Personalized genetics of the cholinergic blockade of neuroinflammation

Genetic-epigenetic-neuropeptide associations in mood and anxiety disorders: Toward personalized medicine

Mood and anxiety disorders are complex psychiatric conditions shaped by the multifactorial interplay of genetic, epigenetic, and neuropeptide factors. This review aims to elucidate the intricate interactions among these factors and their potential in advancing personalized medicine. We examine the genetic underpinnings, emphasizing key heritability studies and specific gene associations. The role of epigenetics is discussed, focusing on how environmental factors can modify gene expression and contribute to these disorders. Neuropeptides, including substance P, CRF, AVP, NPY, galanin, and kisspeptin, are evaluated for their involvement in mood regulation and their potential as therapeutic targets. Additionally, we address the emerging role of the gut microbiome in modulating neuropeptide activity and its connection to mood disorders. This review integrates findings from genetic, epigenetic, and neuropeptide research, offering a comprehensive overview of their collective impact on mood and anxiety disorders. By highlighting novel insights and potential clinical applications, we underscore the importance of a multi-omics approach in developing personalized treatment strategies. Future research directions are proposed to address existing knowledge gaps and translate these findings into clinical practice. Our review provides a fresh perspective on the pathophysiology of mood and anxiety disorders, paving the way for more effective and individualized therapies.

Natural benzofuran derivatives as promising scaffold for alleviating Alzheimer symptoms: acetylcholinesterase inhibition, structure activity relationship and in silico studies

Three isolated natural benzofuran compounds 1a-c and four semi-synthesized benzofuran derivatives 2a,b and 3a,b were evaluated for their in vitro acetylcholinesterase inhibition assay. Most of the tested compounds showed moderate activity with IC50 ranged from 102.4 ± 5.72 µM to 565.75 ± 4.17 µM, the most potent compound was kellin 1a with IC50 102.4 ± 5.72 µM. The kellin derivatives 1a, 2a and 3a bearing additional methoxyl group showed more inhibition activity than its analogues of visnagin derivatives 1b,c, 2b and 3b. The in silico investigation on the seven benzofuran derivatives matched our in vitro acetylcholinesterase results and explains the similarity in structures between the benzofuran compounds and donepezil drug. khellin had the best pharmacophore features among the studied compounds, the best fit score 1.862 and best dock score -9.135. In addition, our in silico study showed clearly that compounds carrying additional hydrophobic group had more potent activity through matched more ligand features.

The impact of chelating compounds on Cu2+, Fe2+/3+, and Zn2+ ions in Alzheimer's disease treatment

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the accumulation of amyloid - β extracellular plaques and tau interfibrillar tangles, leading to memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes. With dementia posing a growing global health concern, there is an urgent need for comprehensive strategies to address its challenges. The economic burden of dementia is projected to rise significantly, emphasizing the necessity for collaborative efforts in research and healthcare. In the United States alone, millions are affected by AD, with prevalence increasing with age and even affecting younger individuals. The complexity of AD involves intricate biological processes, including the aggregation of amyloid beta, oxidative stress, and metal ion dysregulation. Metal ions, particularly those from copper, iron, and zinc, play pivotal roles in AD pathology, influencing Aβ deposition and tau protein accumulation. Current treatments offer symptomatic relief but do not address the underlying disease mechanisms. This paper explores the potential of various chelating compounds to target metal ions involved in AD pathology. N-acylhydrazones, morpholine, chrysin, quinoline, oxindole, cyclam, catechol-based, and quinazolinone-based derivatives show promising chelation activity and therapeutic effects. Metal chelation therapy offers a targeted approach to AD treatment by addressing the core pathology. By selectively binding to metal ions implicated in disease progression, chelators may minimize side effects associated with broad-spectrum treatments. Additionally, chelators may offer neuroprotective effects beyond metal binding, further enhancing their therapeutic potential. Overall, metal chelation therapy presents a promising strategy in combating AD, with the potential to significantly impact disease progression and improve patient outcomes.

Enzyme ChE, cholinergic therapy and molecular docking: Significant considerations and future perspectives

Enzyme Che plays an essential role in cholinergic and non-cholinergic functions. It is present in the fertilized/unfertilized eggs and sperm of different species. Inclusion criteria for data collection from electronic databases NCBI and Google Scholar are enzyme AChE/BChE, cholinergic therapy, genomic organization and gene transcription, enzyme structure, biogenesis, transport, processing and localization, molecular signaling and biological function, polymorphism and influencing factors. Enzyme Che acts as a signaling receptor during hematopoiesis, protein adhesion, amyloid fiber formation, neurite outgrowth, bone development, and maturation, explaining the activity out of synaptic neurotransmission. Polymorphism in the Che genes correlates to various diseases and diverse drug responses. In particular, change accompanies cancer, neurodegenerative, and cardiovascular disease. Literature knowledge indicates the importance of Che inhibitors that influence biochemical and molecular pathways in disease treatment, genomic organization, gene transcription, structure, biogenesis, transport, processing, and localization of Che enzyme. Enzyme Che polymorphism changes indicate the possibility of efficient and new inhibitor drug target mechanisms in diverse research areas.

