1
|
Tong XY, Hussain H, Shamaladevi N, Norenberg MD, Fadel A, El Hiba O, Abdeljalil EG, Bilal EM, Kempuraj D, Natarajan S, Schally AV, Jaszberenyi M, Salgueiro L, Paidas MJ, Jayakumar AR. Age and Sex in the Development of Hepatic Encephalopathy: Role of Alcohol. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:228. [PMID: 38666840 PMCID: PMC11048384 DOI: 10.3390/biology13040228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a neurological condition linked to liver failure. Acute HE (Type A) occurs with acute liver failure, while chronic HE (Type C) is tied to cirrhosis and portal hypertension. HE treatments lag due to gaps in understanding its development by gender and age. We studied how sex and age impact HE and its severity with combined liver toxins. Our findings indicate that drug-induced (thioacetamide, TAA) brain edema was more severe in aged males than in young males or young/aged female rats. However, adding alcohol (ethanol, EtOH) worsens TAA's brain edema in both young and aged females, with females experiencing a more severe effect than males. These patterns also apply to Type A HE induced by azoxymethane (AZO) in mice. Similarly, TAA-induced behavioral deficits in Type C HE were milder in young and aged females than in males. Conversely, EtOH and TAA in young/aged males led to severe brain edema and fatality without noticeable behavioral changes. TAA metabolism was slower in aged males than in young or middle-aged rats. When TAA-treated aged male rats received EtOH, there was a slow and sustained plasma level of thioacetamide sulfoxide (TASO). This suggests that with EtOH, TAA-induced HE is more severe in aged males. TAA metabolism was similar in young, middle-aged, and aged female rats. However, with EtOH, young and aged females experience more severe drug-induced HE as compared to middle-aged adult rats. These findings strongly suggest that gender and age play a role in the severity of HE development and that the presence of one or more liver toxins may aggravate the severity of the disease progression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Y. Tong
- Department of Pathology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (X.Y.T.); (M.D.N.)
| | - Hussain Hussain
- Department of Internal Medicine and Infectious Disease, Larkin Community Hospital, Miami, FL 33143, USA;
| | | | - Michael D. Norenberg
- Department of Pathology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (X.Y.T.); (M.D.N.)
- General Medical Research, Neuropathology Section, R&D Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL 33125, USA; (A.V.S.); (M.J.); (L.S.)
- South Florida VA Foundation for Research and Education Inc., Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL 33125, USA
| | - Aya Fadel
- Department of Internal Medicine, Ocean Medical Center-Hackensack Meridian Health, Brick, NJ 08724, USA;
| | - Omar El Hiba
- Laboratory of Anthropogenic, Biotechnology, Health, and Nutritional Physiopathologies, Neuroscience and Toxicology Team, Faculty of Sciences, Chouaib Doukkali University, Av. Des Facultés, El Jadida 24000, Morocco; (O.E.H.); (E.-M.B.)
- Hassan First University of Settat, Higher Institute of Health Sciences, Laboratory of Sciences and Health Technologies, Epidemiology and Biomedical Unit, Settat 26000, Morocco;
| | - El got Abdeljalil
- Hassan First University of Settat, Higher Institute of Health Sciences, Laboratory of Sciences and Health Technologies, Epidemiology and Biomedical Unit, Settat 26000, Morocco;
| | - El-Mansoury Bilal
- Laboratory of Anthropogenic, Biotechnology, Health, and Nutritional Physiopathologies, Neuroscience and Toxicology Team, Faculty of Sciences, Chouaib Doukkali University, Av. Des Facultés, El Jadida 24000, Morocco; (O.E.H.); (E.-M.B.)
- Hassan First University of Settat, Higher Institute of Health Sciences, Laboratory of Sciences and Health Technologies, Epidemiology and Biomedical Unit, Settat 26000, Morocco;
| | - Deepak Kempuraj
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA;
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
| | - Sampath Natarajan
- Department of Chemistry, School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613401, India;
| | - Andrew V. Schally
- General Medical Research, Neuropathology Section, R&D Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL 33125, USA; (A.V.S.); (M.J.); (L.S.)
- South Florida VA Foundation for Research and Education Inc., Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL 33125, USA
- Pathology, Laboratory Medicine, Endocrine, Polypeptide and Cancer Institute, Department of Veterans Affairs, Miami, FL 33125, USA
| | - Miklos Jaszberenyi
- General Medical Research, Neuropathology Section, R&D Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL 33125, USA; (A.V.S.); (M.J.); (L.S.)
- South Florida VA Foundation for Research and Education Inc., Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL 33125, USA
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, 6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Luis Salgueiro
- General Medical Research, Neuropathology Section, R&D Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL 33125, USA; (A.V.S.); (M.J.); (L.S.)
- South Florida VA Foundation for Research and Education Inc., Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL 33125, USA
| | - Michael J. Paidas
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA;
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Arumugam R. Jayakumar
- General Medical Research, Neuropathology Section, R&D Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL 33125, USA; (A.V.S.); (M.J.); (L.S.)
- South Florida VA Foundation for Research and Education Inc., Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL 33125, USA
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA;
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Yang H, You L, Wang Z, Yang L, Wang X, Wu W, Zhi H, Rong G, Sheng Y, Liu X, Liu L. Bile duct ligation elevates 5-HT levels in cerebral cortex of rats partly due to impairment of brain UGT1A6 expression and activity via ammonia accumulation. Redox Biol 2024; 69:103019. [PMID: 38163420 PMCID: PMC10794929 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2023.103019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is often associated with endogenous serotonin (5-HT) disorders. However, the reason for elevated brain 5-HT levels due to liver failure remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the mechanism by which liver failure increases brain 5-HT levels and the role in behavioral abnormalities in HE. Using bile duct ligation (BDL) rats as a HE model, we verified the elevated 5-HT levels in the cortex but not in the hippocampus and striatum, and found that this cortical 5-HT overload may be caused by BDL-mediated inhibition of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A6 (UGT1A6) expression and activity in the cortex. The intraventricular injection of the UGT1A6 inhibitor diclofenac into rats demonstrated that the inhibition of brain UGT1A6 activity significantly increased cerebral 5-HT levels and induced HE-like behaviors. Co-immunofluorescence experiments demonstrated that UGT1A6 is primarily expressed in astrocytes. In vitro studies confirmed that NH4Cl activates the ROS-ERK pathway to downregulate UGT1A6 activity and expression in U251 cells, which can be reversed by the oxidative stress antagonist N-acetyl-l-cysteine and the ERK inhibitor U0126. Silencing Hepatocyte Nuclear Factor 4α (HNF4α) suppressed UGT1A6 expression whilst overexpressing HNF4α increased Ugt1a6 promotor activity. Meanwhile, both NH4Cl and the ERK activator TBHQ downregulated HNF4α and UGT1A6 expression. In the cortex of hyperammonemic rats, we also found activation of the ROS-ERK pathway, decreases in HNF4α and UGT1A6 expression, and increases in brain 5-HT content. These results prove that the ammonia-mediated ROS-ERK pathway activation inhibits HNF4α expression to downregulate UGT1A6 expression and activity, thereby increasing cerebral 5-HT content and inducing manic-like HE symptoms. This is the first study to reveal the mechanism of elevated cortical 5-HT concentration in a state of liver failure and elucidate its association with manic-like behaviors in HE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hanyu Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Key Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, China; Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Linjun You
- Center for New Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhongyan Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Lu Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Xun Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Wenhan Wu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Hao Zhi
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Guangmei Rong
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Yun Sheng
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Xiaodong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Key Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, China; Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China.
| | - Li Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Key Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, China; Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhang H, Xu J. Unveiling thioacetamide-induced toxicity: Multi-organ damage and omitted bone toxicity. Hum Exp Toxicol 2024; 43:9603271241241807. [PMID: 38531387 DOI: 10.1177/09603271241241807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
Thioacetamide (TAA), a widely employed hepatotoxic substance, has gained significant traction in the induction of liver failure disease models. Upon administration of TAA to experimental animals, the production of potent oxidative derivatives ensues, culminating in the activation of oxidative stress and subsequent infliction of severe damage upon multiple organs via dissemination through the bloodstream. This review summarized the various organ damages and corresponding mechanistic explanations observed in previous studies using TAA in toxicological animal experiments. The principal pathological consequences arising from TAA exposure encompass oxidative stress, inflammation, lipid peroxidation, fibrosis, apoptosis induction, DNA damage, and osteoclast formation. Recent in vivo and in vitro studies on TAA bone toxicity have confirmed that long-term high-dose use of TAA not only induces liver damage in experimental animals but also accompanies bone damage, which was neglected for a long time. By using TAA to model diseases in experimental animals and controlling TAA dosage, duration of use, and animal exposure environment, we can induce various organ injury models. It should be noted that TAA-induced injuries have a time-dependent effect. Finally, in our daily lives, especially for researchers, we should take precautions to minimize TAA exposure and reduce the probability of related organ injuries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haodong Zhang
- School of Medical Technology and Information Engineering, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Jian Xu
- School of Medical Technology and Information Engineering, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Sepehrinezhad A, Stolze Larsen F, Ashayeri Ahmadabad R, Shahbazi A, Sahab Negah S. The Glymphatic System May Play a Vital Role in the Pathogenesis of Hepatic Encephalopathy: A Narrative Review. Cells 2023; 12:cells12070979. [PMID: 37048052 PMCID: PMC10093707 DOI: 10.3390/cells12070979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a neurological complication of liver disease resulting in cognitive, psychiatric, and motor symptoms. Although hyperammonemia is a key factor in the pathogenesis of HE, several other factors have recently been discovered. Among these, the impairment of a highly organized perivascular network known as the glymphatic pathway seems to be involved in the progression of some neurological complications due to the accumulation of misfolded proteins and waste substances in the brain interstitial fluids (ISF). The glymphatic system plays an important role in the clearance of brain metabolic derivatives and prevents aggregation of neurotoxic agents in the brain ISF. Impairment of it will result in aggravated accumulation of neurotoxic agents in the brain ISF. This could also be the case in patients with liver failure complicated by HE. Indeed, accumulation of some metabolic by-products and agents such as ammonia, glutamine, glutamate, and aromatic amino acids has been reported in the human brain ISF using microdialysis technique is attributed to worsening of HE and correlates with brain edema. Furthermore, it has been reported that the glymphatic system is impaired in the olfactory bulb, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus in an experimental model of HE. In this review, we discuss different factors that may affect the function of the glymphatic pathways and how these changes may be involved in HE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Sepehrinezhad
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1449614535, Iran
- Neuroscience Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad 9919191778, Iran
| | - Fin Stolze Larsen
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, 999017 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Ali Shahbazi
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1449614535, Iran
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1449614535, Iran
| | - Sajad Sahab Negah
- Neuroscience Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad 9919191778, Iran
- Shefa Neuroscience Research Center, Khatam Alanbia Hospital, Tehran 1449614535, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Paidas MJ, Sampath N, Schindler EA, Cosio DS, Ndubizu CO, Shamaladevi N, Kwal J, Rodriguez S, Ahmad A, Kenyon NS, Jayakumar AR. Mechanism of Multi-Organ Injury in Experimental COVID-19 and Its Inhibition by a Small Molecule Peptide. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:864798. [PMID: 35712703 PMCID: PMC9196045 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.864798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe disease from SARS-CoV-2 infection often progresses to multi-organ failure and results in an increased mortality rate amongst these patients. However, underlying mechanisms of SARS- CoV-2-induced multi-organ failure and subsequent death are still largely unknown. Cytokine storm, increased levels of inflammatory mediators, endothelial dysfunction, coagulation abnormalities, and infiltration of inflammatory cells into the organs contribute to the pathogenesis of COVID-19. One potential consequence of immune/inflammatory events is the acute progression of generalized edema, which may lead to death. We, therefore, examined the involvement of water channels in the development of edema in multiple organs and their contribution to organ dysfunction in a Murine Hepatitis Virus-1 (MHV-1) mouse model of COVID-19. Using this model, we recently reported multi-organ pathological abnormalities and animal death similar to that reported in humans with SARS-CoV-2 infection. We now identified an alteration in protein levels of AQPs 1, 4, 5, and 8 and associated oxidative stress, along with various degrees of tissue edema in multiple organs, which correlate well with animal survival post-MHV-1 infection. Furthermore, our newly created drug (a 15 amino acid synthetic peptide, known as SPIKENET) that was designed to prevent the binding of spike glycoproteins with their receptor(s), angiotensin- converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), and carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1) (SARS-CoV-2 and MHV-1, respectively), ameliorated animal death and reversed altered levels of AQPs and oxidative stress post-MHV-1 infection. Collectively, our findings suggest the possible involvement of altered aquaporins and the subsequent edema, likely mediated by the virus-induced inflammatory and oxidative stress response, in the pathogenesis of COVID- 19 and the potential of SPIKENET as a therapeutic option.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Paidas
