Adolescent personality: associations with Basal, awakening, and stress-induced cortisol responses

Association between workaholism, vital exhaustion, and hair cortisol concentrations among teachers: A longitudinal study testing the moderation effect of neuroticism

Introduction

Workaholism in teachers is characterized by the willingness to work until exhausted and may be associated with various adverse health outcomes as well as high economic costs. The present study examines the association between workaholism, vital exhaustion (VE), and hair cortisol concentration (HCC) as indicators of chronic stress. In addition, this study explores the moderating role of the personality trait neuroticism on the relationship between workaholism and chronic stress indicators, i.e., VE and HCC.

Methods

Forty-two Swiss teachers (28 females; M _age = 39.66, SD = 11.99) completed questionnaires assessing VE (Maastricht Vital Exhaustion Questionnaire), workaholism (Measure of Coping Capacity Questionnaire), and neuroticism (Big-Five Inventory). Together with VE, HCC was assessed twice, with a one year lag.

Results

Both workaholism and neuroticism were positively associated with VE at both time points but not with HCC. Moderation analyses revealed a positive relationship between workaholism and VE in teachers with high neuroticism, while no such association was observed in teachers with low neuroticism. No associations were found between self-reports and HCC.

Discussion

These findings emphasize the importance of considering individual characteristics when investigating VE. Further research is necessary to investigate the applicability of HCC as a biomarker of chronic stress in the context of work.

The relationship between cortisol awakening response and trait resilience in two patient cohorts and one population-based cohort

OBJECTIVES

We examined (1) the proportion of cortisol awakening non-responders, (2) the association between cortisol awakening response (CAR) and trait resilience, and (3) the association between CAR increase and trait resilience in two patient cohorts (depression and myocardial infarction [CVD]) and one population-based cohort.

METHODS

Eight hundred and eighty study participants delivered CAR scores (response and increase) based on three self-collected saliva samples and a trait resilience score. Descriptive data of CAR non-responders were reported and calculated. Associations between CAR response/increase and trait resilience, sociodemographic and compliance variables were evaluated using multiple logistic and multiple linear regression analyses stratified by cohort.

RESULTS

The proportion of CAR non-responders was high in all cohorts (57% depression cohort, 53.4% CVD cohort, 51.6% control cohort). In the depression cohort age was associated with CAR response and increase. In the CVD cohort salivary collection on a weekday was associated with CAR response and awakening time with CAR increase. In the control cohort age was associated with CAR response and sex with CAR increase.

CONCLUSIONS

We observed many CAR non-responders and significant associations between CAR response and CAR increase with single sociodemographic and compliance variables. We did not find significant relationships between CAR response or increase and trait resilience.

The relationship between sex, personality traits, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis

The aim of our study was to examine whether there are sex-based differences in the relationship between personality traits and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis measures. A total of 106 healthy volunteers (56.6% women; age: 48.0 ± 15.8 years) were studied. The revised temperament and character inventory (TCI-R) and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) were administered. HPA axis function was assessed using three dynamic measures: the cortisol awakening response (CAR), the diurnal cortisol slope, and the cortisol suppression ratio with 0.25 mg of dexamethasone (DSTR). Female sex was associated with an increased CAR and a more flattened diurnal cortisol slope, although a negative significant interaction between harm avoidance and female sex was found. Regarding the DSTR, perseverance was associated with increased cortisol suppression after dexamethasone; sex did not affect this association. Our study suggests that the relationship between specific personality traits (harm avoidance) and HPA axis measures (CAR, diurnal slope) differs according to sex.

The Stressful Personality: A Meta-Analytical Review of the Relation Between Personality and Stress

The current study presented the first meta-analytic review on the associations between the Big Five personality traits and stress measured under different conceptualizations (stressor exposure, psychological and physiological stress responses) using a total of 1,575 effect sizes drawn from 298 samples. Overall, neuroticism was found to be positively related to stress, whereas extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness were negatively linked to stress. When stress assessed under different conceptualizations was tested, only neuroticism, agreeableness, and conscientiousness were related to stressor exposure. All of the Big Five personality traits were significantly associated with psychological stress perception, whereas the five personality traits showed weak to null associations with physiological stress response. Further moderation analyses suggested that the associations between personality traits and stress under different conceptualizations were also contingent upon different characteristics of stress, sample, study design, and measures. The results supported the important role of personality traits in individual differences in stress.