Harnessing the Bioactive Potential of Limonium spathulatum (Desf.) Kuntze: Insights into Enzyme Inhibition and Phytochemical Profile

This study assessed the halophyte species Limonium spathulatum (Desf.) as a possible source of natural ingredients with the capacity to inhibit enzymes related to relevant human health disorders and food browning. Extracts using food-grade solvents such as water and ethanol were prepared by maceration from dried L. spathulatum leaves. They were evaluated for in vitro inhibition activity of enzymes such as acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), α-glucosidase, tyrosinase and lipase, related to Alzheimer's disease, type-2-diabetes mellitus, skin hyperpigmentation, and obesity, respectively. These extracts were also appraised for in vitro acute toxicity on tumoral and non-tumoral cell lines and their chemical composition by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS). The extracts were more effective towards BChE than AChE. The best results were obtained with the hydroethanolic and water extracts, with IC50 values of 0.03 mg/mL and 0.06 mg/mL, respectively. The hydroethanolic extract had the highest capacity to inhibit α-glucosidase (IC50: 0.04 mg/mL), higher than the positive control used (acarbose, IC50 = 3.14 mg/mL). The ethanol extract displayed the best inhibitory activity against tyrosinase (IC50 = 0.34 mg/mL). The tested samples did not inhibit lipase and exhibited low to moderate cytotoxic activity against the tested cell lines. The hydroethanolic extract had a higher diversity of compounds, followed by the ethanol and water samples. Similar molecules were identified in all the extracts and were mainly hydroxybenzoic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, and flavonoids. Taken together, these results suggest that L. spathulatum should be further explored as a source of bioactive ingredients for the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries.

Polygoni Multiflori Radix Praeparata and Acori Tatarinowii Rhizoma ameliorate scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment by regulating the cholinergic and synaptic associated proteins

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The combination of Polygoni Multiflori Radix Praeparata (PMRP) and Acori Tatarinowii Rhizoma (ATR) is often used in traditional Chinese medicine to prevent and treat Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, it is not clear whether the effects and mechanisms of the decoction prepared by traditional decocting method (PA) is different from that prepared by modern decocting method (P + A).

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study aimed to investigate the differences in the protective effects of PA and P + A on scopolamine induced cognitive impairment, and to explore its potential mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To assess the protective effect of PA and P + A on cognitive dysfunction, the mice were orally administrated with PA (1.56, 6.24 g kg^-1•day^-1) and P + A (1.56, 6.24 g kg^-1•day^-1) for 26 days before co-treatment with scopolamine (4 mg kg^-1•day^-1, i.p.). The learning and memory abilities of mice were examined by Morris water maze test, and the expressions of proteins related to cholinergic system and synaptic function were detected by the methods of ELISA, real-time PCR and Western blotting. Then, molecular docking technique was used to verify the effect of active compounds in plasma after PA administration on Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) protein. Finally, the Ellman method was used to evaluate the effects of different concentrations of PA, P + A (1 μg/mL-100 mg/mL) and the compounds (1-100 μM) on AChE activity in vitro.

RESULTS

On one hand, in the scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment mouse model, both of PA and P + A could improve the cognitive impairment, while the effect of PA on cognitive amelioration was better than that of P + A. Moreover, PA regulated the cholinergic and synaptic functions by enhancing the concentration of acetylcholine (ACh), the mRNA levels of CHT1, Syn, GAP-43 and PSD-95, and the related proteins (CHT1, VACHT, Syn, GAP-43 and PSD-95), and significantly inhibiting the expression of AChE protein. Meanwhile, P + A only up-regulated the mRNA levels of GAP-43 and PSD-95, increased the expressions of CHT1, VACHT, Syn, GAP-43 and PSD-95 proteins, and inhibited the expression of AChE protein. On the other hand, the in vitro study showed that some compounds including emodin-8-o-β-d-Glucopyranoside, THSG and α-Asarone inhibited AChE protein activity with the IC₅₀ values 3.65 μM, 5.42 μM and 9.43 μM, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate that both of PA and P + A can ameliorate the cognitive deficits by enhancing cholinergic and synaptic related proteins, while PA has the stronger improvement effect on the cholinergic function, which may be attributed to the compounds including THSG, emodin, emodin-8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside and α-asarone. The present study indicated that PA has more therapeutic potential in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as AD. The results provide the experimental basis for the clinical use of PA.