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
- *Correspondence: Michael J. Paidas, ; Arumugam R. Jayakumar,
| | - Natarajan Sampath
- School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, India
| | - Emma A. Schindler
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Daniela S. Cosio
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Chima Obianuju Ndubizu
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | | | - Jaclyn Kwal
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Suset Rodriguez
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Anis Ahmad
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Sylvester Cancer Center, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Norma Sue Kenyon
- Microbiology & Immunology and Biomedical Engineering, Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Arumugam R. Jayakumar
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
- *Correspondence: Michael J. Paidas, ; Arumugam R. Jayakumar,
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
El-Hagrassi AM, Osman AF, El-Naggar ME, Mowaad NA, Khalil S, Hamed MA. Phytochemical constituents and protective efficacy of Schefflera arboricola L. leaves extract against thioacetamide-induced hepatic encephalopathy in rats. Biomarkers 2022; 27:375-394. [PMID: 35234557 DOI: 10.1080/1354750x.2022.2048892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Context: Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a severe neuropsychiatric syndrome resulting from liver failure. Objective: To evaluate the protective effect of Schefflera arboricola L. leaves methanol extract against thioacetamide (TAA) induced HE in rats. Materials and methods: GC/MS, LC-ESI-MS and the total phenolic and flavonoid contents were determined. The methanol extract was orally administrated (100 and 200 mg/kg) for 21 days. TAA (200 mg/kg) was given intraperitoneally on day 19 and continued for three days. The evaluation was done by measuring alanine aminotransferases (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), ammonia, reduced glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO) alpha tumor necrotic factor (TNFα), toll like receptor (TLR4), interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), interlukin 6 (IL-6), cyclooxygenase 2(COX2), B cell lymphoma (BCL2), alpha smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and cluster of differentiation 163 (CD163). The histological features of liver and brain were conducted. Results: Forty five compounds were identified from the n-hexane fraction, while twenty nine phenolic compounds were determined from the methanol extract. Pretreatment with the plant extract returned most of the measurements under investigation to nearly normal. Conclusion: Due to its richness with bioactive compounds, Schefflera arboricola L. leaves extract succeeded to exert anti-fibrotic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidants properties in TAA-induced HE in rats with more efficacy to its high protective dose.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ali M El-Hagrassi
- Phytochemistry and Plant Systematics Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt
| | - Abeer F Osman
- Chemistry of Natural Compounds Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt
| | - Mostafa E El-Naggar
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sadat City, Menoufia, Egypt
| | - Noha A Mowaad
- Department of Narcotics, Ergogenic Acids and Poisons, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt
| | - Sahar Khalil
- Department of Histology & Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Manal A Hamed
- Department of Therapeutic Chemistry, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Bioinformatics-Based Analysis of lncRNA-mRNA Interaction Network of Mild Hepatic Encephalopathy in Cirrhosis. COMPUTATIONAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS IN MEDICINE 2021; 2021:7777699. [PMID: 34938356 PMCID: PMC8687767 DOI: 10.1155/2021/7777699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Backgrounds Serum long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and messenger RNAs (mRNAs) interaction network was discovered to exert an important role in liver cirrhosis while little is known in mild hepatic encephalopathy (MHE). Therefore, we aim to systematically evaluate the serum lncRNA-mRNA network and its regulatory mechanism in MHE. Methods The data of serum mRNAs and lncRNAs were derived from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were calculated between 11 cirrhotic patients with and without MHE. Next, the biological functions and underlined pathways of DEGs were determined through Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analyses. Finally, an interactive network between lncRNAs and mRNAs was built, and hub genes were identified, respectively. Results A total of 64 differentially expressed lncRNAs (dif-lncRNAs) were found between patients with and without MHE, including 30 up- and 34 downregulated genes. 187 differentially expressed mRNAs (dif-mRNAs) were identified, including 84 up- and 103 downregulated genes. Functional enrichment analysis suggested that the regulatory pathways involved in MHE mainly consisted of a series of immune and inflammatory responses. Several hub mRNAs involved in regulatory network were identified, including CCL5, CCR5, CXCR3, CD274, STAT1, CXCR6, and EOMES. In addition, lnc-FAM84B-8 and lnc-SAMD3-1 were found to regulate these above hub genes through building a lncRNA-mRNA network. Conclusion This is the first study to construct the serum lncRNA-mRNA network in MHE, demonstrating the critical role of lncRNAs in regulating inflammatory and immunological profiles in the developing of MHE, suggesting a latent mechanism in this pathophysiological process.
Collapse
|
8
|
Cheng L, Wang X, Ma X, Xu H, Yang Y, Zhang D. Effect of dihydromyricetin on hepatic encephalopathy associated with acute hepatic failure in mice. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2021; 59:557-564. [PMID: 33982639 PMCID: PMC8128201 DOI: 10.1080/13880209.2021.1917625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a complex neuropsychiatric disease caused by liver failure. Dihydromyricetin (DMY) is a traditional medicine used to treat liver injury. OBJECTIVE To investigate the effects of dihydromyricetin (DMY) on hepatic encephalopathy associated with acute hepatic failure mice models established by thioacetamide (TAA) exposure. MATERIALS AND METHODS Female BALB/c mouse were randomly divided into control, DMY, TAA, and TAA + DMY groups (n = 8). The first two groups were intraperitoneally injected with saline or 5 mg/kg DMY, respectively. The last two groups were injected with 600 mg/kg TAA to establish HE models, and then the mice in the last group were treated with 5 mg/kg DMY. Neurological and cognition functions were evaluated 24 and 48 h after injection. Mice were sacrificed after which livers and brains were obtained for immunoblot and histopathological analysis, while blood was collected for the analysis of liver enzymes. RESULTS In the TAA + DMY group, ALT and AST decreased to 145.31 ± 12.88 U/L and 309.51 ± 25.92 U/L, respectively, whereas ammonia and TBIL decreased to 415.67 ± 41.91 μmol/L and 3.31 ± 0.35 μmol/L, respectively. Moreover, MDA decreased to 10.74 ± 3.97 nmol/g, while SOD and GST increased to 398.69 ± 231.30 U/g and 41.37 ± 21.84 U/g, respectively. The neurological score decreased to 2.87 ± 0.63, and the number of GFAP-positive cells decreased to 41.10 ± 1.66. Furthermore, the protein levels of TNF-α, IL-6, and GABAA in the cortex decreased. CONCLUSIONS We speculate that DMY can serve as a novel treatment for HE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Long Cheng
- Department of Gastroenterology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaoying Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xueni Ma
- Department of Gastroenterology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Huimei Xu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yifan Yang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dekui Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, People’s Republic of China
- CONTACT Dekui Zhang Department of Gastroenterology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou730030, People’s Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
El-Baz FK, Elgohary R, Salama A. Amelioration of Hepatic Encephalopathy Using Dunaliella salina Microalgae in Rats: Modulation of Hyperammonemia/TLR4. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 2021:8843218. [PMID: 33855084 PMCID: PMC8021475 DOI: 10.1155/2021/8843218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a neuropsychiatric disease that is developed as a complication of both acute and chronic liver failure affecting psychomotor dysfunction, memory, and concentration. This study is aimed at evaluating the therapeutic effects of Dunaliella salina (D. salina) microalgae in thioacetamide- (TAA-) induced HE in rats. HE was induced by TAA (200 mg/kg; i.p.) for three successive days. Forty male Wister albino rats were divided into 4 groups; the first group was served as a normal, and the second group was injected with TAA and served as TAA control. The third and fourth groups were administered D. salina (100 and 200 mg/kg; p.o.), respectively, after TAA injection for 7 days. The behavioral and biochemical markers as well as histological aspects of HE were estimated. This study revealed that TAA caused behavioral changes, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, nuclear pyknosis, and neurons degeneration. D. salina improved liver function and decreased oxidative stress and inflammatory mediator as TLR4 protein expression. Also, D. salina elevated HSP-25 and IGF-1 as well as improved brain histopathological alterations. In conclusion, D. salina exerted a therapeutic potential against HE via its antioxidant, antiinflammatory and cytoprotective effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Farouk K. El-Baz
- Plant Biochemistry Department, National Research Centre (NRC), 33 El Buhouth St., Dokki, Cairo 12622, Egypt
| | - Rania Elgohary
- Narcotics, Ergogenics and Poisons Department, National Research Centre (NRC), 33 El Buhouth St., Dokki, Cairo 12622, Egypt
| | - Abeer Salama
- Pharmacology Department, National Research Centre (NRC), 33 El Buhouth St., Dokki, Cairo 12622, Egypt
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Lu B, Wu C, Azami NLB, Xie D, Zhao C, Xu W, Hui D, Chen X, Sun R, Song J, An Y, Li K, Wang H, Ye G, Sun M. Babao Dan improves neurocognitive function by inhibiting inflammation in clinical minimal hepatic encephalopathy. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 135:111084. [PMID: 33383371 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.111084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Revised: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Inflammation has been considered a precipitating event that contributes to neurocognitive dysfunction in minimal hepatic encephalopathy (MHE). Inhibition TLR-4 related inflammation can effectively improve neurocognitive dysfunction of MHE. Our previous study showed that Babao Dan (BBD) effectively inhibited inflammation and ameliorated neurocognitive function in rats with acute hepatic encephalopathy (HE) and chronic HE. The mechanism may lie in the regulation of TLR4 signaling pathway. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the role of BBD in the treatment of MHE patients with cirrhosis and to elucidate the underlying mechanism by which BBD regulated TLR4 pathway to alleviate inflammation. METHODS A randomized controlled trial (n = 62) was conducted to evaluate the clinical efficacy between BBD plus lactulose (n = 31) and lactulose alone (n = 31) in MHE patients by testing neurocognitive function (NCT-A and DST), blood ammonia, liver function (ALT, AST and TBIL) and blood inflammation (IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α). Afterward, we detected NO, inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α) and the phosphorylation of P65, JNK, ERK as well as P38 in LPS-activated rat primary bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs), peritoneal macrophages (PMs), and mouse primary BMDMs/PMs/microglia/astrocytes, to investigate the underlying mechanism of BBD inhibiting inflammation through TLR4 pathway. Also, the survival rate of mice, liver function (ALT, AST), blood inflammation (IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α), inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α) and histopathological changes in the liver, brain and lung were measured to assess the anti-inflammatory effect of BBD on neurocognitive function in endotoxin shock/endotoxemia mice. RESULTS BBD combined with lactulose significantly ameliorated neurocognitive function by decreasing NCT-A (p<0.001) and increasing DST (p<0.001); inhibited systemic inflammation by decreasing IL-1β (p<0.001), IL-6(p<0.001) and TNF-α (p<0.001); reduced ammonia level (p = 0.005), and improved liver function by decreasing ALT(p = 0.043), AST(p = 0.003) and TBIL (p = 0.026) in MHE patients. Furthermore, BBD inhibited gene and protein expression of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α as well as NO in rat primary BMDMs/PMs, and mouse primary BMDMs/PMs/microglia/astrocytes in a dose-dependent manner. BBD inhibited the activation of mouse primary BMDMs/PMs/microglia/astrocytes by regulating TLR4 pathway involving the phosphorylation of P65, JNK, ERK and P38. Also, BBD reduced the mortality of mice with endotoxin shock/endotoxemia; serum levels of ALT, AST, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α; gene expression of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in the liver, brain and lung, and tissue damage in the liver and lung. CONCLUSION Our study provided for the first time clinical and experimental evidence supporting the use of BBD in MHE, and revealed that BBD could play a crucial role in targeting and regulating TLR4 inflammatory pathway to improve neurocognitive function in MHE patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bingjie Lu
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Chao Wu
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Nisma Lena Bahaji Azami
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Dong Xie
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Changqing Zhao
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Wan Xu
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Dengcheng Hui
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Xi Chen
- Shanghai Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Shanghai, 200082, China.
