antihypertensives and CYP3A5*3 Polymorphism Among Chronic Kidney Disease Patients

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients may be more susceptible to adverse drug reactions (ADRs), given their complex medication regimen and altered physiological state driven by a decline in kidney function. This study aimed to describe the relationship between CYP3A5*3 polymorphism and the ADR of antihypertensive drugs in CKD patients. This retrospective, multi-center, observational cohort study was performed among adult CKD patients with a follow-up period of up to 3 years. ADRs were detected through medical records. CYP3A5*3 genotyping was performed using the direct sequencing method. From the 200 patients recruited in this study, 33 (16.5%) were found to have ADRs related to antihypertensive drugs, with 40 ADRs reported. The most frequent ADR recorded was hyperkalemia (n = 8, 20.0%), followed by bradycardia, hypotension, and dizziness, with 6 cases (15.0%) each. The most common suspected agents were angiotensin II receptor blockers (n = 11, 27.5%), followed by angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (n = 9, 22.5%). The CYP3A5*3 polymorphism was not found to be associated with antihypertensive-related ADR across the genetic models tested, despite adjustment for other possible factors through multiple logistic regression (p > 0.05). After adjusting for possible confounding factors, the factors associated with antihypertensive-related ADR were anemia (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 5.438, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.002, 14.288) and poor medication adherence (aOR 3.512, 95% CI: 1.470, 8.388). In conclusion, the CYP3A5*3 polymorphism was not found to be associated with ADRs related to antihypertensives in CKD patients, which requires further verification by larger studies.

Night-time gastric acid suppression by tegoprazan compared to vonoprazan or esomeprazole

AIM

Nocturnal acid breakthrough has been considered an unmet need of proton pump inhibitors. Tegoprazan, a novel potassium-competitive acid blocker, is expected to show improved properties for this unmet need. This study was aimed to compare night-time acid suppression by tegoprazan with that by vonoprazan or esomeprazole, and to explore the effect of CYP2C19 phenotypes on acid-suppressive effects.

METHODS

A randomized, open-label, three-period, six-sequence crossover study was conducted. A single oral dose of tegoprazan 50 mg, vonoprazan 20 mg or esomeprazole 40 mg was administered at night in each period. Continuous intragastric pH was monitored at baseline and after each dosing.

RESULTS

16 healthy subjects (6 CYP2C19 extensive metabolizers, 5 intermediate metabolizers, 5 poor metabolizers) completed the study. After a single dose of tegoprazan, intragastric pH increased more rapidly to over 4 at approximately 1 hour compared to the other treatments, and elevated intragastric pH was maintained stably at night. Tegoprazan exhibited night-time acid suppression for slightly but not significantly longer than vonoprazan, and greater than esomeprazole; % Time pH ≥4 at night-time was 66.0%, 60.5% and 36.1% for tegoprazan, vonoprazan and esomeprazole, respectively. Night-time acid suppression by tegoprazan and vonoprazan was not dependent on CYP2C19 phenotypes, while that by esomeprazole tended to be influenced by CYP2C19 phenotypes.

CONCLUSIONS

Tegoprazan produced more rapid, potent and well sustained night-time acid suppression versus vonoprazan or esomeprazole when administered at night. Furthermore, tegoprazan showed no CYP2C19 phenotype dependency in acid suppression. It suggests the potential of tegoprazan, especially in preventing nocturnal acid breakthrough.

Relationship between platelet aggregation and stroke risk after percutaneous coronary intervention: a PENDULUM analysis

In patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with a stent, high on-treatment platelet reactivity may be associated with an increased risk of stroke. This post hoc analysis of the PENDULUM registry compared the risk of post-PCI stroke according to on-treatment P2Y₁₂ reaction unit (PRU) values. Patients aged ≥ 20 years who underwent PCI were stratified by baseline PRU (at 12 and 48 h post-PCI) as either high (HPR, > 208), optimal (OPR, > 85 to ≤ 208), or low on-treatment platelet reactivity (LPR, ≤ 85). The incidences of non-fatal ischemic and non-ischemic stroke through to 12 months post-PCI were recorded. Almost all enrolled patients (6102/6267 [97.4%]) had a risk factor for ischemic stroke, and most were receiving dual antiplatelet therapy. Of the 5906 patients with PRU data (HPR, n = 2227; OPR, n = 3002; LPR, n = 677), 47 had a non-fatal stroke post-PCI (cumulative incidence: 0.68%, ischemic; 0.18%, non-ischemic stroke). Patients with a non-fatal ischemic stroke event had statistically significantly higher post-PCI PRU values versus those without an event (P = 0.037). The incidence of non-fatal non-ischemic stroke was not related to PRU value. When the patients were stratified by PRU ≤ 153 versus > 153 at 12–48 h post-PCI, a significant difference was observed in the cumulative incidence of non-fatal stroke at 12 months (P = 0.044). We found that patients with ischemic stroke tended to have higher PRU values at 12–48 h after PCI versus those without ischemic stroke.

