Timing of prenatal exposure to trauma and altered placental expressions of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis genes and genes driving neurodevelopment

Prenatal stress impacts foetal neurodevelopment: Temporal windows of gestational vulnerability

Prenatal maternal stressors ranging in severity from everyday occurrences/hassles to the experience of traumatic events negatively impact neurodevelopment, increasing the risk for the onset of psychopathology in the offspring. Notably, the timing of prenatal stress exposure plays a critical role in determining the nature and severity of subsequent neurodevelopmental outcomes. In this review, we evaluate the empirical evidence regarding temporal windows of heightened vulnerability to prenatal stress with respect to motor, cognitive, language, and behavioural development in both human and animal studies. We also explore potential temporal windows whereby several mechanisms may mediate prenatal stress-induced neurodevelopmental effects, namely, excessive hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity, altered serotonin signalling and sympathetic-adrenal-medullary system, changes in placental function, immune system dysregulation, and alterations of the gut microbiota. While broadly defined developmental windows are apparent for specific psychopathological outcomes, inconsistencies arise when more complex cognitive and behavioural outcomes are considered. Novel approaches to track molecular markers reflective of the underlying aetiologies throughout gestation to identify tractable biomolecular signatures corresponding to critical vulnerability periods are urgently required.

Epigenetic Responses to Nonchemical Stressors: Potential Molecular Links to Perinatal Health Outcomes

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

We summarize the recent literature investigating exposure to four nonchemical stressors (financial stress, racism, psychosocial stress, and trauma) and DNA methylation, miRNA expression, and mRNA expression. We also highlight the relationships between these epigenetic changes and six critical perinatal outcomes (preterm birth, low birth weight, preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, childhood allergic disease, and childhood neurocognition).

RECENT FINDINGS

Multiple studies have found financial stress, psychosocial stress, and trauma to be associated with DNA methylation and/or miRNA and mRNA expression. Fewer studies have investigated the effects of racism. The majority of studies assessed epigenetic or genomic changes in maternal blood, cord blood, or placenta. Several studies included multi-OMIC assessments in which DNA methylation and/or miRNA expression were associated with gene expression. There is strong evidence for the role of epigenetics in driving the health outcomes considered. A total of 22 biomarkers, including numerous HPA axis genes, were identified to be epigenetically altered by both stressors and outcomes. Epigenetic changes related to inflammation, the immune and endocrine systems, and cell growth and survival were highlighted across numerous studies. Maternal exposure to nonchemical stressors is associated with epigenetic and/or genomic changes in a tissue-specific manner among inflammatory, immune, endocrine, and cell growth-related pathways, which may act as mediating pathways to perinatal health outcomes. Future research can test the mediating role of the specific biomarkers identified as linked with both stressors and outcomes. Understanding underlying epigenetic mechanisms altered by nonchemical stressors can provide a better understanding of how chemical and nonchemical exposures interact.

Prenatal Cannabis Use and Offspring Autism-Related Behaviors: Examining Maternal Stress as a Moderator in a Black American Cohort

Prenatal cannabis use and maternal stress have been proposed as risk factors for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Black mothers and mothers of lower socioeconomic status (SES) may be especially likely to experience high levels of stress. This study examined the impact of prenatal cannabis use and maternal stress (i.e., prenatal distress, racial discrimination, and lower SES) on child ASD-related behaviors in a sample of 172 Black mother-child pairs. We found that prenatal stress was significantly associated with ASD-related behaviors. Prenatal cannabis use did not predict ASD-related behaviors and did not interact with maternal stress to predict ASD-related behaviors. These findings replicate previous work on prenatal stress-ASD associations and add to the limited literature on prenatal cannabis-ASD associations in Black samples.