| | - Runfei Sun
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Jingru Song
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Yongtong An
- Central Research Institute, Shanghai Pharmaceuticals Holding Co., Ltd., Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Kun Li
- The MOE Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines and the SATCM Key Laboratory for New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Huijun Wang
- The MOE Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines and the SATCM Key Laboratory for New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Guan Ye
- Central Research Institute, Shanghai Pharmaceuticals Holding Co., Ltd., Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Mingyu Sun
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Famakin BM, Vemuganti R. Toll-Like Receptor 4 Signaling in Focal Cerebral Ischemia: a Focus on the Neurovascular Unit. Mol Neurobiol 2020; 57:2690-2701. [PMID: 32306272 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-020-01906-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A robust innate immune activation leads to downstream expression of inflammatory mediators that amplify tissue damage and consequently increase the morbidity after stroke. The Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) pathway is a major innate immune pathway activated acutely and chronically after stroke. Hence, understanding the intricacies of the temporal profile, specific control points, and cellular specificity of TLR4 activation is crucial for the development of any novel therapeutics targeting the endogenous innate immune response after focal cerebral ischemia. The goal of this review is to summarize the current findings related to TLR4 signaling after stroke with a specific focus on the components of the neurovascular unit such as astrocytes, neurons, endothelial cells, and pericytes. In addition, this review will examine the effects of focal cerebral ischemia on interaction of these neurovascular unit components.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - R Vemuganti
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
- William S. Middleton VA Hospital, Madison, WI, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Sepehrinezhad A, Zarifkar A, Namvar G, Shahbazi A, Williams R. Astrocyte swelling in hepatic encephalopathy: molecular perspective of cytotoxic edema. Metab Brain Dis 2020; 35:559-578. [PMID: 32146658 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-020-00549-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) may occur in patients with liver failure. The most critical pathophysiologic mechanism of HE is cerebral edema following systemic hyperammonemia. The dysfunctional liver cannot eliminate circulatory ammonia, so its plasma and brain levels rise sharply. Astrocytes, the only cells that are responsible for ammonia detoxification in the brain, are dynamic cells with unique phenotypic properties that enable them to respond to small changes in their environment. Any pathological changes in astrocytes may cause neurological disturbances such as HE. Astrocyte swelling is the leading cause of cerebral edema, which may cause brain herniation and death by increasing intracranial pressure. Various factors may have a role in astrocyte swelling. However, the exact molecular mechanism of astrocyte swelling is not fully understood. This article discusses the possible mechanisms of astrocyte swelling which related to hyperammonia, including the possible roles of molecules like glutamine, lactate, aquaporin-4 water channel, 18 KDa translocator protein, glial fibrillary acidic protein, alanine, glutathione, toll-like receptor 4, epidermal growth factor receptor, glutamate, and manganese, as well as inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial permeability transition, ATP depletion, and astrocyte senescence. All these agents and factors may be targeted in therapeutic approaches to HE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Sepehrinezhad
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Asadollah Zarifkar
- Shiraz Neuroscience Research Center and Department of Physiology, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences (SUMS), Shiraz, Iran
| | - Gholamreza Namvar
- Department of Neuroscience and Cognition, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Ali Shahbazi
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran.
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran.
| | - Roger Williams
- The Institute of Hepatology London and Foundation for Liver Research, 111 Coldharbour Lane, London, SE5 9NT, UK.
- Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, London, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Activation of Protein Kinase Cδ Contributes to the Induction of Src/EGF Receptor/ERK Signaling in Ammonia-treated Astrocytes. J Mol Neurosci 2020; 70:1110-1119. [PMID: 32125625 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-020-01517-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Previously, we showed that Src-mediated EGF receptor transactivation/ERK activation mediates ammonia-induced astrocyte swelling, which represents a major component of brain edema in hyperammonemic disorders. Here, we tested the role of PKC in the induction of this signaling pathway and its involvement in ammonia-mediated cell swelling. We found that incubating astrocytes with bisindolylmaleimide (BIM, an inhibitor of classical and novel PKC isoforms) or rottlerin, a PKCδ-specific inhibitor, attenuated the ammonia-induced phosphorylation of EGFR, while GF109203X had no effect on this pathway. We further found that BIM or rottlerin pretreatment inhibited the ammonia-induced phosphorylation of Src and that ammonia significantly increased the level of PKCδ pulled down by a Src antibody. AG1478, a specific EGFR kinase activity inhibitor, effectively inhibited phosphorylation at Tyr1068 but had no discernable effect on phosphorylation at Tyr845. Moreover, BIM or rottlerin abrogated ammonia-induced ERK phosphorylation. BIM-, rottlerin-, or GF109203X-treated astrocytes showed a significant reduction in cell swelling compared to that observed after treatment with ammonia alone. Finally, it was found that AG1478 attenuated ammonia-induced PKCα translocation to the particulate fraction. Taken together, our results indicate that PKCδ mediates ammonia-induced astrocyte swelling by activating Src and downstream EGF receptor/ERK signaling, which may contribute to the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders associated with hyperammonemia.
Collapse
|
14
|
Lu L, Wu C, Lu BJ, Xie D, Wang Z, Bahaji Azami NL, An YT, Wang HJ, Ye G, Sun MY. BabaoDan cures hepatic encephalopathy by decreasing ammonia levels and alleviating inflammation in rats. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2020; 249:112301. [PMID: 31622746 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2019.112301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Revised: 10/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE BabaoDan (BBD) is a famous traditional Chinese formula frequently used in TCM clinics to eliminate jaundice and treat infectious viral hepatitis. This paper assesses BBD's preventive and therapeutic effects on hepatic encephalopathy after liver cirrhosis (CHE) and acute liver failure (AHE) in rats and explains its possible mechanism of action. METHODS CHE rat model was established by injection of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) twice a week for a total of 9 weeks and then by injection of thioacetamide (TAA) to induce hepatic encephalopathy. AHE rat model was established by injection of TAA once a day for a total of 3 days. In CHE rat model, BBD was gavaged once a day at the end of the 6th week until the experiment ended. In AHE rat model,BBD was gavaged once a day 3 days before TAA injection until the experiment ended. The preventive and therapeutic effects of BBD on brain dysfunction, as well as liver injury, pathology and fibrosis were evaluated in vivo. The role of BBD in the regulation of inflammatory factors and myeloid differentiation factor 88/Toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor kappa-B (TLR4/MyD88/NK-κ B) pathway was detected in both liver and brain in vivo. The rat bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDMs) were activated by Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and the role of BBD in the regulation of inflammatory factors and NK-κ B pathway were detected in vitro. RESULTS In CHE rat model: BBD significantly improved the total distance as well as the activity rate of rats. BBD also improved the learning and memory abilities of rats compared with the control group. In addition, BBD effectively decreased ammonia levels and significantly decreased the levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), total bilirubin (TBil) and total bile acid (TBA), as well as improved the levels of total protein (TP) and albumin (Alb). In the liver, BBD not only inhibited the gene expressions of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukini-6 (IL-6), TLR4, MyD88, and NF-κ B but also inhibited the protein expressions of TLR4, MyD88, NK-κ B and TNF-α. In the brain, BBD inhibited the gene expressions of iNOS, IL-6, TNF-α, TLR-4, MyD88, and NF-κ B, as well as inhibited the protein expressions of TLR4, MyD88, P65 TNF-α and ionized calcium binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba-1). BBD also decreased NO and TNF-α in the blood. IN AHE RAT MODEL BBD improved neurological scores, blood ammonia levels and the brain inflammatory gene expressions of iNOS, TNF-α and IL-1β. BBD also improved liver function biomarkers such as ALT, TBil, TBA, TP, ALB and inflammatory and apoptotic gene expressions of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, Bax, Bcl-2, caspase-9, caspase-3 and NF-κ B. In LPS-activated rat BMDMs, BBD decreased NO and TNF-α production in BMDM culture supernatant. In addition, BBD inhibited the gene expressions of TNF-α, IL-1 β and IL-6 as well as the phosphorylation of P65. CONCLUSION BBD can prevent and cure hepatic encephalopathy (HE) derived from both chronic and acute liver diseases. BBD can reduce hyperammonemia as well as the systematic and neurological inflammation. Inflammation is likely an important target of BBD to treat HE. The anti-inflammatory role of BBD may lie in its regulation of the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κ B pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lu Lu
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China.