Clinical trial registration: UMIN000020332.

CYP2C19 Genotyping May Provide a Better Treatment Strategy when Administering Escitalopram in Chinese Population

Depression disorder is one of the most serious mental illnesses in the world. Escitalopram is the essential first-line medication for depression disorder. It is the substrate of hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme CYP2C19 with high polymorphism. The effect of CYP2C19 on pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics on Caucasian population has been studied. The Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium Guideline provides dosing recommendations for escitalopram on CYP2C19 genotypes on the basis of the studies on Caucasian population. However, the gene frequency of the alleles of CYP2C19 showed racial differences between Chinese and Caucasian populations. Representatively, the frequency of the *2 and *3 allele, which were considered as poor metabolizer, has been shown to be three times higher in Chinese than in Caucasians. In addition, the environments might also lead to different degrees of impacts on genotypes. Therefore, the guidelines based on the Caucasians may not be applicable to the Chinese, which induced the establishment of a guideline in China. It is necessary to provide the evidence of individual treatment of escitalopram in Chinese by studying the effect of CYP2C19 genotypes on the pharmacokinetics parameters and steady-state concentration on Chinese. In this study, single-center, randomized, open-label, two-period, two-treatment crossover studies were performed. Ninety healthy Chinese subjects finished the trials, and they were included in the statistical analysis. The pharmacokinetics characteristics of different genotypes in Chinese were obtained. The results indicate that the poor metabolizer had higher exposure, and increased half-life than the extensive metabolizer and intermediate metabolite. The prediction of steady-state concentration based on the single dose trial on escitalopram shows that the poor metabolizer might have a higher steady-state concentration than the extensive metabolizer and intermediate metabolite in Chinese. The results indicate that the genetic testing before medication and the adjustment of escitalopram in the poor metabolizer should be considered in the clinical treatments in Chinese. The results provide the evidence of individual treatment of escitalopram in Chinese, which will be beneficial for the safer and more effective application of escitalopram in the Chinese population. Clinical Trial Registration: identifier ChiCTR1900027226.

Development of weight and age-based dosing of daily primaquine for radical cure of vivax malaria

BACKGROUND

In many endemic areas, Plasmodium vivax malaria is predominantly a disease of young adults and children. International recommendations for radical cure recommend fixed target doses of 0.25 or 0.5 mg/kg/day of primaquine for 14 days in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase normal patients of all ages. However, for many anti-malarial drugs, including primaquine, there is evidence that children have lower exposures than adults for the same weight-adjusted dose. The aim of the study was to develop 14-day weight-based and age-based primaquine regimens against high-frequency relapsing tropical P. vivax.

METHODS

The recommended adult target dose of 0.5 mg/kg/day (30 mg in a 60 kg patient) is highly efficacious against tropical P. vivax and was assumed to produce optimal drug exposure. Primaquine doses were calculated using allometric scaling to derive a weight-based primaquine regimen over a weight range from 5 to 100 kg. Growth curves were constructed from an anthropometric database of 53,467 individuals from the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) to define weight-for-age relationships. The median age associated with each weight was used to derive an age-based dosing regimen from the weight-based regimen.

RESULTS

The proposed weight-based regimen has 5 dosing bands: (i) 5-7 kg, 5 mg, resulting in 0.71-1.0 mg/kg/day; (ii) 8-16 kg, 7.5 mg, 0.47-0.94 mg/kg/day; (iii) 17-40 kg, 15 mg, 0.38-0.88 mg/kg/day; (iv) 41-80 kg, 30 mg, 0.37-0.73 mg/kg/day; and (v) 81-100 kg, 45 mg, 0.45-0.56 mg/kg/day. The corresponding age-based regimen had 4 dosing bands: 6-11 months, 5 mg, 0.43-1.0 mg/kg/day; (ii) 1-5 years, 7.5 mg, 0.35-1.25 mg/kg/day; (iii) 6-14 years, 15 mg, 0.30-1.36 mg/kg/day; and (iv) ≥ 15 years, 30 mg, 0.35-1.07 mg/kg/day.