Comprehensive metabolomic profiling of nutrients in fish and shrimp

Although fish and shrimp are commonly consumed in daily life and recognized as nutrient-rich species, global profiling of the endogenous nutrients in these species is lacking. Here, we optimized the sample preparation and data acquisition methods of metabolomics to comprehensively characterize the nutrients in selected fish and shrimp species and compared them with those in beef, leading to the identification of 71 differentially expressed metabolites. Of these, docosahexaenoic acid, taurine, choline and (lyso)phosphatidylcholines were found to be abundant in the examined fish species, while several nonessential amino acids were rich in the analyzed shrimp samples. Subsequently, the biological functions of the metabolites rich in shrimp were queried. Intriguingly, the examined nutrients exemplified by proline can significantly mitigate the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated inflammatory responses in BV2 cells and RAW264.7 cells. Collectively, our findings imply that the dietary intake of certain fish and shrimp species may benefit human health through alleviating inflammatory responses.

Altered levels of variant cholinesterase transcripts contribute to the imbalanced cholinergic signaling in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease

Acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase (AChE and BChE) are involved in modulating cholinergic signaling, but their roles in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases (AD and PD) remain unclear. We identified a higher frequency of the functionally impaired BCHE-K variant (rs1803274) in AD and PD compared to controls and lower than in the GTEx dataset of healthy individuals (n = 651); in comparison, the prevalence of the 5'-UTR (rs1126680) and intron 2 (rs55781031) single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of BCHE and ACHE's 3'-UTR (rs17228616) which disrupt AChE mRNA targeting by miR-608 remained unchanged. qPCR validations confirmed lower levels of the dominant splice variant encoding the "synaptic" membrane-bound ACHE-S in human post-mortem superior temporal gyrus samples from AD and in substantia nigra (but not amygdala) samples from PD patients (n = 79, n = 67) compared to controls, potentially reflecting region-specific loss of cholinergic neurons. In contradistinction, the non-dominant "readthrough" AChE-R mRNA variant encoding for soluble AChE was elevated (p < 0.05) in the AD superior temporal gyrus and the PD amygdala, but not in the neuron-deprived substantia nigra. Elevated levels of BChE (p < 0.001) were seen in AD superior temporal gyrus. Finally, all three ACHE splice variants, AChE-S, AChE-R, and N-extended AChE, were elevated in cholinergic-differentiated human neuroblastoma cells, with exposure to the oxidative stress agent paraquat strongly downregulating AChE-S and BChE, inverse to their upregulation under exposure to the antioxidant simvastatin. The multi-leveled changes in cholinesterase balance highlight the role of post-transcriptional regulation in neurodegeneration. (235).

Distinct CholinomiR Blood Cell Signature as a Potential Modulator of the Cholinergic System in Women with Fibromyalgia Syndrome

Fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) is a heterogeneous chronic pain syndrome characterized by musculoskeletal pain and other key co-morbidities including fatigue and a depressed mood. FMS involves altered functioning of the central and peripheral nervous system (CNS, PNS) and immune system, but the specific molecular pathophysiology remains unclear. Anti-cholinergic treatment is effective in FMS patient subgroups, and cholinergic signaling is a strong modulator of CNS and PNS immune processes. Therefore, we used whole blood small RNA-sequencing of female FMS patients and healthy controls to profile microRNA regulators of cholinergic transcripts (CholinomiRs). We compared microRNA profiles with those from Parkinson’s disease (PD) patients with pain as disease controls. We validated the sequencing results with quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and identified cholinergic targets. Further, we measured serum cholinesterase activity in FMS patients and healthy controls. Small RNA-sequencing revealed FMS-specific changes in 19 CholinomiRs compared to healthy controls and PD patients. qRT-PCR validated miR-182-5p upregulation, distinguishing FMS patients from healthy controls. mRNA targets of CholinomiRs bone morphogenic protein receptor 2 and interleukin 6 signal transducer were downregulated. Serum acetylcholinesterase levels and cholinesterase activity in FMS patients were unchanged. Our findings identified an FMS-specific CholinomiR signature in whole blood, modulating immune-related gene expression.

Role of Cholinergic Signaling in Alzheimer's Disease

Acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter secreted by cholinergic neurons, is involved in signal transduction related to memory and learning ability. Alzheimer’s disease (AD), a progressive and commonly diagnosed neurodegenerative disease, is characterized by memory and cognitive decline and behavioral disorders. The pathogenesis of AD is complex and remains unclear, being affected by various factors. The cholinergic hypothesis is the earliest theory about the pathogenesis of AD. Cholinergic atrophy and cognitive decline are accelerated in age-related neurodegenerative diseases such as AD. In addition, abnormal central cholinergic changes can also induce abnormal phosphorylation of ttau protein, nerve cell inflammation, cell apoptosis, and other pathological phenomena, but the exact mechanism of action is still unclear. Due to the complex and unclear pathogenesis, effective methods to prevent and treat AD are unavailable, and research to explore novel therapeutic drugs is various and active in the world. This review summaries the role of cholinergic signaling and the correlation between the cholinergic signaling pathway with other risk factors in AD and provides the latest research about the efficient therapeutic drugs and treatment of AD.