| | - Chao Wu
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China.
| | - Bing-Jie Lu
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China.
| | - Dong Xie
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China.
| | - Zheng Wang
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China.
| | - Nisma Lena Bahaji Azami
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yong-Tong An
- Central Research Institute of Shanghai Pharmaceutical Group Co, Ltd, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Hui-Jun Wang
- Central Research Institute of Shanghai Pharmaceutical Group Co, Ltd, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Guan Ye
- Central Research Institute of Shanghai Pharmaceutical Group Co, Ltd, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Ming-Yu Sun
- Shuguang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
El-Marasy SA, El Awdan SA, Abd-Elsalam RM. Protective role of chrysin on thioacetamide-induced hepatic encephalopathy in rats. Chem Biol Interact 2019; 299:111-119. [PMID: 30500344 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2018.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2018] [Revised: 11/10/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|
16
|
Sun L, Li M, Ma X, Zhang L, Song J, Lv C, He Y. Inhibiting High Mobility Group Box-1 Reduces Early Spinal Cord Edema and Attenuates Astrocyte Activation and Aquaporin-4 Expression after Spinal Cord Injury in Rats. J Neurotrauma 2018; 36:421-435. [PMID: 29929431 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2018.5642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
High mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) could function as an early trigger for pro-inflammatory activation after spinal cord injury (SCI). Spinal cord edema contributes to inflammatory response mechanisms and a poor clinical prognosis after SCI, for which efficient therapies targeting the specific molecules involved remain limited. This study was designed to evaluate the roles of HMGB1 on the regulation of early spinal cord edema, astrocyte activation, and aquaporin-4 (AQP4) expression in a rat SCI model. Adult female Sprague-Dawley rats underwent laminectomy at T10, and the SCI model was induced by a heavy falling object. After SCI, rats received ethyl pyruvate (EP) or glycyrrhizin (GL) via an intraperitoneal injection to inhibit HMGB1. The effects of HMGB1 inhibition on the early spinal cord edema, astrocyte activation (glial fibrillary acidic protein [GFAP] expression), and AQP4 expression after SCI (12 h-3 days) were analyzed. The results showed that EP or GL effectively inhibited HMGB1 expression in the spinal cord and HMGB1 levels in the serum of SCI rats. HMGB1 inhibition improved motor function, reduced spinal cord water content, and attenuated spinal cord edema in SCI rats. HMGB1 inhibition decreased SCI-associated GFAP and AQP4 overexpression in the spinal cord. Further, HMGB1 inhibition also repressed the activation of the toll-like receptor 4/myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88/nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway. These results implicate that HMGB1 inhibition improved locomotor function and reduced early spinal cord edema, which was associated with a downregulation of astrocyte activation (GFAP expression) and AQP4 expression in SCI rats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lin Sun
- 1 Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital Affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Man Li
- 2 Department of Neurology, Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Xun Ma
- 1 Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital Affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Li Zhang
- 1 Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital Affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Junlai Song
- 1 Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital Affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Cong Lv
- 1 Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital Affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Yajun He
- 1 Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital Affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Jayakumar AR, Norenberg MD. Hyperammonemia in Hepatic Encephalopathy. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2018; 8:272-280. [PMID: 30302044 PMCID: PMC6175739 DOI: 10.1016/j.jceh.2018.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 06/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The precise mechanism underlying the neurotoxicity of Hepatic Encephalopathy (HE) is remains unclear. The dominant view has been that gut-derived nitrogenous toxins are not extracted by the diseased liver and thereby enter the brain. Among the various toxins proposed, the case for ammonia is most compelling. Events that lead to increased levels of blood or brain ammonia have been shown to worsen HE, whereas reducing blood ammonia levels alleviates HE. Clinical, pathological, and biochemical changes observed in HE can be reproduced by increasing blood or brain ammonia levels in experimental animals, while exposure of cultured astrocytes to ammonium salts reproduces the morphological and biochemical findings observed in HE. However, factors other than ammonia have recently been proposed to be involved in the development of HE, including cytokines and other blood and brain immune factors. Moreover, recent studies have questioned the critical role of ammonia in the pathogenesis of HE since blood ammonia levels do not always correlate with the level/severity of encephalopathy. This review summarizes the vital role of ammonia in the pathogenesis of HE in humans, as well as in experimental models of acute and chronic liver failure. It further emphasizes recent advances in the molecular mechanisms involved in the progression of neurological complications that occur in acute and chronic liver failure.
Collapse
Key Words
- AHE, Acute Hepatic Encephalopathy
- ALF, Acute Liver Failure
- CHE, Chronic Hepatic Encephalopathy
- CNS, Central Nervous System
- CSF, Cerebrospinal Fluid
- ECs, Endothelial Cells
- HE, Hepatic Encephalopathy
- IL, Interleukin
- LPS, Lipopolysaccharide
- MAPKs, Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases
- NCX, Sodium-Calcium Exchanger
- NF-κB, Nuclear Factor-kappaB
- NHE, Sodium/Hydrogen Exchanger-1 or SLC9A1 (SoLute Carrier Family 9A1)
- SUR1, The Sulfonylurea Receptor 1
- TDP-43 and tau proteinopathies
- TDP-43, TAR DNA-Binding Protein, 43 kDa
- TLR, Toll-like Receptor
- TNF-α, Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha
- TSP-1, Thrombospondin-1
- ammonia
- hepatic encephalopathy
- inflammation
- matricellular proteins
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A R Jayakumar
- General Medical Research, Neuropathology Section, R&D Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL 33125, United States
- South Florida VA Foundation for Research and Education Inc., Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL 33125, United States
| | - Michael D Norenberg
- Department of Pathology, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33125, United States
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33125, United States
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Surgery, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33125, United States
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Grant S, McMillin M, Frampton G, Petrescu AD, Williams E, Jaeger V, Kain J, DeMorrow S. Direct Comparison of the Thioacetamide and Azoxymethane Models of Type A Hepatic Encephalopathy in Mice. Gene Expr 2018; 18:171-185. [PMID: 29895352 PMCID: PMC6190119 DOI: 10.3727/105221618x15287315176503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Acute liver failure is a devastating consequence of hepatotoxic liver injury that can lead to the development of hepatic encephalopathy. There is no consensus on the best model to represent these syndromes in mice, and therefore the aim of this study was to classify hepatic and neurological consequences of azoxymethane- and thioacetamide-induced liver injury. Azoxymethane-treated mice were euthanized at time points representing absence of minor and significant stages of neurological decline. Thioacetamide-treated mice had tissue collected at up to 3 days following daily injections. Liver histology, serum chemistry, bile acids, and cytokine levels were measured. Reflexes, grip strength measurement, and ataxia were calculated for all groups. Brain ammonia, bile acid levels, cerebral edema, and neuroinflammation were measured. Finally, in vitro and in vivo assessments of blood-brain barrier function were performed. Serum transaminases and liver histology demonstrate that both models generated hepatotoxic liver injury. Serum proinflammatory cytokine levels were significantly elevated in both models. Azoxymethane-treated mice had progressive neurological deficits, while thioacetamide-treated mice had inconsistent neurological deficits. Bile acids and cerebral edema were increased to a higher degree in azoxymethane-treated mice, while cerebral ammonia and neuroinflammation were greater in thioacetamide-treated mice. Blood-brain barrier permeability exists in both models but was likely not due to direct toxicity of azoxymethane or thioacetamide on brain endothelial cells. In conclusion, both models generate acute liver injury and hepatic encephalopathy, but the requirement of a single injection and the more consistent neurological decline make azoxymethane treatment a better model for acute liver failure with hepatic encephalopathy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Grant
- *Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, Temple, TX, USA
| | | | - Gabriel Frampton
- *Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Anca D. Petrescu
- *Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Elaina Williams
- *Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Victoria Jaeger
- *Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, Temple, TX, USA
- †Central Texas Veterans Healthcare System, Temple, TX, USA
- ‡Baylor Scott & White Medical Center, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Jessica Kain
- *Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Sharon DeMorrow
- *Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, Temple, TX, USA
- †Central Texas Veterans Healthcare System, Temple, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Wu JG, Xun N, Zeng LJ, Li ZY, Liang YB, Tang H, Ma ZF. Effects of small interfering RNA targeting TLR4 on expressions of adipocytokines in obstructive sleep apnea hyponea syndrome with hypertension in a rat model. J Cell Physiol 2018; 233:6613-6620. [PMID: 29215742 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.26364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2017] [Accepted: 12/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
We explored the effects of RNA interference-mediated silencing of TLR4 gene on expressions of adipocytokines in obstructive sleep apnea hyponea syndrome (OSAS) with hypertension in a rat model. Systolic blood pressure of caudal artery and physiological changes were observed when establishing rat models of OSAS with hypertension. Mature rat adipocytes were induced from separated and cultured primary rat adipocytes. To transfect rat mature adipocytes, TLR4 siRNA group and negative control (NC) siRNA group were established. Expressions of TLR4 mRNA of adipocytes were examined after silenced by siRNA by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). By enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), expressions of inflammatory cytokines, and adipocytokines of adipocytes were detected. Blood pressure in rat caudal artery was higher in the intermittent hypoxia group than that of the blank control group by 29.87 mmHg, and cardiocytes in the former group showed physiological changes, which indicated successful establishment of rat models of OSAS with hypertension. Red particles could be seen in mature rat adipocytes when stained with Oil Red O. Transfection of TLR4 mRNA was significantly suppressed in the TLR4 siRNA group, which didn't happen in the untransfected control group. Rats in the TLR4 siRNA group had significantly reduced expressions of such inflammatory cytokines as interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and such adipocytokines as visfatin, adiponectin (ADN), and leptin than those in the untransfected control group. RNA interference-mediated silencing of TLR4 gene could regulate occurrence and development of OSAS with hypertension in rats by downregulating expressions of adipocytokines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Guo Wu
- Department of General Internal Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Nan Xun
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Li-Jin Zeng
- Department of General Internal Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Zhen-Yu Li
- Department of General Internal Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Yan-Bing Liang
- Department of General Internal Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Hao Tang
- Department of General Internal Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Zhong-Fu Ma
- Department of General Internal Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Dong T, Chen N, Ma X, Wang J, Wen J, Xie Q, Ma R. The protective roles of L-borneolum, D-borneolum and synthetic borneol in cerebral ischaemia via modulation of the neurovascular unit. Biomed Pharmacother 2018; 102:874-883. [PMID: 29728011 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2018.03.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2018] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Borneol has been used to treat stroke in China since ancient times. In our previous research, we demonstrated the effect of borneol on cerebral ischaemia injury via meta-analysis. The neurovascular unit (NVU) is the structural basis of the preservation of the brain microenvironment and is believed to be a promising target in treating stroke. In this research, we explored the roles of three kinds of borneol, namely, L-borneolum (B1), D-borneolum (B2) and synthetic borneol (B3), in the NVU with permanent middle cerebral artery occluded (pMCAO) rats. METHODS The Longa scoring method was used to evaluate nerve function deficits in the pMCAO rats. Awakening time, brain water content, brain index and brain edema rate were also measured. TTC staining was used to calculate the cerebral infarction rate. The morphology of the ischaemia penumbra brain tissue was observed via HE staining, and the neuronal denatured cell index (DCI) was calculated. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to determine the levels of vascular endothelial growth factor VEGF and TNF-α in the serum. Moreover, the ultrastructures of the neurons and of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) were observed using transmission electron microscopy. The expression levels of Claudin-5, Bcl-2 and Bax in the ischaemia penumbra of pMCAO rats were detected using real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS Pretreatment with B1, B2 and B3 delayed the recovery time (P < 0.01). B1 remarkably ameliorated neurological deficits 24 h after cerebral ischaemia (P < 0.05). Moreover, B1 and B3 were both able to ameliorate brain edema and the area of cerebral infarction. In addition, B1, B2 and B3 all increased serum VEGF levels and decreased serum TNF-α levels (P < 0.01). For the ultrastructure determination, the BBB and the nerve centre were significantly improved by B1, B2 and B3. The mechanistic exploration revealed that B2 and B3 protected the brain by reducing the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio (P < 0.05, P < 0.01, respectively). Immunohistochemistry suggested that B1, B2 and B3 could also enhance the expression of Claudin-5 (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION The three kinds of borneol demonstrated different protective effects on cerebral ischaemia injury. L-Borneolum displayed the most prominent anti-cerebral ischaemia effect among them. The mechanism was most likely executed via anti-apoptosis and anti-inflammation effects and maintenance of the stability of the BBB and TJs to comprehensively improve NVU function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Taiwei Dong
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China
| | - Nian Chen
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China
| | - Xiao Ma
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China
| | - Jian Wang
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China.