CONCLUSION

The proposed weight-based regimen showed less variability around the primaquine dose within each dosing band compared to the age-based regimen and is preferred. Increased dose accuracy could be achieved by additional dosing bands for both regimens. The age-based regimen might not be applicable to regions outside the GMS, which must be based on local anthropometric data. Pharmacokinetic data in small children are needed urgently to inform the proposed regimens.

Safety of antithrombotic therapy in East Asian patients

Antithrombotic agents are widely used on the globe for prevention of thrombotic events such as atherothrombotic events and thromboembolic stroke in atrial fibrillation or for prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism. However, the net clinical benefit of antithrombotic intervention may differ substantially in various sub-population of patients. Here, the authors attempt to address the risk of serious bleeding in East Asian as compared to the other regions of the world. The community-based epidemiological data suggest numerically higher risk of hemorrhage stroke in East Asian as compared to the globe. Importantly, the life-time risk of ischemic stroke in East Asia is higher than that of the globe. Regarding the serious bleeding risk in East Asians with the use of antithrombotic agents, various clinical trials and international registries provided conflicting information. It is hard to draw generalized conclusion, but there are some specific sub-population in East Asian with higher risk of specific serious bleeding events with the use of specific antithrombotic agents such as the risk of intra-cranial bleeding (ICH) with Vitamin K antagonists. Specific characteristics in East Asian such as higher prevalence of lacunar stroke may contribute higher risk of ICH in East Asian, but the detailed mechanism is still to be elucidated. In conclusion, further investigations are necessary to clarify the specific conditions where the risk of serious bleeding events in East Asian patients differ substantially compared to the global. In addition, further understanding of the mechanisms causing the different bleeding response in specific conditions in East Asian is awaited.

Effects of CYP2C19 genetic polymorphism on the steady-state concentration of citalopram in patients with major depressive disorder

Citalopram is commonly prescribed to patients suffering from major depressive disorder. Some of them do not respond adequately to therapy with citalopram, while many of them experience type A adverse drug reactions. Current research revealed that CYP2C19 isoenzyme is involved in the biotransformation of citalopram. The objective of our study was to investigate the impact of 681G>A polymorphism of the CYP2C19 gene on the efficacy, safety and the concentration/dose indicator of citalopram. Our study enrolled 130 patients with major depressive disorder and comorbid alcohol use disorder (average age-38.7 ± 14.1 years). Therapy regimen included citalopram in an average daily dose of 31.1 ± 14.4 mg per week. Therapy efficacy and safety were evaluated using the international psychometric scales. For genotyping, we performed the real-time polymerase chain reaction. Our findings revealed the statistically significant results in terms of the treatment efficacy evaluation (HAMD scores at the end of the treatment course): (GG) 8.0 [8.0; 9.0] and (GA) 10.0 [9.0; 11.0], p < 0.001. In the safety profile (the UKU scores), the statistical significance was also obtained: (GG) 3.0 [3.0; 4.0] and (GA) 5.0 [4.0; 5.0], p < 0.001. We revealed a statistical significance for concentration/dose indicator of citalopram in patients with different genotypes: (GG) 2.543 [1.659; 4.239] and (GA) 4.196 [2.643; 5.753], p < 0.001). The effect of CYP2C19 genetic polymorphism on the efficacy and safety profiles of citalopram was demonstrated in a group of 130 patients with major depressive disorder.

CYP2D6 Allele Frequency in Five Malaria Vivax Endemic Areas From Brazilian Amazon Region