Development of the Ontogenetic Self-Regulation Clock

To date, there is no overarching proposition for the ontogenetic-neurobiological basis of self-regulation. This paper suggests that the balanced self-regulatory reaction of the fetus, newborn and infant is based on a complex mechanism starting from early brainstem development and continuing to progressive control of the cortex over the brainstem. It is suggested that this balance occurs through the synchronous reactivity between the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, both which originate from the brainstem. The paper presents an evidence-based approach in which molecular excitation-inhibition balance, interchanges between excitatory and inhibitory roles of neurotransmitters as well as cardiovascular and white matter development across gestational ages, are shown to create sympathetic-parasympathetic synchrony, including the postnatal development of electroencephalogram waves and vagal tone. These occur in developmental milestones detectable in the same time windows (sensitive periods of development) within a convergent systematic progress. This ontogenetic stepwise process is termed "the self-regulation clock" and suggest that this clock is located in the largest connection between the brainstem and the cortex, the corticospinal tract. This novel evidence-based new theory paves the way towards more accurate hypotheses and complex studies of self-regulation and its biological basis, as well as pointing to time windows for interventions in preterm infants. The paper also describes the developing indirect signaling between the suprachiasmatic nucleus and the corticospinal tract. Finally, the paper proposes novel hypotheses for molecular, structural and functional investigation of the "clock" circuitry, including its associations with other biological clocks. This complex circuitry is suggested to be responsible for the developing self-regulatory functions and their neurobehavioral correlates.

Age-Dependent and Pathway-Specific Bimodal Action of Nicotine on Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus of Mice Lacking the miR-132/212 Genes

Nicotine addiction develops predominantly during human adolescence through smoking. Self-administration experiments in rodents verify this biological preponderance to adolescence, suggesting evolutionary-conserved and age-defined mechanisms which influence the susceptibility to nicotine addiction. The hippocampus, a brain region linked to drug-related memory storage, undergoes major morpho-functional restructuring during adolescence and is strongly affected by nicotine stimulation. However, the signaling mechanisms shaping the effects of nicotine in young vs. adult brains remain unclear. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) emerged recently as modulators of brain neuroplasticity, learning and memory, and addiction. Nevertheless, the age-dependent interplay between miRNAs regulation and hippocampal nicotinergic signaling remains poorly explored. We here combined biophysical and pharmacological methods to examine the impact of miRNA-132/212 gene-deletion (miRNA-132/212-/-) and nicotine stimulation on synaptic functions in adolescent and mature adult mice at two hippocampal synaptic circuits: the medial perforant pathway (MPP) to dentate yrus (DG) synapses (MPP-DG) and CA3 Schaffer collaterals to CA1 synapses (CA3-CA1). Basal synaptic transmission and short-term (paired-pulse-induced) synaptic plasticity was unaltered in adolescent and adult miRNA-132/212-/- mice hippocampi, compared with wild-type controls. However, nicotine stimulation promoted CA3-CA1 synaptic potentiation in mature adult (not adolescent) wild-type and suppressed MPP-DG synaptic potentiation in miRNA-132/212-/- mice. Altered levels of CREB, Phospho-CREB, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) expression were further detected in adult miRNA-132/212-/- mice hippocampi. These observations propose miRNAs as age-sensitive bimodal regulators of hippocampal nicotinergic signaling and, given the relevance of the hippocampus for drug-related memory storage, encourage further research on the influence of miRNAs 132 and 212 in nicotine addiction in the young and the adult brain.

Cholinergic blockade of neuroinflammation – from tissue to RNA regulators

Inflammatory stimuli and consequent pro-inflammatory immune responses may facilitate neurodegeneration and threaten survival following pathogen infection or trauma, but potential controllers preventing these risks are incompletely understood. Here, we argue that small RNA regulators of acetylcholine (ACh) signaling, including microRNAs (miRs) and transfer RNA fragments (tRFs) may tilt the balance between innate and adaptive immunity, avoid chronic inflammation and prevent the neuroinflammation-mediated exacerbation of many neurological diseases. While the restrictive permeability of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) protects the brain from peripheral immune events, this barrier can be disrupted by inflammation and is weakened with age. The consequently dysregulated balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory processes may modify the immune activities of brain microglia, astrocytes, perivascular macrophages, oligodendrocytes and dendritic cells, leading to neuronal damage. Notably, the vagus nerve mediates the peripheral cholinergic anti-inflammatory reflex and underlines the consistent control of body–brain inflammation by pro-inflammatory cytokines, which affect cholinergic functions; therefore, the disruption of this reflex can exacerbate cognitive impairments such as attention deficits and delirium. RNA regulators can contribute to re-balancing the cholinergic network and avoiding its chronic deterioration, and their activities may differ between men and women and/or wear off with age. This can lead to hypersensitivity of aged patients to inflammation and higher risks of neuroinflammation-driven cholinergic impairments such as delirium and dementia following COVID-19 infection. The age- and sex-driven differences in post-transcriptional RNA regulators of cholinergic elements may hence indicate new personalized therapeutic options for neuroinflammatory diseases.