Parental preconception stress in zebrafish induces long-lasting anxiety in offspring

The growth and function of the vertebrate brain are impacted by environmental stimuli and early life stress. Adults who experience chronic stress during early life are more likely to suffer various neurodevelopmental and health issues. However, our understanding of how these specific environmental signals at different developmental stages affect brain development is poorly understood. In this study, we investigated if stress in parents prior to conception modulates neurodevelopment in offspring. We used a chronic unpredictable stress model adapted to zebrafish, which is an increasingly popular vertebrate model in neuroscience research to investigate the effects of both maternal and paternal preconception stress on offspring behavior. We evaluated the responsiveness of three anxiety-related behavioral paradigms in zebrafish: the novel tank test, thigmotaxis, and shoaling behavior. We found larvae from stressed females exhibited anxiety-like behavior in a thigmotaxis assay. As these larvae matured into adults, they continued to exhibit anxiety-like behavior in a novel tank and shoaling behavioral assay. These studies indicate preconception stress exposure in parents can induce life-long alterations in offspring neurodevelopment. Further, these results expand the hypothesis that chronically elevated glucocorticoid signaling not only in stressed mothers, but also stressed dads can affect neurodevelopment in offspring. We propose that zebrafish may be a useful model to study the transgenerational effects of chronic stress mediated via the maternal and paternal line.

Climate change and epigenetic biomarkers in allergic and airway diseases

Human epigenetic variation is associated with both environmental exposures and allergic diseases and can potentially serve as a biomarker connecting climate change with allergy and airway diseases. In this narrative review, we summarize recent human epigenetic studies examining exposure to temperature, precipitation, extreme weather events, and malnutrition to discuss findings as they relate to allergic and airway diseases. Temperature has been the most widely studied exposure, with the studies implicating both short-term and long-term exposures with epigenetic alterations and epigenetic aging. Few studies have examined natural disasters or extreme weather events. The studies available have reported differential DNA methylation of multiple genes and pathways, some of which were previously associated with asthma or allergy. Few studies have integrated climate-related events, epigenetic biomarkers, and allergic disease together. Prospective longitudinal studies are needed along with the collection of target tissues beyond blood samples, such as nasal and skin cells. Finally, global collaboration to increase diverse representation of study participants, particularly those most affected by climate injustice, as well as strengthen replication, validation, and harmonization of measurements will be needed to elucidate the impacts of climate change on the human epigenome.

Genome-wide neonatal epigenetic changes associated with maternal exposure to the COVID-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND

During gestation, stressors to the fetus, including viral exposure or maternal psychological distress, can fundamentally alter the neonatal epigenome, and may be associated with long-term impaired developmental outcomes. The impact of in utero exposure to the COVID-19 pandemic on the newborn epigenome has yet to be described.

METHODS

This study aimed to determine whether there are unique epigenetic signatures in newborns who experienced otherwise healthy pregnancies that occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic (Project RESCUE). The pre-pandemic control and pandemic cohorts (Project RESCUE) included in this study are part of a prospective observational and longitudinal cohort study that evaluates the impact of elevated prenatal maternal stress during the COVID-19 pandemic on early childhood neurodevelopment. Using buccal swabs collected at birth, differential DNA methylation analysis was performed using the Infinium MethylationEPIC arrays and linear regression analysis. Pathway analysis and gene ontology enrichment were performed on resultant gene lists.

RESULTS

Widespread differential methylation was found between neonates exposed in utero to the pandemic and pre-pandemic neonates. In contrast, there were no apparent epigenetic differences associated with maternal COVID-19 infection during pregnancy. Differential methylation was observed among genomic sites that underpin important neurological pathways that have been previously reported in the literature to be differentially methylated because of prenatal stress, such as NR3C1.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study reveals potential associations between exposure to the COVID-19 pandemic during pregnancy and subsequent changes in the newborn epigenome. While this finding warrants further investigation, it is a point that should be considered in any study assessing newborn DNA methylation studies obtained during this period, even in otherwise healthy pregnancies.

Maternal prenatal cortisol and the interaction of income and pre-pregnancy body mass index are independently associated with newborn cortisol

While extensive research has supported the developmental programming hypothesis regarding contributions of prenatal psychosocial or nutritional adversity to offspring stress physiology, fewer studies consider both exposures together with maternal stress physiology. This study examined newborn cortisol output during a stressor as a function of maternal pre-pregnancy health status and nutritional history (pre-pregnancy body mass index [PPBMI]), economic resources (household income), and maternal cortisol awakening response (mCAR) in late pregnancy. Participants were 102 mother-infant pairs from an economically and racial/ethnically diverse sample. Offspring salivary cortisol response to a neurobehavioral exam was assessed at 1 month. Income and maternal PPBMI were positively associated with mCAR in late pregnancy. mCAR was positively related to 1-month newborn cortisol response. The interaction of income and PPBMI was positively associated with newborn cortisol output during an exam at 1-month. Mothers with the highest PPBMI and lowest income had offspring with higher cortisol responses than offspring of mothers with higher income and lower PPBMI. There was no evidence of indirect mediation effects of predictors (PPBMI, income, and interaction) on infant cortisol via mCAR. The differential effects of the interaction of PPBMI and income suggest that these exposures influence infant cortisol output in the context of one another, independent of maternal pregnancy cortisol.