Genetic variability was linked with individual responses to treatment and susceptibility to malaria by Plasmodium vivax. Polymorphisms in the CYP2D6 gene may modulate enzyme level and activity, thereby affecting individual responses to pharmacological treatment. The aim of the study was to investigate whether or not CYP2D6 single nucleotide polymorphisms rs1065852, rs38920-97, rs16947 and rs28371725 are unequally distributed in malaria by Plasmodium vivax individuals from the Brazilian Amazon region. The blood samples were collected from 220 unrelated Plasmodium vivax patients from five different endemic areas. Genotyping was performed using SNaPshot^® and real-time polymerase chain reaction methods. In all five areas, the rs1065852 (CYP2D6*10, C.100C > T), rs3892097 (CYP2D6*4, 1846C > T) and rs16947 (CYP2D6*2, C.2850G > A), as a homozygous genotype, showed the lowest frequencies. The rs28371725 (CYP2D6*41, 2988G > A) homozygous genotype was not detected, while the allele A was found in a single patient from Macapá region. No deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium were found, although a borderline p-value was observed (p = 0.048) for the SNP rs3892097 in Goianésia do Pará, Pará state. No significant associations were detected in these frequencies among the five studied areas. For the SNP rs3892097, a higher frequency was observed for the C/T heterozygous genotype in the Plácido de Castro and Macapá, Acre and Amapá states, respectively. The distribution of the CYP2D6 alleles investigated in the different areas of the Brazilian Amazon is not homogeneous. Further investigations are necessary in order to determine which alleles might be informative to assure optimal drug dosing recommendations based on experimental pharmacogenetics.

Influence of CYP2C9 Genetic Polymorphisms on the Pharmacokinetics of Losartan and Its Active Metabolite E-3174: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

This study aimed to investigate the influence of CYP2C9 genetic polymorphisms on the pharmacokinetics of losartan and its active metabolite, E-3174, through a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eight studies published before March 2021 were included in this study. We used PubMed, the Cochrane Library, EMBASE, and Web of Science, based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The data analysis was conducted through Review Manager (RevMan), version 5.3, and R software. We found that healthy volunteers with CYP2C9*2 or *3 carriers had higher area under the curve (AUC_0-∞) of losartan (mean difference (MD) 0.17 μg·h/mL; 95% confidence intervals (CI): 0.04, 0.29) and lower AUC_0-∞ of E-3174 (MD −0.35 μg·h/mL; 95% CI: −0.62, −0.08) than those with CYP2C9*1/*1. Subjects with CYP2C9*2 or *3 carriers showed lower maximum concentration (C_max) of E-3174 than those with CYP2C9*1/*1 (MD −0.13 μg/mL; 95% CI: −0.17, −0.09). For half-life, subjects with CYP2C9*2 or *3 carriers had longer half-lives of losartan and E-3174 than those with CYP2C9*1/*1 (MD 0.47 h; 95% CI: 0.32, 0.61 and MD 0.68 h; 95% CI: 0.44, 0.92, respectively). This meta-analysis suggests that the pharmacokinetics of losartan and E-3174 are associated with the CYP2C9 polymorphisms

Enantioselective inhibition of human CYP2C19 by the chiral pesticide ethofumesate: Prediction of pesticide-drug interactions in humans

Ethofumesate is a chiral herbicide that may display enantioselective behavior in humans. For this reason, the enantioselective potential of ethofumesate and its main metabolite ethofumesate-2-hydroxy to cause pesticide-drug interactions on cytochrome P450 forms (CYPs) has been evaluated by using human liver microsomes. Among the evaluated CYPs, CYP2C19 had its activity decreased by the ethofumesate racemic mixture (rac-ETO), (+)-ethofumesate ((+)-ETO), and (-)-ethofumesate ((-)-ETO). CYP2C19 inhibition was not time-dependent, but a strong inhibition potential was observed for rac-ETO (IC₅₀ = 5 ± 1 μmol L^-1), (+)-ETO (IC₅₀ = 1.6 ± 0.4 μmol L^-1), and (-)-ETO (IC₅₀ = 1.8 ± 0.4 μmol L^-1). The reversible inhibition mechanism was competitive, and the inhibition constant (K_i) values for rac-ETO (2.6 ± 0.4 μmol L^-1), (+)-ETO (1.5 ± 0.2 μmol L^-1), and (-)-ETO (0.7 ± 0.1 μmol L^-1) were comparable to the K_i values of strong CYP2C19 inhibitors. Inhibition of CYP2C19 by ethofumesate was enantioselective, being almost twice higher for (-)-ETO than for (+)-ETO, which indicates that this enantiomer may be a more potent inhibitor of this CYP form. For an in vitro-in vivo correlation, the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) guideline on the assessment of drug-drug interactions used in the early stages of drug development was used. The FDA's R₁ values were estimated on the basis of the obtained ethofumesate K_i and distribution volume, metabolism, unbound plasma fraction, gastrointestinal and dermal absorption data available in the literature. The correlation revealed that ethofumesate probably inhibits CYP2C19 in vivo for both chronic (oral) and occupational (dermal) exposure scenarios.