Profile of the RNA in exosomes from astrocytes and microglia using deep sequencing: implications for neurodegeneration mechanisms

Glial cells play an important role in signal transduction, energy metabolism, extracellular ion homeostasis and neuroprotection of the central nervous system. However, few studies have explained the potential effects of exosomes from glial cells on central nervous system health and disease. In this study, the genes expressed in exosomes from astrocytes and microglia were identified by deep RNA sequencing. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis indicated that several pathways in these exosomes are responsible for promoting neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. Gene ontology analysis showed that extracellular exosome, mitochondrion and growth factor activity were enriched in exosomes from the unique astrocyte group, while extracellular exosome and mitochondrion were enriched in exosomes from the unique microglia group. Next, combined with the screening of hub genes, the protein-protein interaction network analysis showed that exosomes from astrocytes influence neurodegenerative diseases through metabolic balance and ubiquitin-dependent protein balance, whereas exosomes from microglia influence neurodegenerative diseases through immune inflammation and oxidative stress. Although there were differences in RNA expression between exosomes from astrocytes and microglia, the groups were related by the hub genes, ubiquitin B and heat shock protein family A (Hsp70) member 8. Ubiquitin B appeared to be involved in pleiotropic regulatory functions, including immune regulation, inflammation inhibition, protein catabolism, intracellular protein transport, exosomes and oxidative stress. The results revealed the clinical significance of exosomes from glia in neurodegenerative diseases. This study was approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of Nantong University, China (approval No. S20180102-152) on January 2, 2018.

Regulators of cholinergic signaling in disorders of the central nervous system

Cholinergic signaling is crucial in cognitive processes, and degenerating cholinergic projections are a pathological hallmark in dementia. Use of cholinesterase inhibitors is currently the main treatment option to alleviate symptoms of Alzheimer's disease and has been postulated as a therapeutic strategy in acute brain damage (stroke and traumatic brain injury). However, the benefits of this treatment are still not clear. Importantly, cholinergic receptors are expressed both by neurons and by astrocytes and microglia, and binding of acetylcholine to the α7 nicotinic receptor in glial cells results in anti-inflammatory response. Similarly, the brain fine-tunes the peripheral immune response over the cholinergic anti-inflammatory axis. All of these processes are of importance for the outcome of acute and chronic neurological disease. Here, we summarize the main findings about the role of cholinergic signaling in brain disorders and provide insights into the complexity of molecular regulators of cholinergic responses, such as microRNAs and transfer RNA fragments, both of which may fine-tune the orchestra of cholinergic mRNAs. The available data suggest that these small noncoding RNA regulators may include promising biomarkers for predicting disease course and assessing treatment responses and might also serve as drug targets to attenuate signaling cascades during overwhelming inflammation and to ameliorate regenerative capacities of neuroinflammation.

Cholinergic Modulation of the Immune System in Neuroinflammatory Diseases

Frequent diseases of the CNS, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and psychiatric disorders (e.g., schizophrenia), elicit a neuroinflammatory response that contributes to the neurodegenerative disease process itself. The immune and nervous systems use the same mediators, receptors, and cells to regulate the immune and nervous systems as well as neuro-immune interactions. In various neurodegenerative diseases, peripheral inflammatory mediators and infiltrating immune cells from the periphery cause exacerbation to current injury in the brain. Acetylcholine (ACh) plays a crucial role in the peripheral and central nervous systems, in fact, other than cells of the CNS, the peripheral immune cells also possess a cholinergic system. The findings on peripheral cholinergic signaling, and the activation of the “cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway” mediated by ACh binding to α7 nAChR as one of the possible mechanisms for controlling inflammation, have restarted interest in cholinergic-mediated pathological processes and in the new potential therapeutic target for neuro-inflammatory-degenerative diseases. Herein, we focus on recent progress in the modulatory mechanisms of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway in neuroinflammatory diseases.

The Neat Dance of COVID-19: NEAT1, DANCR, and Co-Modulated Cholinergic RNAs Link to Inflammation