Maternal Distress during Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period: Underlying Mechanisms and Child's Developmental Outcomes-A Narrative Review

Maternal mental health may be considered a determining factor influencing fetal and child development. An essential factor with potentially negative consequences for a child's psychophysiological development is the presence of maternal distress during pregnancy and the postpartum period. The review is organized and presented to explore and describe the effects of anxiety, stress, and depression in pregnancy and the postpartum period on adverse child developmental outcomes. The neurobiology of maternal distress and the transmission mechanisms at the molecular level to the fetus and child are noted. In addition, the paper discusses the findings of longitudinal studies in which early child development is monitored concerning the presence of maternal distress in pregnancy and the postpartum period. This topic gained importance in the COVID-19 pandemic context, during which a higher frequency of maternal psychological disorders was observed. The need for further interdisciplinary research on the relationship between maternal mental health and fetal/child development was highlighted, especially on the biological mechanisms underlying the transmission of maternal distress to the (unborn) child, to achieve positive developmental outcomes and improve maternal and child well-being.

The hidden link between circadian entropy and mental health disorders

The high overlapping nature of various features across multiple mental health disorders suggests the existence of common psychopathology factor(s) (p-factors) that mediate similar phenotypic presentations across distinct but relatable disorders. In this perspective, we argue that circadian rhythm disruption (CRD) is a common underlying p-factor that bridges across mental health disorders within their age and sex contexts. We present and analyze evidence from the literature for the critical roles circadian rhythmicity plays in regulating mental, emotional, and behavioral functions throughout the lifespan. A review of the literature shows that coarse CRD, such as sleep disruption, is prevalent in all mental health disorders at the level of etiological and pathophysiological mechanisms and clinical phenotypical manifestations. Finally, we discuss the subtle interplay of CRD with sex in relation to these disorders across different stages of life. Our perspective highlights the need to shift investigations towards molecular levels, for instance, by using spatiotemporal circadian "omic" studies in animal models to identify the complex and causal relationships between CRD and mental health disorders.

Natural disaster stress during pregnancy is linked to reprogramming of the placenta transcriptome in relation to anxiety and stress hormones in young offspring

Prenatal stress can lead to long-term adverse effects that increase the risk of anxiety and other emotional disorders in offspring. The in utero underpinnings contributing to such phenotypes remain unknown. We profiled the transcriptome of placental specimens from women who lived through Hurricane Sandy during pregnancy compared to those pregnant during non-Sandy conditions. Following birth, longitudinal assessments were conducted in their offspring during childhood (~3-4 years old) to measure steroid hormones (in hair) and behavioral and emotional problems. This revealed a significant link between prenatal Sandy stress (PNSS) and child HPA dysfunction, evident by altered cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and cortisol:DHEA levels. In addition, PNSS was associated with significantly increased anxiety and aggression. These findings coincided with significant reorganization of the placental transcriptome via vascular, immune, and endocrine gene pathways. Interestingly, many of the most prominently altered genes were known to be uniquely expressed in syncytiotrophoblast (STB)-subtype of placental cells and harbored glucocorticoid response elements in promoter regions. Finally, several vascular development- and immune-related placental gene sets were found to mediate the relationship between PNSS and childhood phenotypes. Overall, these findings suggest that natural disaster-related stress during pregnancy reprograms the placental molecular signature, potentially driving long-lasting changes in stress regulation and emotional health. Further examination of placental mechanisms may elucidate the environment's contribution to subsequent risk for anxiety disorders later in life.