Allele frequencies of single nucleotide polymorphisms of clinically important drug-metabolizing enzymes CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP3A4 in a Thai population

Prior knowledge of allele frequencies of cytochrome P450 polymorphisms in a population is crucial for the revision and optimization of existing medication choices and doses. In the current study, the frequency of the CYP2C9*2, CYP2C9*3, CYP2C19*2, CYP2C19*3, CYP2C19*6, CYP2C19*17, and CYP3A4 (rs4646437) alleles in a Thai population across different regions of Thailand was examined. Tests for polymorphisms of CYP2C9 and CYP3A4 were performed using TaqMan SNP genotyping assay and CYP2C19 was performed using two different methods; TaqMan SNP genotyping assay and Luminex x Tag V3. The blood samples were collected from 1205 unrelated healthy individuals across different regions within Thailand. Polymorphisms of CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 were transformed into phenotypes, which included normal metabolizer (NM), intermediate metabolizer (IM), poor metabolizer (PM), and rapid metabolizers (RM). The CYP2C9 allele frequencies among the Thai population were 0.08% and 5.27% for the CYP2C9*2 and CYP2C9*3 alleles, respectively. The CYP2C19 allele frequencies among the Thai population were 25.60%, 2.50%, 0.10%, and 1.80% for the CYP2C19*2, CYP2C19*3, CYP2C19*6, and CYP2C19*17 alleles, respectively. The allele frequency of the CYP3A4 (rs4646437) variant allele was 28.50% in the Thai population. The frequency of the CYP2C9*3 allele was significantly lower among the Northern Thai population (P < 0.001). The frequency of the CYP2C19*17 allele was significantly higher in the Southern Thai population (P < 0.001). Our results may provide an understanding of the ethnic differences in drug responses and support for the utilization of pharmacogenomics testing in clinical practice.

Pharmacokinetics, Tolerability and Pharmacogenetics of DA-8031 After Multiple Ascending Doses in Healthy Male Subjects

Purpose

DA-8031 is a novel selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor for the treatment of premature ejaculation. This study investigated the pharmacokinetics, safety and tolerability of multiple oral doses of DA-8031. In addition, a genetic analysis was explored to evaluate the effect of genetic polymorphisms on the pharmacokinetics of DA-8031.

Subjects and Methods

A dose block-randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was conducted in 3 dose groups with 20, 30 and 40 mg of DA-8031. Healthy male subjects were randomized to DA-8031 or placebo at a 4:1 ratio in each dose group of 10 subjects by oral administration once daily for 7 consecutive days. Serial blood and urine samples were collected for the pharmacokinetic evaluation, and the pharmacokinetic-related genes were analyzed by DMET^TM plus. A safety evaluation was conducted including adverse events (AEs) monitoring and 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG).

Results

The plasma DA-8031 concentration reached the maximum concentration (C_max) in 2.2 to 3.0 h and was eliminated with a mean half-life of 25.5 to 26.7 h at steady state. The accumulation index of DA-8031 ranged 2.3 to 2.8. The systemic exposure of DA-8031 of the CYP2D6 intermediate metabolizer (IM) was significantly higher compared to the CYP2D6 poor metabolizer (PM). There were no clinically significant QTc interval changes, and all the adverse events were mild.

Conclusion

After multiple oral doses of DA-8031 20, 30, and 40 mg in this study, the systemic exposure of DA-8031 increased in a more than dose-proportional manner with the increasing doses, and DA-8031 was generally well tolerated. In addition, the genetic polymorphisms of CYP2D6 have an impact on the pharmacokinetics of DA-8031.

A Pharmacogenetic Study of CYP2C19 in Acute Coronary Syndrome Patients of Colombian Origin Reveals New Polymorphisms Potentially Related to Clopidogrel Therapy

Clopidogrel, an oral platelet P2Y₁₂ receptor blocker, is used in the treatment of acute coronary syndrome. Interindividual variability in treatment response and the occurrence of adverse effects has been attributed to genetic variants in CYP2C19. The analysis of relevant pharmacogenes in ethnically heterogeneous and poorly studied populations contributes to the implementation of personalized medicine. We analyzed the coding and regulatory regions of CYP2C19 in 166 patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) treated with clopidogrel. The allele frequencies of CYP2C19 alleles *1, *2, *4, *17, *27 and *33 alleles were 86.1%, 7.2%, 0.3%, 10.2%, 0.3% and 0.3%, respectively. A new potentially pathogenic mutation (p.L15H) and five intronic variants with potential splicing effects were detected. In 14.4% of the patients, a new haplotype in strong linkage disequilibrium was identified. The clinical outcome indicated that 13.5% of the patients presented adverse drugs reactions with a predominance of bleeding while 25% of these patients were carriers of at least one polymorphic allele. We propose that new regulatory single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) might potentially influence the response to clopidogrel in Colombian individuals.