The COVID-19 pandemic exerts inflammation-related parasympathetic complications and post-infection manifestations with major inter-individual variability. To seek the corresponding transcriptomic origins for the impact of COVID-19 infection and its aftermath consequences, we sought the relevance of long and short non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) for susceptibility to COVID-19 infection. We selected inflammation-prone men and women of diverse ages among the cohort of Genome Tissue expression (GTEx) by mining RNA-seq datasets from their lung, and blood tissues, followed by quantitative qRT-PCR, bioinformatics-based network analyses and thorough statistics compared to brain cell culture and infection tests with COVID-19 and H1N1 viruses. In lung tissues from 57 inflammation-prone, but not other GTEx donors, we discovered sharp declines of the lung pathology-associated ncRNA DANCR and the nuclear paraspeckles forming neuroprotective ncRNA NEAT1. Accompanying increases in the acetylcholine-regulating transcripts capable of controlling inflammation co-appeared in SARS-CoV-2 infected but not H1N1 influenza infected lung cells. The lung cells-characteristic DANCR and NEAT1 association with inflammation-controlling transcripts could not be observed in blood cells, weakened with age and presented sex-dependent links in GTEx lung RNA-seq dataset. Supporting active involvement in the inflammatory risks accompanying COVID-19, DANCR's decline associated with decrease of the COVID-19-related cellular transcript ACE2 and with sex-related increases in coding transcripts potentiating acetylcholine signaling. Furthermore, transcription factors (TFs) in lung, brain and cultured infected cells created networks with the candidate transcripts, indicating tissue-specific expression patterns. Supporting links of post-infection inflammatory and cognitive damages with cholinergic mal-functioning, man and woman-originated cultured cholinergic neurons presented differentiation-related increases of DANCR and NEAT1 targeting microRNAs. Briefly, changes in ncRNAs and TFs from inflammation-prone human lung tissues, SARS-CoV-2-infected lung cells and man and woman-derived differentiated cholinergic neurons reflected the inflammatory pathobiology related to COVID-19. By shifting ncRNA differences into comparative diagnostic and therapeutic profiles, our RNA-sequencing based Resource can identify ncRNA regulating candidates for COVID-19 and its associated immediate and predicted long-term inflammation and neurological complications, and sex-related therapeutics thereof. Our findings encourage diagnostics of involved tissue, and further investigation of NEAT1-inducing statins and anti-cholinergic medications in the COVID-19 context.

Strategies for Continued Successful Treatment in Patients with Alzheimer's Disease: An Overview of Switching Between Pharmacological Agents

Introduction:

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia, characterized by a progressive decline in cognition and function. Current treatment options for AD include the cholines-terase inhibitors (ChEIs) donepezil, galantamine, and rivastigmine, as well as the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist memantine. Treatment guidelines recommend the use of ChEIs as the standard of care first-line therapy. Several randomized clinical studies have demonstrated the benefits of ChEIs on cogni-tion, global function, behavior and activities of daily living. However, patients may fail to achieve sus-tained clinical benefits from ChEIs due to lack/loss of efficacy and/or safety, tolerability issues, and poor adherence to the treatment. The purpose of this review is to explore the strategies for continued successful treatment in patients with AD.

Methods:

Literature search was performed for articles published in PubMed and MEDLINE, using pre-specified search terms. Articles were critically evaluated for inclusion based on their titles, abstracts, and full text of the publication.

Results and Conclusion:

The findings of this review indicate that dose up-titration and switching between ChEIs may help to improve response to ChEI treatment and also address issues such as lack/loss of effica-cy or safety/tolerability in patients with AD. However, well-designed studies are needed to provide robust evidence.

Association of status of acetylcholinesterase and ACHE gene 3' UTR variants (rs17228602, rs17228616) with drug addiction vulnerability in pakistani population

Substance addiction is a chronic, relapsing mental disorder Characterized by compulsive drug seeking, and loss of control over drug intake and relapse after prolonged abstinence. Genetics has been shown to contribute towards an individual's vulnerability to addiction. Acetylecholine (ACh), a cholinergic neurotransmitter hydrolyzed by acetylcholinesterase (AChE), is an essential neurotransmitter and neuromodulator in central and peripheral nervous system and has regulatory influence on numerous neuronal functions including addiction. The present study was carried out to investigate the role of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in addiction through measurement of enzyme activity and to find potential association of ACHE gene 3'UTR variants rs17228602 and rs17228616 in heroin, hashish and poly drug addicts. Both SNPs are located within microRNA (miRNA) recognition sites with potential to affect miRNA/transcript interaction. A total of 122 addicts of heroin, hashish and polydrug were recruited from local rehabilitation centers to participate in this study. AChE activity was measured in blood by Ellman's method. SNP genotyping was performed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) and Sanger sequencing. The AChE activity was found significantly higher (p ≤ 0.005) in addicted cohort (mean ± standard error of mean 0.020 ± 0.001 μmol/L/min; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.018-0.022) in comparison to non-addicted healthy subjects (0.011 ± 0.001 μmol/L/min; 95% confidence interval CI 0.010-0.013). A statistically significant association of ACHE rs17228602 SNP with addiction vulnerability in dominant (DM: Odd's ratio OR = 2.095, 95% CI = 1.157-3.807 p = 0.009) and allelic genetic models (OR = 1.854 95% CI = 1.082-3.187, p = 0.016) was observed. However, no statistically significant association of rs17228616 SNP with substance abuse disorder was found. The data presented here shows that AChE could play significant role in substance addiction. Further studies with larger sample size and other variants of AChE are recommended to identify novel therapeutic approaches for cholinergic based treatment of addiction.