| | - Jing Wen
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China
| | - Qian Xie
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China
| | - Rong Ma
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Sun L, Li M, Ma X, Feng H, Song J, Lv C, He Y. Inhibition of HMGB1 reduces rat spinal cord astrocytic swelling and AQP4 expression after oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation via TLR4 and NF-κB signaling in an IL-6-dependent manner. J Neuroinflammation 2017; 14:231. [PMID: 29178911 PMCID: PMC5702193 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-017-1008-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Spinal cord astrocyte swelling is an important component to spinal cord edema and is associated with poor functional recovery as well as therapeutic resistance after spinal cord injury (SCI). High mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) is a mediator of inflammatory responses in the central nervous system and plays a critical role after SCI. Given this, we sought to identify both the role and underlying mechanisms of HMGB1 in cellular swelling and aquaporin 4 (AQP4) expression in cultured rat spinal cord astrocytes after oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R). Methods The post-natal day 1–2 Sprague-Dawley rat spinal cord astrocytes were cultured in vitro, and the OGD/R model was induced. We first investigated the effects of OGD/R on spinal cord astrocytic swelling and HMGB1 and AQP4 expression, as well as HMGB1 release. We then studied the effects of HMGB1 inhibition on cellular swelling, HMGB1 and AQP4 expression, and HMGB1 release. The roles of both toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in reducing cellular swelling resulting from HMGB1 inhibition in spinal cord astrocytes after OGD/R were studied. Intergroup data were compared using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Dunnett’s test. Results The OGD/R increased spinal cord astrocytic swelling and HMGB1 and AQP4 expression, as well as HMGB1 release. Inhibition of HMGB1 using either HMGB1 shRNA or ethyl pyruvate resulted in reduced cellular volume, mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum swelling, and lysosome number and decreased upregulation of both HMGB1 and AQP4 in spinal cord astrocytes, as well as HMGB1 release. The HMGB1 effects on spinal cord astrocytic swelling and AQP4 upregulation after OGD/R were mediated—at least in part—via activation of TLR4, myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88), and NF-κB. These activation effects can be repressed by TLR4 inhibition using CLI-095 or C34, or by NF-κB inhibition using BAY 11-7082. Furthermore, either OGD/R or HMGB1 inhibition resulted in changes in IL-6 release. IL-6 was also shown to mediate AQP4 expression in spinal cord astrocytes. Conclusions HMGB1 upregulates AQP4 expression and promotes cell swelling in cultured spinal cord astrocytes after OGD/R, which is mediated through HMGB1/TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling and in an IL-6-dependent manner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lin Sun
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030032, China.
| | - Man Li
- Department of Neurology, Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030001, China
| | - Xun Ma
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Haoyu Feng
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Junlai Song
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Cong Lv
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Yajun He
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030032, China
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Abstract
Hepatic encephalopathy describes the array of neurological alterations that occur during acute liver failure or chronic liver injury. While key players in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy, such as increases in brain ammonia, alterations in neurosteroid levels, and neuroinflammation, have been identified, there is still a paucity in our knowledge of the precise pathogenic mechanism. This review gives a brief overview of our understanding of the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy and then summarizes the significant recent advances made in clinical and basic research contributing to our understanding, diagnosis, and possible treatment of hepatic encephalopathy. A literature search using the PubMed database was conducted in May 2017 using "hepatic encephalopathy" as a keyword, and selected manuscripts were limited to those research articles published since May 2014. While the authors acknowledge that many significant advances have been made in the understanding of hepatic encephalopathy prior to May 2014, we have limited the scope of this review to the previous three years only.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Liere
- Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Temple, TX, USA
| | | | - Sharon DeMorrow
- Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Temple, TX, USA
- Central Texas Veterans Healthcare System, Temple, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Wilhelm I, Nyúl-Tóth Á, Kozma M, Farkas AE, Krizbai IA. Role of pattern recognition receptors of the neurovascular unit in inflamm-aging. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2017; 313:H1000-H1012. [PMID: 28801521 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00106.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Revised: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Aging is associated with chronic inflammation partly mediated by increased levels of damage-associated molecular patterns, which activate pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) of the innate immune system. Furthermore, many aging-related disorders are associated with inflammation. PRRs, such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLRs), are expressed not only in cells of the innate immune system but also in other cells, including cells of the neurovascular unit and cerebral vasculature forming the blood-brain barrier. In this review, we summarize our present knowledge about the relationship between activation of PRRs expressed by cells of the neurovascular unit-blood-brain barrier, chronic inflammation, and aging-related pathologies of the brain. The most important damage-associated molecular pattern-sensing PRRs in the brain are TLR2, TLR4, and NLR family pyrin domain-containing protein-1 and pyrin domain-containing protein-3, which are activated during physiological and pathological aging in microglia, neurons, astrocytes, and possibly endothelial cells and pericytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Imola Wilhelm
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary; and .,Institute of Life Sciences, Vasile Goldiş Western University of Arad, Arad, Romania
| | - Ádám Nyúl-Tóth
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary; and
| | - Mihály Kozma
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary; and
| | - Attila E Farkas
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary; and
| | - István A Krizbai
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary; and.,Institute of Life Sciences, Vasile Goldiş Western University of Arad, Arad, Romania
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Abstract
Although acute liver failure (ALF) is a rare disease, it continues to have high mortality and morbidity rates due to its many causes. High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), originally reported as a ubiquitous non-histone chromosomal protein, is a multi-functional protein with varying functions depending on its location, such as in the nucleus, cytoplasm and extracellular space. The role of extracellular HMGB1 as an inflammatory mediator has been well studied, and the elevation of serum HMGB1 has been reported in several diseases that are closely associated with ALF. Areas covered: In this review, we focus on the relationship between causes of acute liver failure, such as viral infection, drug-induced liver injury, ischemia/reperfusion injury, and acute-on-chronic liver failure, and the role of HMGB1. Furthermore, we also consolidate and summarize the current reports of HMGB1-targeting therapies in hepatic injury models. Expert commentary: HMGB1 could be a novel therapeutic candidate for ALF, and the clinical testing of HMGB1-targeting therapies for ALF patients is expected.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tetsu Yamamoto
- a Department of Digestive and General Surgery , Shimane University Faculty of Medicine , Izumo , Japan
| | - Yoshitsugu Tajima
- a Department of Digestive and General Surgery , Shimane University Faculty of Medicine , Izumo , Japan
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Liu XM, Peyton KJ, Durante W. Ammonia promotes endothelial cell survival via the heme oxygenase-1-mediated release of carbon monoxide. Free Radic Biol Med 2017; 102:37-46. [PMID: 27867098 PMCID: PMC5209302 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2016] [Revised: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Although endothelial cells produce substantial quantities of ammonia during cell metabolism, the physiologic role of this gas in these cells is not known. In this study, we investigated if ammonia regulates the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), and if this enzyme influences the biological actions of ammonia on endothelial cells. Exogenously administered ammonia, given as ammonium chloride or ammonium hydroxide, or endogenously generated ammonia stimulated HO-1 protein expression in cultured human and murine endothelial cells. Dietary supplementation of ammonia also induced HO-1 protein expression in murine arteries. The increase in HO-1 protein by ammonia in endothelial cells was first detected 4h after ammonia exposure and was associated with the induction of HO-1 mRNA, enhanced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and increased expression and activity of NF-E2-related factor-2 (Nrf2). Ammonia also activated the HO-1 promoter and this was blocked by mutating the antioxidant responsive element or by overexpressing dominant-negative Nrf2. The induction of HO-1 expression by ammonia was dependent on ROS formation and prevented by N-acetylcysteine or rotenone. Finally, prior treatment of endothelial cells with ammonia inhibited tumor necrosis factor-α-stimulated cell death. However, silencing HO-1 expression abrogated the protective action of ammonia and this was reversed by the administration of carbon monoxide but not bilirubin or iron. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that ammonia stimulates the expression of HO-1 in endothelial cells via the ROS-Nrf2 pathway, and that the induction of HO-1 contributes to the cytoprotective action of ammonia by generating carbon monoxide. Moreover, it identifies ammonia as a potentially important signaling gas in the vasculature that promotes endothelial cell survival.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Ming Liu
- Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Missouri-Columbia, M409 Medical Sciences Building, One Hospital Drive, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Kelly J Peyton
- Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Missouri-Columbia, M409 Medical Sciences Building, One Hospital Drive, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - William Durante
- Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Missouri-Columbia, M409 Medical Sciences Building, One Hospital Drive, Columbia, MO 65212, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Milewski K, Oria M. What we know: the inflammatory basis of hepatic encephalopathy. Metab Brain Dis 2016; 31:1239-1247. [PMID: 26497651 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-015-9740-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 09/24/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Central Nervous System (CNS) degeneration appearing in patients with cirrhosis is responsible for cognitive and persistent motor impairments that lead to an important impact on life quality. Brain injury affects certain areas of the CNS that might affect two types of cells: neurons and astrocytes. The process leading to brain injury could be induced by portosystemic shunting accompanied by hyperammonemia and by the activation of peripheral inflammation, manifested as episodic encephalopathy. Hyperammonemia combined with a decrease on the BCA/AAA ratio induces alterations of energetic metabolism and the formation of free radicals in the CNS. This process would be stimulated by the activation of peripheral inflammatory mediators that could act on receptors of the blood brain barrier such as TLR4, activating inflammatory responses in the CNS. As a result, a persistent activation of microglia and an irreversible neuronal and astrocytic injury would be induced. A new knowledge of the mechanisms leading to brain injury in cirrhosis would develop protective strategies to correct changes of nitrogen metabolism and inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Milewski
- Department of Neurotoxicology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 Str, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - M Oria
- Translational Research in Fetal Surgery for Congenital Malformations, Center for Fetal, Cellular and Molecular Therapy, Division of Pediatric General and Thoracic Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center (CCHMC), 3333 Burnet Avenue, MLC 11020, S 8.400 AT, Cincinnati, OH, 45229-3039, USA.