Effects of CYP3A5 Polymorphism on Rapid Progression of Chronic Kidney Disease: A Prospective, Multicentre Study

Personalised medicine is potentially useful to delay the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD). The aim of this study was to determine the effects of CYP3A5 polymorphism in rapid CKD progression. This multicentre, observational, prospective cohort study was performed among adult CKD patients (≥18 years) with estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) ≥30 mL/min/1.73 m2, who had ≥4 outpatient, non-emergency eGFR values during the three-year study period. The blood samples collected were analysed for CYP3A5*3 polymorphism. Rapid CKD progression was defined as eGFR decline of >5 mL/min/1.73 m2/year. Multiple logistic regression was then performed to identify the factors associated with rapid CKD progression. A total of 124 subjects consented to participate. The distribution of the genotypes adhered to the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (X2 = 0.237, p = 0.626). After adjusting for potential confounding factors via multiple logistic regression, the factors associated with rapid CKD progression were CYP3A5*3/*3 polymorphism (adjusted Odds Ratio [aOR] 4.190, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.268, 13.852), adjustments to antihypertensives, young age, dyslipidaemia, smoking and use of traditional/complementary medicine. CKD patients should be monitored closely for possible factors associated with rapid CKD progression to optimise clinical outcomes. The CYP3A5*3/*3 genotype could potentially be screened among CKD patients to offer more individualised management among these patients.

Relationship between CYP2D6 genotype, activity score and phenotype in a pediatric Thai population treated with risperidone

Recently, the Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC) have revised recommendations for the translation of CYP2D6 genotype to phenotype. Changes affect phenotype grouping, as well as the value used to calculate activity score for the CYP2D6*10 allele to better reflect the substantially decreased activity of this allele which is the most frequent allele found in Asian populations. This study aimed to evaluate whether the lower value for CYP2D6*10 as recommended, and the revised phenotype groupings improve the relationship between CYP2D6 genotype and risperidone measures. One hundred and ninety-nine children and adolescents with autism treated with a risperidone-based regimen for at least four weeks were included. CYP2D6 genotype was determined using the Luminex xTAG CYP2D6 Kit assay and translated into phenotype using different translation methods. Plasma concentrations of risperidone and 9-hydroxyrisperidone were measured using LC/MS/MS. Plasma levels of risperidone, risperidone concentration/dose ratio, and risperidone/9-hydroxyrisperidone ratio in patients with an activity score < 1 were significantly higher than those ≥ 1 (P value < 0.001 for all three parameters). Plasma risperidone levels and risperidone concentration/dose ratios were significantly higher in intermediate metabolizers (defined as AS = 0.25–0.75) than normal metabolizer (defined as AS = 1–2) patients (1.44 vs. 0.23 ng/ml, P < 0.001 and 1.63 vs. 0.29 ng/ml/ng, P < 0.001, respectively) as well as risperidone/9-hydroxyrisperidone ratio (0.20 vs. 0.04, P < 0.001). This is the first study in an Asian population utilizing the revised CPIC-recommended method for translating the CYP2D6 genotype to phenotype. In addition to validating that CYP2D6 genetic variation significantly impacts risperidone metabolism, we demonstrated that revised value for the CYP2D6*10 was superior for genotype to phenotype translation. However, at least for risperidone, subjects with an activity score of 1 presented as phenotypic normal, and not intermediate metabolizers, suggesting that phenotype classification is substrate dependent.

Prevalence of pharmacogenomic variants in 100 pharmacogenes among Southeast Asian populations under the collaboration of the Southeast Asian Pharmacogenomics Research Network (SEAPharm)

Pharmacogenomics can enhance the outcome of treatment by adopting pharmacogenomic testing to maximize drug efficacy and lower the risk of serious adverse events. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) is a cost-effective technology for genotyping several pharmacogenomic loci at once, thereby increasing publicly available data. A panel of 100 pharmacogenes among Southeast Asian (SEA) populations was resequenced using the NGS platform under the collaboration of the Southeast Asian Pharmacogenomics Research Network (SEAPharm). Here, we present the frequencies of pharmacogenomic variants and the comparison of these pharmacogenomic variants among different SEA populations and other populations used as controls. We investigated the different types of pharmacogenomic variants, especially those that may have a functional impact. Our results provide substantial genetic variations at 100 pharmacogenomic loci among SEA populations that may contribute to interpopulation variability in drug response phenotypes. Correspondingly, this study provides basic information for further pharmacogenomic investigations in SEA populations.