Current understanding of fear learning and memory in humans and animal models and the value of a linguistic approach for analyzing fear learning and memory in humans

Fear is an emotion that serves as a driving factor in how organisms move through the world. In this review, we discuss the current understandings of the subjective experience of fear and the related biological processes involved in fear learning and memory. We first provide an overview of fear learning and memory in humans and animal models, encompassing the neurocircuitry and molecular mechanisms, the influence of genetic and environmental factors, and how fear learning paradigms have contributed to treatments for fear-related disorders, such as posttraumatic stress disorder. Current treatments as well as novel strategies, such as targeting the perisynaptic environment and use of virtual reality, are addressed. We review research on the subjective experience of fear and the role of autobiographical memory in fear-related disorders. We also discuss the gaps in our understanding of fear learning and memory, and the degree of consensus in the field. Lastly, the development of linguistic tools for assessments and treatment of fear learning and memory disorders is discussed.

Biochemical Analysis and Association of Butyrylcholinesterase SNPs rs3495 and rs1803274 with Substance Abuse Disorder

Addiction is a complex mental and behavioral disorder that changes the neurochemistry and physiology of the brain. Genetics also plays a significant role in the pathophysiology of addiction. Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), a cholinergic enzyme, has been implicated in the metabolism of various drugs, including cocaine, and an association between single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the butyrylcholinesterase gene (BCHE) and neuronal disorders has been reported. We report here the first investigation to be conducted on the status of BChE activity and the potential association of two BCHE gene SNPs, rs3495 (c.*189G > A) and rs1803274 (c.1699G>A, p.Ala567Thr, K-variant), with addiction vulnerability in heroin, hashish and polydrug users. Seventy-five individuals with an addiction to heroin, hashish and/or polydrug use were recruited to this study. BChE levels in the plasma were determined by Ellman's principle. SNPs were genotyped by standard procedures, followed by Sanger sequencing. Plasma BChE levels were found to be significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) in addicts (mean ± standard error of the mean 0.031 ± 0.004 μmol/L/min; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.024-0.038) than in non-addicts (controls) (0.014 ± 0.001 μmol/L/min; 95% CI 0.012-0.017). Statistical significant differences were also observed between the addicted cohorts. A statistically significant association for both SNPs (rs3495 and rs1803274) was not observed in addicted subjects tested in the dominant, recessive and allele genetic models, but trends of variations of the rs3495 risk G allele were noted. The authors conclude that BChE plays significant roles in addiction pathophysiology as increased BChE activity in blood samples obtained from the cohorts with addiction was evident. Further studies in this direction may provide novel approaches for the treatment of addiction, but studies with a larger sample size and different ethnic groups are warranted for broader conclusions to be drawn.

Computational Studies Applied to Flavonoids against Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's, are understood as occurring through genetic, cellular, and multifactor pathophysiological mechanisms. Several natural products such as flavonoids have been reported in the literature for having the capacity to cross the blood-brain barrier and slow the progression of such diseases. The present article reports on in silico enzymatic target studies and natural products as inhibitors for the treatment of Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. In this study we evaluated 39 flavonoids using prediction of molecular properties and in silico docking studies, while comparing against 7 standard reference compounds: 4 for Parkinson's and 3 for Alzheimer's. Osiris analysis revealed that most of the flavonoids presented no toxicity and good absorption parameters. The Parkinson's docking results using selected flavonoids as compared to the standards with four proteins revealed similar binding energies, indicating that the compounds 8-prenylnaringenin, europinidin, epicatechin gallate, homoeriodictyol, capensinidin, and rosinidin are potential leads with the necessary pharmacological and structural properties to be drug candidates. The Alzheimer's docking results suggested that seven of the 39 flavonoids studied, being those with the best molecular docking results, presenting no toxicity risks, and having good absorption rates (8-prenylnaringenin, europinidin, epicatechin gallate, homoeriodictyol, aspalathin, butin, and norartocarpetin) for the targets analyzed, are the flavonoids which possess the most adequate pharmacological profiles.

Amyloid Beta 1-42 Alters the Expression of miRNAs in Cortical Neurons

Recently, Aβ1-42 was demonstrated to have the potential to translocate into the nucleus and to be involved in the transcriptional regulation of certain neurodegeneration-related genes. This data raises the question of whether Aβ-induced neurodegeneration might include the expression of miRNAs. Thus, our aim in this study was to investigate the effects of Aβ1-42 on certain miRNAs which are related with vitamin D metabolism, neuronal differentiation, development, and memory. This question was investigated in primary cortical neurons that were treated with 10 μM Aβ and/or 10^-8 M 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 at different time points by expression analysis of let-7a-5p, miR-26b-5p, miR-27b-3p, miR-31a-5p, miR-125b-5p, and miR-192-5p with qRT-PCR. Our data indicate that amyloid pathology has effects on the expression of miRNAs. Furthermore, some of these miRNAs simultaneously regulate the proteins or the enzymes involved in neuronal metabolism. The experimental setup that we used and the data we acquired supply valuable information about the miRNAs that play a part in the Aβ pathology and suggested Aβ as a counterpart of vitamin D at the crossroads of neuronal differentiation, development, and memory.