Maternal Prenatal Stress, Thyroid Function and Neurodevelopment of the Offspring: A Mini Review of the Literature

Fetal brain is extremely plastic and vulnerable to environmental influences that may have long-term impact on health and development of the offspring. Both the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid (HPT) axes are involved in stress responses, whereas, their final effectors, the Glucocorticoids (GCs) and the Thyroid Hormones (TH s), mediate several fundamental processes involved in neurodevelopment. The effects of these hormones on brain development are found to be time and dose-dependent. Regarding THs, the developing fetus depends on maternal supply of hormones, especially in the first half of pregnancy. It is acknowledged that inadequate or excess concentrations of both GCs and THs can separately cause abnormalities in the neuronal and glial structures and functions, with subsequent detrimental effects on postnatal neurocognitive function. Studies are focused on the direct impact of maternal stress and GC excess on growth and neurodevelopment of the offspring. Of particular interest, as results from recent literature data, is building understanding on how chronic stress and alterations of the HPA axis interacts and influences HPT axis and TH production. Animal studies have shown that increased GC concentrations related to maternal stress, most likely reduce maternal and thus fetal circulating THs, either directly or through modifications in the expression of placental enzymes responsible for regulating hormone levels in fetal microenvironment. The purpose of this review is to provide an update on data regarding maternal stress and its impact on fetal neurodevelopment, giving particular emphasis in the interaction of two axes and the subsequent thyroid dysfunction resulting from such circumstances.

ZNF507 affects TGF-β signaling via TGFBR1 and MAP3K8 activation in the progression of prostate cancer to an aggressive state

Background

The progression of prostate cancer (PC) to the highly aggressive metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) or neuroendocrine prostate cancer (NEPC) is a fatal condition and the underlying molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we identified the novel transcriptional factor ZNF507 as a key mediator in the progression of PC to an aggressive state.

Methods

We analyzed ZNF507 expression in the data from various human PC database and high-grade PC patient samples. By establishment of ZNF507 knockdown and overexpression human PC cell lines, we assessed in vitro PC phenotype changes including cell proliferation, survival, migration and invasion. By performing microarray with ZNF507 knockdown PC cells, we profiled the gene clusters affected by ZNF507 knockdown. Moreover, ZNF507 regulated key signal was evaluated by dual-luciferase reporter and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays. Finally, we performed xenograft and in vivo metastasis assay to confirm the effect of ZNF507 knockdown in PC cells.

Results

We found that ZNF507 expression was increased, particularly in the highly graded PC. ZNF507 was also found to be associated with metastatic PC of a high grade. Loss- or gain-of-function–based analysis revealed that ZNF507 promotes the growth, survival, proliferation, and metastatic properties of PC (e.g., epithelial-mesenchymal transition) by upregulating TGF-β signaling. Profiling of gene clusters affected by ZNF507 knockdown revealed that ZNF507 positively regulated the transcription of TGFBR1, MAP3K8, and FURIN, which in turn promoted the progression of PC to highly metastatic and aggressive state.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that ZNF507 is a novel key regulator of TGF-β signaling in the progression of malignant PC and could be a promising target for studying the development of advanced metastatic PCs.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13046-021-02094-3.

Placental gene network modules are associated with maternal stress during pregnancy and infant temperament

Maternal psychosocial stress during pregnancy (MPSP) is a known contributor to maladaptive neurobehavioral development of the offspring; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms linking MPSP with childhood outcome remain largely unknown. Transcriptome-wide gene expression data were generated using RNA-seq from placenta samples collected in a multi-ethnic urban birth cohort in New York City (n = 129). Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was used to characterize placental co-expression modules, which were then evaluated for their associations with MPSP and infant temperament. WGCNA revealed 16 gene coexpression modules. One module, enriched for regulation of chromosome organization/gene expression, was positively associated with MPSP and negatively associated with Regulatory Capacity (REG), a component of infant temperament. Two other modules, enriched for cotranslational protein targeting and cell cycle regulation, respectively, displayed negative associations with MPSP and positive associations with REG. A module enriched with oxidative phosphorylation/mitochondrial translation was positively associated with REG. These findings support the notion that the placenta provides a functional in utero link between MPSP and infant temperament, possibly through transcriptional regulation of placental gene expression.

Childhood trauma and insulin-like growth factors in amniotic fluid: An exploratory analysis of 79 women

BACKGROUND

Perinatal stress has adverse effects on fetal outcome, yet the effect of early maternal trauma on fetal outcome has scarcely been studied. We investigated effects of maternal childhood trauma and current environment on important regulators of prenatal growth, fetal insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 and IGF-2 in amniotic fluid and assessed the impact of IGFs on newborn anthropometrics.