Pre-pandemic Psychobiological Features Predict Impact of COVID-19 Confinement on Loneliness

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic led to various government-imposed limitations on social interaction and strict home confinement. Such involuntary social-distancing policies can exacerbate feelings of loneliness and alter emotional well-being. Dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis is a potential mechanism for loneliness' deleterious health effects. In this study, we explored whether pre-pandemic diurnal cortisol output (AUC G ), a measure of HPA axis function, may predict the propensity to changes in loneliness during long-term COVID-19 home confinement and if extraversion would moderate this relationship. This association has been explored by analysing the impact of COVID-19 pandemic and strict home confinement on social and emotional loneliness in 45 Spanish young adults. Diurnal cortisol levels were measured from five saliva samples obtained across a day just before the pandemic, and data about participants' perceived loneliness, empathic state, extraversion, and prospective volunteering were obtained both before and during the confinement. Participants' social and family loneliness increased during long-term strict home confinement, while prospective volunteering tendencies and extraversion decreased. Importantly, after adjusting for relevant confounders, moderation analyses revealed that in young adults with high pre-pandemic extraversion, a higher AUC G predicted a larger increase in social loneliness during confinement, while in individuals with low extraversion, AUC G was negatively related to change in loneliness. Our findings highlight the utility of pre-pandemic diurnal cortisol output in predicting the social impact of COVID-19 home confinement, presenting this hormone as a potential biomarker for a priori identification of at-risk groups during public health crises.

Big five traits and interpersonal goals during stressors as predictors of hair cortisol

Background

Hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) provide a biomarker for stress adaptation, which has downstream health consequences. Personality traits (e.g., neuroticism) and social processes (e.g., chronic interpersonal goals) may confer risk or buffer against dysregulated cortisol secretion. However, few studies have examined personality or interpersonal factors predicting hair cortisol, which estimates longer-term secretion and therefore provides a potential biomarker for studying trait-like psychological processes. The present study investigated effects of personality traits and daily interpersonal goals during stressors on HCC.

Method

Participants (N = 90) reported Big Five traits at baseline, recorded interpersonal (self-image and compassionate) goals pursued during their worst psychosocial stressors for 4–5 weeks (1,949 entries), then provided a hair sample to estimate cortisol secretion over the past two months.

Results

As hypothesized, neuroticism predicted higher HCC, beyond other Big Five traits (b = 7.45, SE = 3.36, p = .029). Moreover, this effect was greater for those chronically striving to promote/protect one’s self-image during psychosocial stressors (b = 14.53, SE = 4.72, p = .003), and for those low in conscientiousness (b = 14.84, SE = 4.83, p = .003). Moderate extraversion was associated with higher HCC. Striving to support others (compassionate goals) exerted no direct or interactive effect on HCC, contrary to hypotheses.

Conclusions

Results support the relevance of neuroticism and maladaptive interpersonal strivings to longer-term neuroendocrine responses, suggesting hair cortisol as a potential method for studying links of trait-like psychological and HPA processes.

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Trait neuroticism uniquely predicted higher hair cortisol concentration.

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Interpersonal goals during chronic social stressors amplified effects of neuroticism.

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Trait conscientiousness blunted the effect of neuroticism on hair cortisol.

Associations between Personality Traits and Basal Cortisol Responses in Sailing Athletes

There is a paucity of literature regarding the psycho-physiological profiles of sailors on board. This study aimed at providing empirical evidence on the individual differences between bowmen and helmsmen taking into account a biopsychological perspective. To this purpose, sailors' profiles were examined by focusing on the association between personality traits and basal cortisol. The sample was composed of 104 athletes (M_age = 21.32, SD = 0.098; F = 35%), who fulfilled a self-reported questionnaire including a socio-demographic section and the Big Five questionnaire. Cortisol samples were collected on the day before the competition, within 30 min after awakening. T-test analysis showed significant differences on cortisol levels: bowmen obtained higher levels on cortisol responses compared to helmsmen. No differences emerged on personality traits between athletes' roles. Bivariate associations showed positive associations of cortisol responses with extraversion and conscientiousness in bowmen, whereas no significant associations of cortisol with personality traits were found in helmsmen. Regression analyses confirmed that sex and extraversion predicted higher level of cortisol responses. Results were discussed in terms of a bio-psychosocial theoretical approach and provided findings on the relationships between personality trait and the hypothalamus-pituitary adrenal (HPA) system in dinghy sailors. Suggestions for a more suitable selection of sailor roles were given to coaches in order to improve athletes' performance.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Activity in Childhood Predicts Emotional Memory Effects and Related Neural Circuitry in Adolescent Girls