CYP2D6*10 polymorphism and the enantioselective O-desmethylation of S-(+)- and R-(-)-venlafaxine in Japanese psychiatric patients

According to previous studies, R-(-)-venlafaxine (VEN) has higher enantioselectivity than S-(+)-VEN, and the plasma concentration of R-(-)-VEN varies depending on CYP2D6 activity. Therefore, we examined the pharmacokinetic effects of CYP2D6*10 genotypes on the steady-state concentrations of the enantiomers of VEN. The individuals were 71 Japanese depressed patients treated with racemic VEN. The concentrations of the enantiomers of VEN and O-desmethylvenlafaxine (ODV) were measured. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to determine the CYP2D6*10 genotypes. The plasma concentrations of S-(+)-VEN were approximately 1.9-fold higher than those of R-(-)-VEN. The plasma concentrations of S-(+)-VEN and R-(-)-VEN seemed to be higher in individuals with two mutant alleles of CYP2D6*10, although no significant differences were found in the plasma levels of S-(+)-VEN and R-(-)-VEN between CYP2D6*10 genotypes. The number of mutant alleles of CYP2D6*10 was a significant factor associated with the R-(-)-ODV/R-(-)-VEN ratio (P = .004) in multiple regression analysis. This suggests that CYP2D6*10 mutations affect the metabolism of R-(-)-VEN and S-(+)-VEN. Further studies are needed to examine how these findings affect clinical practice.

Population pharmacokinetic analysis of esomeprazole in Japanese subjects with various CYP2C19 phenotypes

WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE

Esomeprazole, the S-isomer of omeprazole, is a proton pump inhibitor which has been approved by over 125 countries, also known as NEXIUM^® . Esomeprazole was developed to provide further improvement on efficacy for acid-related diseases with higher systemic bioavailability due to the less first-pass metabolism and lower plasma clearance. Esomeprazole is primarily metabolized by CYP2C19. Approximately <1% of Caucasians and 5%-10% of Asians have absent CYP2C19 enzyme activity. Although the influence of various CYP2C19 phenotypes on esomeprazole pharmacokinetics has been studied, this is the first report in the Japanese population where 27 low CYP2C19 metabolizers were included.

METHODS

In this study, a population PK model describing the PK of esomeprazole was developed to understand the difference of CYP2C19 phenotypes on clearance in the Japanese population. The model quantitatively assessed the influence of CYP2C19 phenotype on esomeprazole PK in healthy Japanese male subjects after receiving repeated oral dosing. The inhibition mechanism of esomeprazole on CYP2C19 activity was also included in the model.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

CYP2C19 phenotype and dose were found as statistically significant covariates on esomeprazole clearance. The apparent clearance at 10-mg dose was 17.32, 9.77 and 7.37 (L/h) for homozygous extensive metabolizer, heterozygous extensive metabolizer and poor metabolizer subjects, respectively. And the apparent clearance decreased as dose increased.

WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION

The established population PK model well described the esomeprazole PK and model-predicted esomeprazole PK was in good agreement with external clinical data, suggesting the robustness and applicability of the current model for predicting esomeprazole PK.

Potential Clinical Relevance of Differences in Allele Frequencies Found within Very Important Pharmacogenes between Hmong and East Asian Populations

OBJECTIVES

Implementing pharmacogenetics for very important pharmacogenes (VIPs) holds the promise of improving clinical outcomes through optimal medication selection and dosing. However, significant differences in the frequency of actionable variants in VIPs may exist within subpopulations of a given ancestral group. Furthermore, these differences can potentially impact drug selection and dosing. The purpose of this study was to ascertain allele frequencies for VIPs and to predict medication requirements using Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC) guidelines in Hmong and compare with published data for East Asians.

METHODS

Using a community-based participatory action research approach, DNA collected from 194 Hmong adults living in the United States was analyzed for 22 genetic variants within eight VIPs (CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP4F2, DPYD, G6PD, SLCO1B1, TPMT, VKORC1). Allele frequencies for VIPs and predicted medication requirements using CPIC guidelines were compared between Hmong participants and East Asians.