METHODS

79 pregnant women in their second trimester who underwent amniocentesis (15.9 ± 0.9 weeks of gestational age) and their newborns at birth were analyzed. Maternal childhood trauma was assessed using the childhood trauma questionnaire (CTQ) and current environment was operationalized by assessing maternal psychosocial, physical health and endocrine measurements in amniotic fluid.

RESULTS

In this exploratory analysis of 79 pregnant women, maternal childhood trauma, defined as reporting at least low scores on any of the CTQ subscales, negatively correlated with fetal IGF-1 (M_ln = 3.48 vs. 2.98; p = 0.012) and IGF-2 (Mdn_ln = 4.99 vs. 4.70; p = 0.002). Trauma severity, defined as the overall trauma score, negatively correlated with fetal IGF-2 (r = -0.24; p = 0.037). From trauma subscales, maternal sexual abuse correlated with fetal IGF-1 (r = -0.32; p = 0.006) and IGF-2 (r = -0.39; p = 0.001). Maternal BMI negatively correlated with fetal IGF-1 (r = -0.26; p = 0.023) and IGF-2 (r = -0.29; p = 0.011). Newborn anthropometrics were operationalized by length, weight, sex, gestational age, length/gestational age and weight/gestational age at birth. Fetal weight at birth associated with a trend with fetal IGF-1 when controlling for BMI. Maternal hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and maternal exercise did not contribute significantly to predicting fetal IGFs. Maternal childhood trauma (β = -0.27; p = 0.011) and BMI (β = -0.24; p = 0.026) remained significantly associated with fetal IGF-1. Maternal childhood trauma (β = -0.32; p = 0.003), maternal BMI (β = -0.30; p = 0.005) and maternal sexual abuse (β = -0.22; p = 0.049) remained significantly associated with fetal IGF-2 and with a trend with fetal IGF-1 (β = -0.21; p = 0.076) when excluding women with gestational diabetes.

CONCLUSION

Maternal childhood trauma and BMI associate negatively with fetal IGF-1 and IGF-2 in amniotic fluid. Controlling for maternal BMI, fetal weight at birth remains associated with a trend with fetal IGF-1. The presented data suggests that childhood trauma can affect endocrine measurements of the developing next generation, providing a mechanism by which adverse maternal life events are transmitted to the next generation.

microRNAs and Gene-Environment Interactions in Autism: Effects of Prenatal Maternal Stress and the SERT Gene on Maternal microRNA Expression

Background: Genetics and environment both are critical in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), but their interaction (G × E) is less understood. Numerous studies have shown higher incidence of stress exposures during pregnancies with children later diagnosed with ASD. However, many stress-exposed mothers have unaffected children. The serotonin transporter (SERT) gene affects stress reactivity. Two independent samples have shown that the association between maternal stress exposure and ASD is greatest with maternal presence of the SERT short (S)-allele (deletion in the promoter region). MicroRNAs play a regulatory role in the serotonergic pathway and in prenatal stress and are therefore potential mechanistic targets in this setting. Design/methods: We profiled microRNA expression in blood from mothers of children with ASD, with known stress exposure during pregnancy. Samples were divided into groups based on SERT genotypes (LL/LS/SS) and prenatal stress level (high/low). Results: Two thousand five hundred mature microRNAs were examined. The ANOVA analysis showed differential expression (DE) of 119 microRNAs; 90 were DE in high- vs. low-stress groups (stress-dependent). Two (miR-1224-5p, miR-331-3p) were recently reported by our group to exhibit stress-dependent expression in rodent brain samples from embryos exposed to prenatal stress. Another, miR-145-5p, is associated with maternal stress. Across SERT genotypes, with high stress exposure, 20 significantly DE microRNAs were detected, five were stress-dependent. These microRNAs may be candidates for stress × SERT genotype interactions. This is remarkable as these changes were from mothers several years after stress-exposed pregnancies. Conclusions: Our study provides evidence for epigenetic alterations in relation to a G × E model (prenatal maternal stress × SERT gene) in ASD.