Negative emotional experiences can be more difficult to forget than neutral ones, a phenomenon termed the "emotional memory effect." Individual differences in the strength of the emotional memory effect are associated with emotional health. Thus, understanding the neurobiological underpinnings of the emotional memory effect has important implications, especially for individuals at risk for emotional health problems. Although the neural basis of emotional memory effects has been relatively well defined, less is known about how hormonal factors that can modulate emotional memory, such as glucocorticoids, relate to that neural basis. Importantly, probing the role of glucocorticoids in the stress- and emotion-sensitive period of late childhood to adolescence could provide actionable points of intervention. We addressed this gap by testing whether hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity during a parent-child conflict task at 11 years of age predicted emotional memory and its primary neural circuitry (i.e., amygdala-hippocampus functional connectivity) at 16 years of age in a longitudinal study of 147 girls (104 with complete data). Results showed that lower HPA axis activity predicted stronger emotional memory effects, r(124) = -.236, p < .01, and higher emotional memory-related functional connectivity between the right hippocampus and the right amygdala, β = -.385, p < .001. These findings suggest that late childhood HPA axis activity may modulate the neural circuitry of emotional memory effects in adolescence, which may confer a potential risk trajectory for emotional health among girls.

The Psycho-Physiological Profile of Adolescent Elite Sailors: Testing a Three-Way Moderation Model

The present study aimed at extending the work on individual differences, in the relationship between personality traits and the cortisol response, by examining the interaction effects of sex and the role category of Italian adolescent elite dinghy sailors. Seventy athletes completed a self-reported questionnaire including socio-demographic data, information about the role played on board (helmsmen or bowmen) and the Big Five Questionnaire-2. Salivary cortisol samples were collected at 30 min after awakening the day before competitions. Main findings from bivariate correlations showed positive associations among cortisol levels, extraversion and consciousness in both male and female bowmen groups. The moderation and moderated moderation analyses further indicated (1) a three-way interaction effect in the relationship between extraversion and salivary cortisol, (2) a marginal significant three-way interaction effect in the relationship between neuroticism and salivary cortisol, and (3) no other personality dimensions were significantly predictive of the outcome variable. Our results provided evidence not only about sex differences, but also about the role played on board by the sailors in the linkages between personality traits and the biomarker of the trait component of HPA axis functioning.

Stressor-Cortisol Concordance Among Individuals at Clinical High-Risk for Psychosis: Novel Findings from the NAPLS Cohort

Whilst elevations in basal cortisol levels have been reported among individuals at-risk for psychosis, the extent to which this represents hyperresponsivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis to psychosocial stressors encountered in the natural environment is currently unclear. We aimed to examine stressor-cortisol concordance among youth at clinical high-risk (CHR) for psychosis in the North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study 2 (NAPLS 2) and the relationship with clinical outcome. At baseline, CHR (N = 457) and healthy (N = 205) individuals provided salivary cortisol samples and completed daily stressor, life event, and childhood trauma measures. CHR youth were categorised as remitted, symptomatic, progression of positive symptoms, or psychosis conversion at the two-year follow-up. Within-group regression models tested associations between psychosocial stressors and cortisol; standardised beta coefficients (Stβ) were subsequently derived to enable within-group pooling of effect sizes across stressor types. After adjustment for potential confounders, all CHR subgroups reported greater exposure to life events and daily stressors, and more distress in relation to these events, relative to controls. All CHR groups were also more likely to experience childhood trauma; only CHR converters, however, were characterised by elevated basal cortisol. Daily stressor distress was significantly associated with cortisol in controls (β = 0.60, 95% CI: 0.12-1.08) and CHR youth who converted to psychosis (β = 0.91, 95% CI: 0.05-1.78). In controls only, life event exposure was associated with cortisol (β = 0.45, 95% CI: 0.08-0.83). When pooled across stressors, stressor-cortisol concordance was substantially higher among CHR converters (Stβ = 0.26, 95% CI: 0.07 to 0.44) relative to CHR progressed (Stβ = 0.02, 95% CI: -0.11 to 0.15), symptomatic (Stβ = 0.01, 95% CI: -0.11 to 0.12), and remitted groups (Stβ = 0.00, 95% CI: -0.13 to 0.13); however, unexpectedly, healthy controls showed intermediate levels of concordance (Stβ = 0.15, 95% CI: 0.05 to 0.26). In conclusion, whilst all CHR subgroups showed increased psychosocial stress exposure and distress relative to controls, only those who later converted to psychosis were characterised by significantly elevated basal cortisol levels. Moreover, only CHR converters showed a higher magnitude of stressor-cortisol concordance compared to controls, although confidence intervals overlapped considerably between these two groups. These findings do not support the notion that all individuals at CHR for psychosis show HPA hyperresponsiveness to psychosocial stressors. Instead, CHR individuals vary in their response to stressor exposure/distress, perhaps driven by genetic or other vulnerability factors.