Serum cholinesterase activity is elevated in female diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome patients compared to matched controls

BACKGROUND

Micro-inflammation is involved in the pathogenesis of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). The parasympathetic nervous system, via acetylcholine (ACh), and its hydrolytic enzymes, plays a role in regulating inflammation. Increased serum cholinesterase activity, named cholinergic Status (CS), is associated with decreased inflammatory inhibition (ie, pro-inflammation). We assessed the association between IBS diarrhea-predominant (IBS-D) symptoms, CS, and inflammatory biomarkers.

METHODS

Women with IBS-D were prospectively recruited. Serum acetylcholinesterase (AChE), CS, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) levels were analyzed and fecal calprotectin (FC) in a subgroup of patients. The control group included women attending routine health checkups (matched by age and BMI).

KEY RESULTS

Ninety-four women with IBS-D were compared to matched controls (1:1). Serum CS, AChE, and the AChE/butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) ratios were significantly increased in the IBS-D group compared to matched controls (P = 0.018, P = 0.001, and P = 0.004, respectively). Using a multiple logistic regression model, IBS-D was almost twice as likely in women with high CS compared to women with low CS (adjusted OR=1.84 (95% CI: 1.01-3.33), P = 0.045). Furthermore, IBS-D patients with higher hs-CRP levels demonstrated lower CS and BChE activity and elevated AChE and AChE/BChE ratios compared to patients with lower hs-CRP levels (P = 0.026, P = 0.036, P = 0.002; and P = 0.0007, respectively). CS was not correlated with the IBS symptoms score.

CONCLUSIONS AND INFERENCES

This is the first study to explore the potential role of serum CS in IBS-D. The findings emphasize the possible role of the autonomic nervous system and its anti-inflammatory properties in IBS.

rs61991156 in miR-379 is associated with low capability of glycolysis of gastric cancer by enhanced regulation of PKM2

Background

Glycolysis is an important metabolic oncogenic change also play a pivot role in the Warburg effect. Glycolysis related gene PKM2 expressed differently individually. Presently, we sought to investigate the effect of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) at rs61991156 of miR-379 on gastric cancer (GC) proliferation and metabolism.

Methods

The genotype of rs61991156 in miR-379 was investigated by using real-time PCR. The glycolysis-related metabolites were determined by using GC–TOF–MS. The biological effects of rs61991156 in miR-379 was explored by in vitro studies.

Results

In this study, we found that rs61991156 in miR-379 was involved in the occurrence of GC by acting on the 3′UTR region of PKM2. The clinical data analysis revealed that A > G in rs187960998 was significantly associated with better differentiation, small tumor size, and non-metastasis. In vitro study further revealed that A > G SNP of miR-379 could decrease GC cell proliferation as well as the promoter activity and expression of PKM2. The glycolysis of the patients with miR-379 GG genotype was significantly lower than AG and AA genotype by metabolomics analysis. The patients with AA genotype have significantly lower PKM2 expression compared to the G carrier, while there is no significant expression difference in miR-379 expression. Patients with AA genotype have significantly shorter survival rate compared to the G carrier.

Conclusion

rs61991156 in miR-379 was highly associated with a decreased risk, well differentiation and better post-surgery survival in Chinese population by inhibiting the expression of PKM2.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12935-018-0593-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Preface: Cholinergic Mechanisms

This special issue is a companion to the meeting 'XVth International Symposium on Cholinergic Mechanisms', and is edited by Israel Silman, Marco Prado and Pascale Marchot. In the review articles, renowned researchers in the field capture key mechanisms of cholinergic neurotransmission, from genomic amplification of cholinesterase genes, splicing and post-translational modifications; features of the neuromuscular junction, implications of cholinergic circuitry that are relevant to addiction, anxiety and mood, to preclinical models, protein biomarkers, and clinical findings that are relevant to pathology, for example, developmental neurotoxicity. The broad variety of features reflects the impact of cholinergic mechanisms on many physiological events and emphasizes the importance of research in this area. This is the Preface for the special issue XVth International Symposium on Cholinergic Mechanisms.

The Stress-Responding miR-132-3p Shows Evolutionarily Conserved Pathway Interactions

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA chains that can each interact with the 3′-untranslated region of multiple target transcripts in various organisms, humans included. MiRNAs tune entire biological pathways, spanning stress reactions, by regulating the stability and/or translation of their targets. MiRNA genes are often subject to co-evolutionary changes together with their target transcripts, which may be reflected by differences between paralog mouse and primate miRNA/mRNA pairs. However, whether such evolution occurred in stress-related miRNAs remained largely unknown. Here, we report that the stress-induced evolutionarily conserved miR-132-3p, its target transcripts and its regulated pathways provide an intriguing example to exceptionally robust conservation. Mice and human miR-132-3p share six experimentally validated targets and 18 predicted targets with a common miRNA response element. Enrichment analysis and mining in-house and web-available experimental data identified co-regulation by miR-132 in mice and humans of stress-related, inflammatory, metabolic, and neuronal growth pathways. Our findings demonstrate pan-mammalian preservation of miR-132′s neuronal roles, and call for further exploring the corresponding stress-related implications.