Neurodevelopmental signatures of narcotic and neuropsychiatric risk factors in 3D human-derived forebrain organoids

It is widely accepted that narcotic use during pregnancy and specific environmental factors (e.g., maternal immune activation and chronic stress) may increase risk of neuropsychiatric illness in offspring. However, little progress has been made in defining human-specific in utero neurodevelopmental pathology due to ethical and technical challenges associated with accessing human prenatal brain tissue. Here we utilized human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) to generate reproducible organoids that recapitulate dorsal forebrain development including early corticogenesis. We systemically exposed organoid samples to chemically defined "enviromimetic" compounds to examine the developmental effects of various narcotic and neuropsychiatric-related risk factors within tissue of human origin. In tandem experiments conducted in parallel, we modeled exposure to opiates (μ-opioid agonist endomorphin), cannabinoids (WIN 55,212-2), alcohol (ethanol), smoking (nicotine), chronic stress (human cortisol), and maternal immune activation (human Interleukin-17a; IL17a). Human-derived dorsal forebrain organoids were consequently analyzed via an array of unbiased and high-throughput analytical approaches, including state-of-the-art TMT-16plex liquid chromatography/mass-spectrometry (LC/MS) proteomics, hybrid MS metabolomics, and flow cytometry panels to determine cell-cycle dynamics and rates of cell death. This pipeline subsequently revealed both common and unique proteome, reactome, and metabolome alterations as a consequence of enviromimetic modeling of narcotic use and neuropsychiatric-related risk factors in tissue of human origin. However, of our 6 treatment groups, human-derived organoids treated with the cannabinoid agonist WIN 55,212-2 exhibited the least convergence of all groups. Single-cell analysis revealed that WIN 55,212-2 increased DNA fragmentation, an indicator of apoptosis, in human-derived dorsal forebrain organoids. We subsequently confirmed induction of DNA damage and apoptosis by WIN 55,212-2 within 3D human-derived dorsal forebrain organoids. Lastly, in a BrdU pulse-chase neocortical neurogenesis paradigm, we identified that WIN 55,212-2 was the only enviromimetic treatment to disrupt newborn neuron numbers within human-derived dorsal forebrain organoids. Cumulatively this study serves as both a resource and foundation from which human 3D biologics can be used to resolve the non-genomic effects of neuropsychiatric risk factors under controlled laboratory conditions. While synthetic cannabinoids can differ from naturally occurring compounds in their effects, our data nonetheless suggests that exposure to WIN 55,212-2 elicits neurotoxicity within human-derived developing forebrain tissue. These human-derived data therefore support the long-standing belief that maternal use of cannabinoids may require caution so to avoid any potential neurodevelopmental effects upon developing offspring in utero.

Ethanol affects behavior and HPA axis activity during development in zebrafish larvae

Recent studies have shown that long-term alcohol intake from food can lead to numerous mental disorders in humans, and the social and health effects of excessive intake of alcohol currently represent serious problems for governments and families worldwide. However, to date, it has not been determined how alcohol affects the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The zebrafish offers a good model for studying the toxicology of food-grade ethanol. In the present study, using zebrafish larvae exposed to 1% ethanol, we performed zebrafish behavioral analysis. Samples were collected for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative real time-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) experiments, and statistical analysis was performed. We found that ethanol decreased the locomotor activity of zebrafish larvae, which showed a more intense reaction to external stimuli. Ethanol also increased the level of HPA axis hormones in zebrafish larvae, influenced the level of neurotransmitters, and altered the expression of key genes in neurotransmitter metabolism. Ethanol exposure affects zebrafish behavior, increases the level of HPA axis hormones in zebrafish larvae, affects the level of neurotransmitters, and affects the expression of key genes in dopamine and serotonin metabolism. These findings may help to elucidate the effects of ethanol on HPA axis activity.

RNASeq analysis reveals upregulation of complement C3 in the offspring gut following prenatal stress in mice

Dysregulated activation of inflammatory signaling by the immature neonatal immune system could lead to the development of many pediatric diseases including necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). While the mechanism(s) of pathogenesis is unknown, NEC is believed to have multifactorial causes. Microbial dysbiosis and intestinal immaturity have been implicated as potential triggers for this disease. We hypothesized that psychological stress during pregnancy negatively impacts the development of intestinal tissues in offspring and contributes to development of NEC. Consistent with this hypothesis, we previously observed shorter villi and a decrease in total surface area in the small intestine of pups derived from mice that were chronically stressed during gestation. In this study, we performed RNASeq analysis to determine the gene expression changes in the offspring gut following prenatal stress in pregnant mice and identified several differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and biological pathways. Notably, C3 was upregulated in the small intestine and contributed to a higher tissue injury score in a mesenteric ischemia model compared to unstressed controls. We discuss the potential implications of these stress-induced genes expression changes and their contribution to development of intestinal inflammation.