- Liver Failure Group, UCL Institute for Liver and Digestive Health, Royal Free Hospital, University College London, London, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Huang NQ, Jin H, Zhou SY, Shi JS, Jin F. TLR4 is a link between diabetes and Alzheimer's disease. Behav Brain Res 2016; 316:234-244. [PMID: 27591966 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.08.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Revised: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Recently, more and more studies have shown that there is an essential link between diabetes mellitus (DM) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). In addition, innate immunity plays an important role in the occurrence and development of DM and AD, which increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes (T2D) and AD. Although the pathogenesis of those diseases is still a matter of debate, the important role of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) in the two diseases has been receiving much attention at present. TLR4 and insulin resistance do have close ties, and chronic TLR4 activation may contribute to the insulin resistance. Aside from this, TLR4-mediated chronic inflammation also causes many DM complications such as diabetic nephropathy, diabetic retinopathy and diabetic neuropathy and has a profound impact on the internal environment of the body and brain's microenvironment. In parallel, TLR4 is widely distributed in the brain and also has an important role in the central nervous system (CNS) via regulation of neuroinflammation. The cerebrum under the circumstances of insulin resistance may lead to mitochondrial dysfunction in neurons. Interestingly, in the initial stage, the activation of TLR4 has a useful scavenging effect on amyloid beta (Aβ), but chronic long-term activation leads to Aβ deposition in the brain. Therefore we speculate that the TLR4 signaling pathway may be a potential link between DM and AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nan-Qu Huang
- Department of Pharmacology and the Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Guizhou Province, Zunyi Medical College, Guizhou, China
| | - Hai Jin
- Institute of Digestive Diseases of Affiliated Hospital, Zunyi Medical College, Guizhou, China
| | - Shao-Yu Zhou
- Department of Pharmacology and the Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Guizhou Province, Zunyi Medical College, Guizhou, China; Department of Environmental Health, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States
| | - Jing-Shan Shi
- Department of Pharmacology and the Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Guizhou Province, Zunyi Medical College, Guizhou, China
| | - Feng Jin
- Department of Pharmacology and the Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Guizhou Province, Zunyi Medical College, Guizhou, China.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Li Y, Zhang J, Xu P, Sun B, Zhong Z, Liu C, Ling Z, Chen Y, Shu N, Zhao K, Liu L, Liu X. Acute liver failure impairs function and expression of breast cancer-resistant protein (BCRP) at rat blood-brain barrier partly via ammonia-ROS-ERK1/2 activation. J Neurochem 2016; 138:282-94. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2015] [Revised: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Li
- Center of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - Ji Zhang
- Center of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - Ping Xu
- Center of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - Binbin Sun
- Center of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - Zeyu Zhong
- Center of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - Can Liu
- Center of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - Zhaoli Ling
- Center of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - Yang Chen
- Center of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - Nan Shu
- Center of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - Kaijing Zhao
- Center of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - Li Liu
- Center of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - Xiaodong Liu
- Center of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Tsunoda E, Gross JJ, Kawashima C, Bruckmaier RM, Kida K, Miyamoto A. Feed-derived volatile basic nitrogen increases reactive oxygen species production of blood leukocytes in lactating dairy cows. Anim Sci J 2016; 88:125-133. [DOI: 10.1111/asj.12608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Revised: 12/25/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ei Tsunoda
- Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene; Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine; Obihiro Japan
- Field Center of Animal Agriculture; Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine; Obihiro Japan
| | - Josef J. Gross
- Veterinary Physiology, Vetsuisse Faculty; University of Bern; Bern Switzerland
| | - Chiho Kawashima
- Field Center of Animal Agriculture; Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine; Obihiro Japan
| | | | - Katsuya Kida
- Field Center of Animal Agriculture; Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine; Obihiro Japan
| | - Akio Miyamoto
- Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene; Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine; Obihiro Japan
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Neutrophil Toll-Like Receptor 9 Expression and the Systemic Inflammatory Response in Acetaminophen-Induced Acute Liver Failure. Crit Care Med 2016; 44:43-53. [PMID: 26457748 DOI: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000001309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES There is a marked propensity for patients with acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure to develop sepsis, which may culminate in multiple organ failure and death. Toll-like receptors sense pathogens and induce inflammatory responses, but whether this is protective or detrimental in acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure remains unknown. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENTS We assessed Toll-like receptor expression on circulating neutrophils and their function in 24 patients with acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure and compared with 10 healthy controls. INTERVENTIONS Neutrophil Toll-like receptor 2, -4, and -9 expression and cytokine production and function were studied ex vivo at baseline and following stimulation with lipopolysaccharide, oligodeoxynucleotides, ammonium chloride, and interleukin-8. To examine the influence of acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure plasma and endogenous DNA on Toll-like receptors-9 expression, healthy neutrophils were incubated with acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure plasma with and without deoxyribonuclease-I. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Circulating neutrophil Toll-like receptor 9 expression was increased in acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure on day 1 compared with healthy controls (p = 0.0002), whereas Toll-like receptor 4 expression was decreased compared with healthy controls (p < 0.0001). Toll-like receptor 2 expression was unchanged. Neutrophil phagocytic activity was decreased, and spontaneous oxidative burst increased in all patients with acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure compared with healthy controls (p < 0.0001). Neutrophil Toll-like receptor 9 expression correlated with plasma interleukin-8 and peak ammonia concentration (r = 0.6; p < 0.05) and increased with severity of hepatic encephalopathy (grade 0-2 vs 3/4) and systemic inflammatory response syndrome score (0-1 vs 2-4) (p < 0.05). Those patients with advanced hepatic encephalopathy (grade 3/4) or high systemic inflammatory response syndrome score (2-4) on day 1 had higher neutrophil Toll-like receptor 9 expression, arterial ammonia concentration, and plasma interleukin-8 associated with neutrophil exhaustion. Healthy neutrophil Toll-like receptor 9 expression increased upon stimulation with acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure plasma, which was abrogated by preincubation with deoxyribonuclease-I. Intracellular Toll-like receptor 9 was induced by costimulation with interleukin-8 and ammonia. CONCLUSION These data point to neutrophil Toll-like receptor 9 expression in acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure being mediated both by circulating endogenous DNA as well as ammonia and interleukin-8 in a synergistic manner inducing systemic inflammation, neutrophil exhaustion, and exacerbating hepatic encephalopathy.
Collapse
|
31
|
Dynnik VV, Kononov AV, Sergeev AI, Teplov IY, Tankanag AV, Zinchenko VP. To Break or to Brake Neuronal Network Accelerated by Ammonium Ions? PLoS One 2015. [PMID: 26217943 PMCID: PMC4517767 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The aim of present study was to investigate the effects of ammonium ions on in vitro neuronal network activity and to search alternative methods of acute ammonia neurotoxicity prevention. Methods Rat hippocampal neuronal and astrocytes co-cultures in vitro, fluorescent microscopy and perforated patch clamp were used to monitor the changes in intracellular Ca2+- and membrane potential produced by ammonium ions and various modulators in the cells implicated in neural networks. Results Low concentrations of NH4Cl (0.1–4 mM) produce short temporal effects on network activity. Application of 5–8 mM NH4Cl: invariably transforms diverse network firing regimen to identical burst patterns, characterized by substantial neuronal membrane depolarization at plateau phase of potential and high-amplitude Ca2+-oscillations; raises frequency and average for period of oscillations Ca2+-level in all cells implicated in network; results in the appearance of group of «run out» cells with high intracellular Ca2+ and steadily diminished amplitudes of oscillations; increases astrocyte Ca2+-signalling, characterized by the appearance of groups of cells with increased intracellular Ca2+-level and/or chaotic Ca2+-oscillations. Accelerated network activity may be suppressed by the blockade of NMDA or AMPA/kainate-receptors or by overactivation of AMPA/kainite-receptors. Ammonia still activate neuronal firing in the presence of GABA(A) receptors antagonist bicuculline, indicating that «disinhibition phenomenon» is not implicated in the mechanisms of networks acceleration. Network activity may also be slowed down by glycine, agonists of metabotropic inhibitory receptors, betaine, L-carnitine, L-arginine, etc. Conclusions Obtained results demonstrate that ammonium ions accelerate neuronal networks firing, implicating ionotropic glutamate receptors, having preserved the activities of group of inhibitory ionotropic and metabotropic receptors. This may mean, that ammonia neurotoxicity might be prevented by the activation of various inhibitory receptors (i.e. by the reinforcement of negative feedback control), instead of application of various enzyme inhibitors and receptor antagonists (breaking of neural, metabolic and signaling systems).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir V. Dynnik
- Laboratory of intracellular signaling, Institute of Cell Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russia
- Laboratory of bioenergetics, Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russia
- * E-mail:
| | - Alexey V. Kononov
- Laboratory of intracellular signaling, Institute of Cell Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russia
| | - Alexander I. Sergeev
- Laboratory of intracellular signaling, Institute of Cell Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russia
| | - Iliya Y. Teplov
- Laboratory of intracellular signaling, Institute of Cell Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russia
| | - Arina V. Tankanag
- Laboratory of intracellular signaling, Institute of Cell Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russia
| | - Valery P. Zinchenko
- Laboratory of intracellular signaling, Institute of Cell Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Kimoloi S, Rashid K. Potential role of Plasmodium falciparum-derived ammonia in the pathogenesis of cerebral malaria. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:234. [PMID: 26190968 PMCID: PMC4490226 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebral malaria (CM) is the most severe complication associated with Plasmodium falciparum infection. The exact pathogenic mechanisms leading to the development of CM remains poorly understood while the mortality rates remain high. Several potential mechanisms including mechanical obstruction of brain microvasculature, inflammation, oxidative stress, cerebral energy defects, and hemostatic dysfunction have been suggested to play a role in CM pathogenesis. However, these proposed mechanisms, even when considered together, do not fully explain the pathogenesis and clinicopathological features of human CM. This necessitates consideration of alternative pathogenic mechanisms. P. falciparum generates substantial amounts of ammonia as a catabolic by-product, but lacks detoxification mechanisms. Whether this parasite-derived ammonia plays a pathogenic role in CM is presently unknown, despite its potential to cause localized brain ammonia elevation and subsequent neurotoxic effects. This article therefore, explores and proposes a potential role of parasite-derived ammonia in the pathogenesis and neuropathology of CM. A consideration of parasite-derived ammonia as a factor in CM pathogenesis provides plausible explanations of the various features observed in CM patients including how a largely intravascular parasite can cause neuronal dysfunction. It also provides a framework for rational development and testing of novel drugs targeting the parasite's ammonia handling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sammy Kimoloi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology Kakamega, Kenya
| | - Khalid Rashid
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Egerton University Nakuru, Kenya
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a dreadful, devastating and incurable motor neuron disease. Aetiologically, it is a multigenic, multifactorial and multiorgan disease. Despite intense research, ALS pathology remains unexplained. Following extensive literature review, this paper posits a new integrative explanation. This framework proposes that ammonia neurotoxicity is a main player in ALS pathogenesis. According to this explanation, a combination of impaired ammonia removal- mainly because of impaired hepatic urea cycle dysfunction-and increased ammoniagenesis- mainly because of impaired glycolytic metabolism in fast twitch skeletal muscle-causes chronic hyperammonia in ALS. In the absence of neuroprotective calcium binding proteins (calbindin, calreticulin and parvalbumin), elevated ammonia-a neurotoxin-damages motor neurons. Ammonia-induced motor neuron damage occurs through multiple mechanisms such as macroautophagy-endolysosomal impairment, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, CDK5 activation, oxidative/nitrosative stress, neuronal hyperexcitability and neuroinflammation. Furthermore, the regional pattern of calcium binding proteins' loss, owing to either ER stress and/or impaired oxidative metabolism, determines clinical variability of ALS. Most importantly, this new framework can be generalised to explain other neurodegenerative disorders such as Huntington's disease and Parkinsonism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bhavin Parekh