RESULTS

Significant differences in allele frequencies between the Hmong and East Asians were found for 23% (5/22) of the CPIC-actionable variants tested. Allele frequencies for VIPs in Hmong versus East Asians were 16.6% versus 3.4% in CYP2C9*3A, 42.2% versus 29.0% for CYP2C19*2, 0.3% versus 8.3% in CYP2C19*3, 6.5% versus 22.1% in CYP4F2*3, and 3.6% versus 0.1% in SLCO1B1*5, respectively. These differences significantly influenced predicted medication usage recommendations in warfarin, simvastatin, and phenytoin between Hmong and East Asians.

CONCLUSIONS

Important differences in allele frequencies for key genetic variants influencing selection of medications and dosages were found between the Hmong and East Asians. The magnitude and nature of these differences can be expected to result in different medication recommendations for the Hmong relative to East Asians.

Genetic and Non-genetic Factors Contributing to the Significant Variation in the Plasma Trough Concentration-to-Dose Ratio of Valproic Acid in Children With Epilepsy

Objective: This study was conducted to evaluate the potential genetic and non-genetic factors contributing to plasma trough concentration-to-dose (C ₀/D) ratio of valproic acid (VPA) in pediatric patients with epilepsy. Study Design: A single-center, retrospective cohort study was performed by collecting data from 194 children aged 1-14 years between May 2018 and November 2018. The oral solution (n = 135) group and the sustained-release (SR) tablet group (n = 59) were defined, and the plasma VPA C ₀ was measured. Twenty-six single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were chosen for genotyping with the MassARRAY system. A multiple logistic regression model was used for data analysis. Results: Body weight (BW) and age were positively correlated with the C ₀/D ratio in 194 patients, but the positive correlation disappeared after the patients were divided into oral solution and SR tablet subgroups. The average C ₀/D ratio was significantly increased by 2.11-fold (P = 0.000) in children who took VPA SR tablets compared with children who were administered VPA oral solutions. No significant association between genetic variants and the C ₀/D ratio was found, even for the five well-studied SNPs, namely UGT2B7 G211T, C802T, C161T, T125C, and CYP2C9 ^* 3 A1075C. However, a significant association between the C ₀/D ratio and UGT1A6/9 Del>A (rs144486213) was observed in the VPA oral solution group, but not in the VPA SR tablet group. Conclusions: The dosage forms of sodium valproate, rather than BW, age, or genetic polymorphisms, significantly affected the VPA C ₀/D ratios in pediatric patients with epilepsy. Based on our findings, switching the dosage form between solution and SR tablet should be performed cautiously. Total daily dose adjustment should be considered, and the plasma concentration, seizure-control effect, and adverse drug reaction should also be monitored very closely.

CYP2C19 phenotype in South-East Asian Acute Coronary Syndrome patients and impact on major adverse cardiovascular events

WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE

Several Caucasian cohort studies have associated at least one loss-of-function CYP2C19 on Clopidogrel (LoF-Clopidogrel) with major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE), and only a couple have used Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC^® ) phenotype grouping to study the associations. We primarily aimed to study the impact of use of platelet reactivity testing to escalate antiplatelet therapy and secondarily to study the association of CPIC phenotype with MACE outcomes in South-East Asian Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS) subjects.

METHOD

A retrospective genotype study was performed on 238 percutaneous coronary intervention subjects, originally planned for escalation of antiplatelets using platelet reactivity testing.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

There was no difference in MACE between the switched and unswitched groups; however, 'all bleeds' and 'clinically significant bleeds' (CSB) were statistically higher in the patients who were switched to prasugrel. The subgroup of patients who remained on clopidogrel (n = 199) were analysed using phenotype categories and MACE. Eleven percent (11.4%) of CYP2C19 poor metabolizers (PM) suffered MACE, compared with 1.3% of extensive metabolizers (EM). LoF-Clopidogrel patients are significantly more likely to experience MACE compared with non-LoF subjects (8.0% vs 5.4%, P: .041).

WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION

In our multivariate analysis, LoF-Clopidogrel, malay ethnicity, diabetics and use of proton pump inhibitors were independent predictors of MACE. There were numerically more bleeds in LoF subjects who were on prasugrel compared with Clopidogrel (23.5% vs 11%, P = .082). Our data corroborate with current findings on platelet reactivity testing, suggesting that the assay would not be sensitive enough to pick up sufficient 'at-risk' subjects as compared to the use of CYP2C19 genotyping.