Placental Gene Expression and Offspring Temperament Trajectories: Predicting Negative Affect in Early Childhood

Exposure to prenatal stress increases offspring risk for long-term neurobehavioral impairments and psychopathology, such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Epigenetic regulation of glucocorticoid pathway genes may be a potential underlying mechanism by which maternal conditions 'program' the fetal brain for downstream vulnerabilities. The present study aims to investigate whether mRNA expression of glucocorticoid pathway genes in the placenta predict offspring negative affect during early childhood (between 6 and 24 months). Participants include 318 mother-child dyads participating in a longitudinal birth cohort study. Placental mRNA expression of glucocorticoid pathway genes (HSD11B1, HSD11B2, NR3C1, NCOR2) were profiled and negative affect traits of the offspring were measured at 6, 12, 18, and 24 months. HSD11B1 mRNA expression significantly predicted negative affect (β = -.09, SE = .04; p = .036), and Distress to Limitations trajectories (β = -.13, SE = .06; p = .016). NCOR2 mRNA expression significantly predicted Distress to Limitations (β = .43, SE = .21; p = .047), and marginally predicted Sadness trajectories (β = .39, SE = .21; p = .068). HSD11B2 and NR3C1 did not predict trajectories of Negative Affect or subscale scores. Infant negative affect traits were assessed via maternal self-report, and deviated from linearity across follow-up. mRNA expression of glucocorticoid pathway genes in the placenta may be a potentially novel tool for early identification of infants at greater risk for elevated negative affect. Further study is needed to validate the utility of mRNA expression of glucocorticoid pathway genes in the placenta.

Maternal exposure to violence and offspring neurodevelopment: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Stress during pregnancy is known to affect fetal neurodevelopment. It seems likely therefore that intimate partner violence (IPV) and domestic violence (DV) as extreme stressors will have a similarly adverse effect.

OBJECTIVES

A systematic review was conducted to assess the association between prenatal exposure to violence for mothers and developmental difficulties in their children.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed, PsycInfo, CINAHL, ERIC, Science Direct, SCOPUS, PsyARTICLES, Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations, Women's Studies International and Gender Studies Database were all searched using the agreed search terms.

STUDY SELECTION AND DATA EXTRACTION

We include studies of women who have experienced any violence, fear of violence or aggression while pregnant, including emotional, psychological, physical or sexual violence in the context of IPV or DV. Studies were excluded if the neurodevelopmental outcomes of the offspring were not assessed. Studies from all countries were included, in English or translated to English, and search dates were not restricted. We included all years from inception of the database until the search date.

SYNTHESIS

Study design and biases, assessment tools, management of confounding, results and overall quality were assessed.

RESULTS

We identified 11 papers reporting on observational studies. Almost three quarters of the studies found a relationship between prenatal exposure to violence and developmental difficulties in the offspring. Differing assessment tools were used with a range of data collected and not all adjusted their findings for the same confounders.

CONCLUSIONS

Current evidence on the relationship between prenatal violence exposure, as IPV or DV, and consequent child developmental disorders remains limited. Future research using comprehensive study designs, larger samples and longitudinal follow-up of the offspring could clarify this association. While maternal trauma resulting from exposure to violence may play an important role in childhood development disorders, additional intervening factors on the pathway need further explored.

Moderate prenatal stress may buffer the impact of Superstorm Sandy on placental genes: Stress in Pregnancy (SIP) Study

The placenta plays a central role in the epigenetic programming of neurodevelopment by prenatal stress (PS), but this pathway is not fully understood. It difficult to study in humans because the conditions for intense, traumatic PS are almost impossible to create ethically. This study was able to capitalize on a 2012 disaster that hit New York, Superstorm Sandy, to examine the impact of traumatic stress on placental gene expression while also examining normative PS, and compare the two. Of the 303 expectant mothers participating in the Stress in Pregnancy Study, 95 women were pregnant when Superstorm Sandy struck. During their pregnancy, participants completed self-report measures of PS and distress that were combined, using latent profile analysis, into one global indicator of normative PS. Placental tissue was collected at delivery and frozen for storage. RNA expression was assessed for 40 placental genes known to associate with the stress response system and neurodevelopment in offspring. Results showed that normative PS increased expression of just MECP2, HSD11B2, and ZNF507, whereas Superstorm Sandy PS decreased expression of CDKL5, CFL1, DYRK1A, HSD11B2, MAOA, MAOB, NCOR1, and ZNF507. Interaction analyses indicated that Superstorm Sandy PS was associated with decreased gene expression for the low and high PS group for CFL1, DYRK1A, HSD11B2, MAOA, and NCOR1 and increased expression for the moderate PS group for FOXP1, NR3C1, and NR3C2. This study supports the idea that a moderate amount of normative PS may buffer the impact of traumatic PS, in this case caused by Superstorm Sandy, on placental gene expression, which suggests that the placenta itself mirrors the organism's ability to develop an epigenetic resilience to, and inoculation from, stress.