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Jayakumar AR, Rama Rao KV, Norenberg MD. Neuroinflammation in hepatic encephalopathy: mechanistic aspects. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2015; 5:S21-8. [PMID: 26041953 PMCID: PMC4442850 DOI: 10.1016/j.jceh.2014.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a major neurological complication of severe liver disease that presents in acute and chronic forms. While elevated brain ammonia level is known to be a major etiological factor in this disorder, recent studies have shown a significant role of neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis of both acute and chronic HE. This review summarizes the involvement of ammonia in the activation of microglia, as well as the means by which ammonia triggers inflammatory responses in these cells. Additionally, the role of ammonia in stimulating inflammatory events in brain endothelial cells (ECs), likely through the activation of the toll-like receptor-4 and the associated production of cytokines, as well as the stimulation of various inflammatory factors in ECs and in astrocytes, are discussed. This review also summarizes the inflammatory mechanisms by which activation of ECs and microglia impact on astrocytes leading to their dysfunction, ultimately contributing to astrocyte swelling/brain edema in acute HE. The role of microglial activation and its contribution to the progression of neurobehavioral abnormalities in chronic HE are also briefly presented. We posit that a better understanding of the inflammatory events associated with acute and chronic HE will uncover novel therapeutic targets useful in the treatment of patients afflicted with HE.
Collapse
Key Words
- AHE, acute hepatic encephalopathy
- ALF, acute liver failure
- BBB, blood–brain barrier
- BDL, bile duct ligation
- COX2, cyclooxygenase-2
- ECs, endothelial cells
- FHF, fulminant hepatic failure
- HE, hepatic encephalopathy
- HO, hemoxygenase
- IL, interleukin
- LPS, lipopolysaccharide
- MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinases
- NF-κB, nuclear factor-kappaB
- NOX, NADPH oxidase
- ONS, oxidative/nitrative stress
- PLA2, phospholipase-A2
- RONS, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species
- TLR, Toll-like receptor
- TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-alpha
- Tg, transgenic
- WT, wild type
- ammonia
- cNOS, constitutive nitric oxide synthase
- hepatic encephalopathy
- iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase
- neuroinflammation
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michael D. Norenberg
- Laboratory of Neuropathology, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL, USA,Department of Pathology, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA,Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA,Address for correspondence: Michael D. Norenberg, Department of Pathology (D-33), PO Box 016960, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33101. Tel.: +1 305 575 7000x4018.
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Collaborative action of Toll-like and NOD-like receptors as modulators of the inflammatory response to pathogenic bacteria. Mediators Inflamm 2014; 2014:432785. [PMID: 25525300 PMCID: PMC4267164 DOI: 10.1155/2014/432785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2014] [Revised: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 06/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Early sensing of pathogenic bacteria by the host immune system is important to develop effective mechanisms to kill the invader. Microbial recognition, activation of signaling pathways, and effector mechanisms are sequential events that must be highly controlled to successfully eliminate the pathogen. Host recognizes pathogens through pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) that sense pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Some of these PRRs include Toll-like receptors (TLRs), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLRs), retinoic acid-inducible gene-I- (RIG-I-) like receptors (RLRs), and C-type lectin receptors (CLRs). TLRs and NLRs are PRRs that play a key role in recognition of extracellular and intracellular bacteria and control the inflammatory response. The activation of TLRs and NLRs by their respective ligands activates downstream signaling pathways that converge on activation of transcription factors, such as nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB), activator protein-1 (AP-1) or interferon regulatory factors (IRFs), leading to expression of inflammatory cytokines and antimicrobial molecules. The goal of this review is to discuss how the TLRs and NRLs signaling pathways collaborate in a cooperative or synergistic manner to counteract the infectious agents. A deep knowledge of the biochemical events initiated by each of these receptors will undoubtedly have a high impact in the design of more effective strategies to control inflammation.
Collapse
|
36
|
Rama Rao KV, Jayakumar AR, Norenberg MD. Brain edema in acute liver failure: mechanisms and concepts. Metab Brain Dis 2014; 29:927-36. [PMID: 24567229 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-014-9502-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Brain edema and associated increase in intracranial pressure continue to be lethal complications of acute liver failure (ALF). Abundant evidence suggests that the edema in ALF is largely cytotoxic brought about by swelling of astrocytes. Elevated blood and brain ammonia levels have been strongly implicated in the development of the brain edema. Additionally, inflammation and sepsis have been shown to contribute to the astrocyte swelling/brain edema in the setting of ALF. We posit that ammonia initiates a number of signaling events, including oxidative/nitrative stress (ONS), the mitochondrial permeability transition (mPT), activation of the transcription factor (NF-κB) and signaling kinases, all of which have been shown to contribute to the mechanism of astrocyte swelling. All of these factors also impact ion-transporters, including Na(+), K(+), Cl(-) cotransporter and the sulfonylurea receptor 1, as well as the water channel protein aquaporin-4 resulting in a perturbation of cellular ion and water homeostasis, ultimately resulting in astrocyte swelling/brain edema. All of these events are also potentiated by inflammation. This article reviews contemporary knowledge regarding mechanisms of astrocyte swelling/brain edema formation which hopefully will facilitate the identification of therapeutic targets capable of mitigating the brain edema associated with ALF.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kakulavarapu V Rama Rao
- Department of Pathology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, PO Box 016960, Miami, FL, 33101, USA,
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Jayakumar AR, Tong XY, Curtis KM, Ruiz-Cordero R, Shamaladevi N, Abuzamel M, Johnstone J, Gaidosh G, Rama Rao KV, Norenberg MD. Decreased astrocytic thrombospondin-1 secretion after chronic ammonia treatment reduces the level of synaptic proteins: in vitro and in vivo studies. J Neurochem 2014; 131:333-47. [PMID: 25040426 PMCID: PMC4364553 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2014] [Revised: 06/16/2014] [Accepted: 06/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Chronic hepatic encephalopathy (CHE) is a major complication in patients with severe liver disease. Elevated blood and brain ammonia levels have been implicated in its pathogenesis, and astrocytes are the principal neural cells involved in this disorder. Since defective synthesis and release of astrocytic factors have been shown to impair synaptic integrity in other neurological conditions, we examined whether thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1), an astrocytic factor involved in the maintenance of synaptic integrity, is also altered in CHE. Cultured astrocytes were exposed to ammonia (NH₄Cl, 0.5-2.5 mM) for 1-10 days, and TSP-1 content was measured in cell extracts and culture media. Astrocytes exposed to ammonia exhibited a reduction in intra- and extracellular TSP-1 levels. Exposure of cultured neurons to conditioned media from ammonia-treated astrocytes showed a decrease in synaptophysin, PSD95, and synaptotagmin levels. Conditioned media from TSP-1 over-expressing astrocytes that were treated with ammonia, when added to cultured neurons, reversed the decline in synaptic proteins. Recombinant TSP-1 similarly reversed the decrease in synaptic proteins. Metformin, an agent known to increase TSP-1 synthesis in other cell types, also reversed the ammonia-induced TSP-1 reduction. Likewise, we found a significant decline in TSP-1 level in cortical astrocytes, as well as a reduction in synaptophysin content in vivo in a rat model of CHE. These findings suggest that TSP-1 may represent an important therapeutic target for CHE. Defective release of astrocytic factors may impair synaptic integrity in chronic hepatic encephalopathy. We found a reduction in the release of the astrocytic matricellular proteins thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1) in ammonia-treated astrocytes; such reduction was associated with a decrease in synaptic proteins caused by conditioned media from ammonia-treated astrocytes. Exposure of neurons to CM from ammonia-treated astrocytes, in which TSP-1 is over-expressed, reversed (by approx 75%) the reduction in synaptic proteins. NF-kB = nuclear factor kappa B; PSD95 = post-synaptic density protein 95; ONS = oxidative/nitrative stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arumugam R Jayakumar
- Laboratory of Neuropathology, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, Florida, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Zhang J, Zhang M, Sun B, Li Y, Xu P, Liu C, Liu L, Liu X. Hyperammonemia enhances the function and expression of P-glycoprotein and Mrp2 at the blood-brain barrier through NF-κB. J Neurochem 2014; 131:791-802. [PMID: 25200138 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Revised: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Ammonia is considered to be the main neurotoxin responsible for hepatic encephalopathy resulting from liver failure. Liver failure has been reported to alter expression and activity of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (Mrp2) at the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The aim of this study was to investigate whether ammonia is involved in abnormalities of expression and activity of P-gp and Mrp2 at the BBB. Hyperammonemic rats were developed by an intraperitoneal injection of ammonium acetate (NH4 Ac, 4.5 mmol/kg). Results showed that Mrp2 function markedly increased in cortex and hippocampus of rats at 6 h following NH4 Ac administration. Significant increase in function of P-gp was observed in hippocampus of rats. Meanwhile, such alterations were in line with the increase in mRNA and protein levels of P-gp and Mrp2. Significant increase in levels of nuclear amount of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65 was also observed. Primarily cultured rat brain microvessel endothelial cells (rBMECs) were used for in vitro study. Data indicated that 24 h exposure to ammonia significantly increased function and expression of P-gp and Mrp2 in rBMECs, accompanied with activation of NF-κB. Furthermore, such alterations induced by ammonia were reversed by NF-κB inhibitor. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that hyperammonemia increases the function and expression of P-gp and Mrp2 at the BBB via activating NF-κB pathway. Hyperammonemia, a proverbial main factor responsible for neurocognitive disorder and blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction resulting from liver failure, could increase the expression and activity of P-glycoprotein and multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (Mrp2) at the BBB both in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, the NF-κB activation stimulated by hyperammonemia may be the potential mechanism underlying such abnormalities induced by hyperammonemia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ji Zhang
- Center of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Faleiros BE, Miranda AS, Campos AC, Gomides LF, Kangussu LM, Guatimosim C, Camargos ERS, Menezes GB, Rachid MA, Teixeira AL. Up-regulation of brain cytokines and chemokines mediates neurotoxicity in early acute liver failure by a mechanism independent of microglial activation. Brain Res 2014; 1578:49-59. [PMID: 25017944 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2014.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Revised: 06/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The neurological involvement in acute liver failure (ALF) is characterized by arousal impairment with progression to coma. There is a growing body of evidence that neuroinflammatory mechanisms play a role in this process, including production of inflammatory cytokines and microglial activation. However, it is still uncertain whether brain-derived cytokines and glial cells are crucial to the pathophysiology of ALF at the early stage, before coma development. Here, we investigated the influence of cytokines and microglia in ALF-induced encephalopathy in mice as soon as neurological symptoms were identifiable. Behavior was assessed at 12, 24, 36 and 48 h post-injection of thioacetamide, a hepatotoxic drug, through locomotor activity by an open field test. Brain concentration of cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β) and chemokines (CXCL1, CCL2, CCL3 and CCL5) were assessed by ELISA. Microglial activation in brain sections was investigated through immunohistochemistry, and cellular ultrastructural changes were observed by transmission electron microscopy. We found that ALF-induced animals presented a significant decrease in locomotor activity at 24 h, which was accompanied by an increase in IL-1β, CXCL1, CCL2, CCL3 and CCL5 in the brain. TNF-α level was significantly increased only at 36 h. Despite marked morphological changes in astrocytes and brain endothelial cells, no microglial activation was observed. These findings suggest an involvement of brain-derived chemokines and IL-1β in early pathophysiology of ALF by a mechanism independent of microglial activation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bruno E Faleiros
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Alfredo Balena 190, Santa Efigênia, Belo Horizonte, MG 30130-100, Brazil.