Impact on pregnancy outcomes of exposure to military stress during the first or second trimester as compared with the third trimester

OBJECTIVE

To compare pregnancy outcomes after exposure to military stress in different trimesters of pregnancy.

METHODS

A retrospective study of medical records of deliveries in the Wolfson (WMC) and Barzilai (BMC) medical centers in Israel between July 2014 and April 2015. All parturients were exposed to military stress for 51 days during pregnancy. Pregnancy outcomes were compared between those exposed to military stress in the first or second trimester, and those exposed in the third trimester. Outcomes were also compared between WMC (a new-onset military stress exposure area) and BMC (a chronic military stress exposure area).

RESULTS

At WMC, women exposed in the first or second trimester (n=2657) had a higher rate of preterm delivery (<37 weeks) as compared with those exposed in the third trimester (n=2037; 214 [8.1%] vs 121 [5.9%]; P=0.005). At BMC, women exposed in the first or second trimester (n=2208) had a tendency toward lower rates of diabetes mellitus (P=0.055) and macrosomia [103 (4.7%) vs 84 (6.3%); P=0.037], as compared with those exposed in the third trimester (n=1337).

CONCLUSION

Exposure to military stress during pregnancy had different impacts on pregnancy outcomes, depending on the time of exposure and whether continuous exposure to stress occurred.

The children of Superstorm Sandy: Maternal prenatal depression blunts offspring electrodermal activity

We set out to examine the relations between prenatal exposure to the natural disaster Superstorm Sandy, maternal depression, and offspring electrodermal activity (EDA). EDA was measured via skin conductance response (SCR) magnitude in 198 children (M = 42.54 months, SD = 12.76) during a startle paradigm. In keeping with prior research, we expected prenatal depression to be associated with hyporeactive EDA and prenatal stress to be associated with hyperreactive EDA. SCR magnitude was lower in children prenatally exposed to depression alone, when compared to Superstorm Sandy, and controls. SCR magnitude of children prenatally exposed to both maternal depression and the storm was lower than that of all other groups. Our results emphasize the influence of maternal prenatal mental health, support targeted risk assessment for children who experienced an adverse prenatal environment, and highlight the need for a deeper understanding of the interactions between maternal mood and stress on the developing child.

Placental imprinted gene expression mediates the effects of maternal psychosocial stress during pregnancy on fetal growth

Imprinted genes uniquely drive and support fetoplacental growth by controlling the allocation of maternal resources to the fetus and affecting the newborn's growth. We previously showed that alterations of the placental imprinted gene expression are associated with suboptimal perinatal growth and respond to environmental stimuli including socio-economic determinants. At the same time, maternal psychosocial stress during pregnancy (MPSP) has been shown to affect fetal growth. Here, we set out to test the hypothesis that placental imprinted gene expression mediates the effects of MPSP on fetal growth in a well-characterized birth cohort, the Stress in Pregnancy (SIP) Study. We observed that mothers experiencing high MPSP deliver infants with lower birthweight (P=0.047). Among the 109 imprinted genes tested, we detected panels of placental imprinted gene expression of 23 imprinted genes associated with MPSP and 26 with birthweight. Among these genes, five imprinted genes (CPXM2, glucosidase alpha acid (GAA), GPR1, SH3 and multiple ankyrin repeat domains 2 (SHANK2) and THSD7A) were common to the two panels. In multivariate analyses, controlling for maternal age and education and gestational age at birth and infant gender, two genes, GAA and SHANK2, each showed a 22% mediation of MPSP on fetal growth. These data provide new insights into the role that imprinted genes play in translating the maternal stress message into a fetoplacental growth pattern.