| | - Aline S Miranda
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Alfredo Balena 190, Santa Efigênia, Belo Horizonte, MG 30130-100, Brazil
| | - Alline C Campos
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Alfredo Balena 190, Santa Efigênia, Belo Horizonte, MG 30130-100, Brazil
| | - Lindisley F Gomides
- Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antônio Carlos 6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Lucas M Kangussu
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antônio Carlos 6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Cristina Guatimosim
- Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antônio Carlos 6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Elizabeth R S Camargos
- Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antônio Carlos 6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Gustavo B Menezes
- Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antônio Carlos 6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Milene A Rachid
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antônio Carlos 6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Antônio L Teixeira
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Alfredo Balena 190, Santa Efigênia, Belo Horizonte, MG 30130-100, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Jayakumar AR, Tong XY, Ruiz-Cordero R, Bregy A, Bethea JR, Bramlett HM, Norenberg MD. Activation of NF-κB mediates astrocyte swelling and brain edema in traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2014; 31:1249-57. [PMID: 24471369 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2013.3169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain edema and associated increased intracranial pressure are major consequences of traumatic brain injury (TBI). While astrocyte swelling (cytotoxic edema) represents a major component of the brain edema in the early phase of TBI, its mechanisms are unclear. One factor known to be activated by trauma is nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). Because this factor has been implicated in the mechanism of cell swelling/brain edema in other neurological conditions, we examined whether NF-κB might also be involved in the mediation of post-traumatic astrocyte swelling/brain edema. Here we show an increase in NF-κB activation in cultured astrocytes at 1 and 3 h after trauma (fluid percussion injury, FPI), and that BAY 11-7082, an inhibitor of NF-κB, significantly blocked the trauma-induced astrocyte swelling. Increased activities of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-oxidase and the Na(+), K(+), 2Cl(-) cotransporter were also observed in cultured astrocytes after trauma, and BAY 11-7082 reduced these effects. We also examined the role of NF-κB in the mechanism of cell swelling by using astrocyte cultures derived from transgenic (Tg) mice with a functional inactivation of astrocytic NF-κB. Exposure of cultured astrocytes from wild-type mice to in vitro trauma (3 h) caused a significant increase in cell swelling. By contrast, traumatized astrocyte cultures derived from NF-κB Tg mice showed no swelling. We also found increased astrocytic NF-κB activation and brain water content in rats after FPI, while BAY 11-7082 significantly reduced such effects. Our findings strongly suggest that activation of astrocytic NF-κB represents a key element in the process by which cytotoxic brain edema occurs after TBI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arumugam R Jayakumar
- 1 Department of Pathology, University of Miami School of Medicine and Veterans Affairs Medical Center , Miami, Florida
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Castellano P, Eugenin EA. Regulation of gap junction channels by infectious agents and inflammation in the CNS. Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8:122. [PMID: 24847208 PMCID: PMC4023065 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Gap junctions (GJs) are conglomerates of intercellular channels that connect the cytoplasm of two or more cells, and facilitate the transfer of ions and small molecules, including second messengers, resulting in metabolic and electrical coordination. In general, loss of gap junctional communication (GJC) has been associated with cellular damage and inflammation resulting in compromise of physiological functions. Recently, it has become evident that GJ channels also play a critical role in the pathogenesis of infectious diseases and associated inflammation. Several pathogens use the transfer of intracellular signals through GJ channels to spread infection and toxic signals that amplify inflammation to neighboring cells. Thus, identification of the mechanisms by which several infectious agents alter GJC could result in new potential therapeutic approaches to reduce inflammation and their pathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Castellano
- Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers The State University of New Jersey Newark, NJ, USA ; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers The State University of New Jersey Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Eliseo A Eugenin
- Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers The State University of New Jersey Newark, NJ, USA ; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers The State University of New Jersey Newark, NJ, USA
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Noelker C, Morel L, Osterloh A, Alvarez-Fischer D, Lescot T, Breloer M, Gold M, Oertel WH, Henze C, Michel PP, Dodel RC, Lu L, Hirsch EC, Hunot S, Hartmann A. Heat shock protein 60: an endogenous inducer of dopaminergic cell death in Parkinson disease. J Neuroinflammation 2014; 11:86. [PMID: 24886419 PMCID: PMC4018945 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-11-86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increasing evidence suggests that inflammation associated with microglial cell activation in the substantia nigra (SN) of patients with Parkinson disease (PD) is not only a consequence of neuronal degeneration, but may actively sustain dopaminergic (DA) cell loss over time. We aimed to study whether the intracellular chaperone heat shock protein 60 (Hsp60) could serve as a signal of CNS injury for activation of microglial cells. METHODS Hsp60 mRNA expression in the mesencephalon and the striatum of C57/BL6 mice treated with MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) and the Hsp60/TH mRNA ratios in the SN of PD patients and aged-matched subjects were measured. To further investigate a possible link between the neuronal Hsp60 response and PD-related cellular stress, Hsp60 immunoblot analysis and quantification in cell lysates from SH-SY5Y after treatment with 100 μM MPP+ (1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium) at different time points (6, 12, 24 and 48 hours) compared to control cells were performed. Additional MTT and LDH assay were used. We next addressed the question as to whether Hsp60 influences the survival of TH+ neurons in mesencephalic neuron-glia cultures treated either with MPP+ (1 μM), hHsp60 (10 μg/ml) or a combination of both. Finally, we measured IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and NO-release by ELISA in primary microglial cell cultures following treatment with different hHsp60 preparations. Control cultures were exposed to LPS. RESULTS In the mesencephalon and striatum of mice treated with MPTP and also in the SN of PD patients, we found that Hsp60 mRNA was up-regulated. MPP+, the active metabolite of MPTP, also caused an increased expression and release of Hsp60 in the human dopaminergic cell line SH-SY5Y. Interestingly, in addition to being toxic to DA neurons in primary mesencephalic cultures, exogenous Hsp60 aggravated the effects of MPP+. Yet, although we demonstrated that Hsp60 specifically binds to microglial cells, it failed to stimulate the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines or NO by these cells. CONCLUSIONS Overall, our data suggest that Hsp60 is likely to participate in DA cell death in PD but via a mechanism unrelated to cytokine release.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Stéphane Hunot
- CR-ICM, INSERM UMR_S1127, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris 06 UMR_S1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, 75013 Paris, France.
| | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Jayakumar AR, Valdes V, Tong XY, Shamaladevi N, Gonzalez W, Norenberg MD. Sulfonylurea receptor 1 contributes to the astrocyte swelling and brain edema in acute liver failure. Transl Stroke Res 2014; 5:28-37. [PMID: 24443056 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-014-0328-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2013] [Revised: 01/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Astrocyte swelling (cytotoxic brain edema) is the major neurological complication of acute liver failure (ALF), a condition in which ammonia has been strongly implicated in its etiology. Ion channels and transporters are known to be involved in cell volume regulation, and a disturbance in these systems may result in cell swelling. One ion channel known to contribute to astrocyte swelling/brain edema in other neurological disorders is the ATP-dependent, nonselective cation (NCCa-ATP) channel. We therefore examined its potential role in the astrocyte swelling/brain edema associated with ALF. Cultured astrocytes treated with 5 mM ammonia showed a threefold increase in the sulfonylurea receptor type 1 (SUR1) protein expression, a marker of NCCa-ATP channel activity. Blocking SUR1 with glibenclamide significantly reduced the ammonia-induced cell swelling in cultured astrocytes. Additionally, overexpression of SUR1 in ammonia-treated cultured astrocytes was significantly reduced by cotreatment of cells with BAY 11-7082, an inhibitor of NF-κB, indicating the involvement of an NF-κB-mediated SUR1 upregulation in the mechanism of ammonia-induced astrocyte swelling. Brain SUR1 mRNA level was also found to be increased in the thioacetamide (TAA) rat model of ALF. Additionally, we found a significant increase in SUR1 protein expression in rat brain cortical astrocytes in TAA-treated rats. Treatment with glibenclamide significantly reduced the brain edema in this model of ALF. These findings strongly suggest the involvement of NCCa-ATP channel in the astrocyte swelling/brain edema in ALF and that targeting this channel may represent a useful approach for the treatment of the brain edema associated with ALF.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A R Jayakumar
- Department of Pathology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, P.O. Box 016960, Miami, FL, 33101, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|