Social-evaluative threat: Stress response stages and influences of biological sex and neuroticism

Social-evaluative threat (SET) - when the self could be negatively judged by others - can cause pronounced responses in the different stress systems: threat/challenge appraisal, the sympathetic (SNS) and parasympathetic (PNS) nervous systems, experienced motivation and affect, and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Here, we utilize a four-stage stress response model to shed light on the complex associations between different stress responses, where earlier stages are hypothesized to predict later stages. Additionally, we take into account important moderators, such as biological sex (controlling for menstrual cycle phase), personality traits (neuroticism and extraversion), and baseline stress levels. Thirty-seven men and 30 women in their luteal phase participated in an impromptu public speaking task to induce SET. Stress responses in four different stages were measured using: self-reported appraisal (threat or challenge, stage 1: S1), cardiovascular measures (pre-ejection period as SNS index, respiratory sinus arrhythmia as PNS index, S2), self-reported motivation and affect (state approach motivation, state anxiety, S3) and endocrine measures (cortisol as HPA index, S4). Stress reactivity was calculated by subtracting individual peaks from baseline. Results showed that SET induced pronounced stress reactivity in stages two to four. Against expectations, self-reported appraisal (S1) or motivation and affect (S3) did not predict later stress reactivity. As hypothesized, increased SNS (but not PNS) reactivity (S2) predicted increased HPA reactivity (S4). Bayesian model comparison confirmed the absence of sex differences in stress reactivity, likely due to controlling for menstrual cycle phase and sex differences in neuroticism levels. Higher trait neuroticism predicted blunted SNS (S2) and HPA (S4) reactivity, while higher baseline stress levels predicted blunted stages two and three reactivity overall. In conclusion, this rigorously controlled experiment partly supports and partly contradicts previous findings regarding associations between stress response stages, and offers new insight into the causes of blunted HPA responses in women.

Relationship between Personality and Biological Reactivity to Stress: A Review

Objective Personality traits can be the basis for individual differences in the biological response of stress. To date, many psychobiological studies have been conducted to clarify the relationship between personality and biological reactivity to stress. This review summarizes the most important findings in this area of research. Results Key findings related to the relationship between personality factors and stress-sensitive biological systems in four research models have been summarized; model of psychosocial characteristics, model based on Rumination and Emotional Inhibition, Eysenck's biopsychological model, and Five-Factor Approach of Personality. Conclusion According to the results of this review, it can be concluded that personality typology of individuals influenced their biological reactivity to stressful events. Understanding the biological basis of personality can help to better understand vulnerability to stress. Future research can be continuing based on framework of the four models.

Common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) personality, subjective well-being, hair cortisol level and AVPR1a, OPRM1, and DAT genotypes

We studied personality, subjective well-being, and hair cortisol level, in common marmosets Callithrix jacchus, a small, cooperatively breeding New World monkey, by examining their associations with one another and genotypes. Subjects were 68 males and 9 females that lived in the RIKEN Center for Life Science Technologies. Personality and subjective well-being were assessed by keeper ratings on two questionnaires, hair samples were obtained to assay cortisol level and buccal swabs were used to assess AVPR1a, OPRM1 and DAT genotypes. Three personality domains-Dominance, Sociability, and Neuroticism-were identified. Consistent with findings in other species, Sociability and Neuroticism were related to higher and lower subjective well-being, respectively. Sociability was also associated with higher hair cortisol levels. The personality domains and hair cortisol levels were heritable and associated with genotypes: the short form of AVPR1a was associated with lower Neuroticism and the AA genotype of the A111T SNP of OPRM1 was related to lower Dominance, lower Neuroticism, and higher hair cortisol level. Some genetic associations were not in directions that one would expect given findings in other species. These findings provide insights into the proximate and ultimate bases of personality in common marmosets, other primates and humans.

The association of omega-3 fatty acid levels with personality and cognitive reactivity

OBJECTIVE

Low omega (n)-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) levels have been found in patients with various major psychiatric disorders. This study aims to identify whether psychological vulnerabilities (personality and cognitive reactivity) underlying these psychiatric conditions are also associated with n-3 PUFA blood levels.

METHODS

Data was used from 2912 subjects (mean age 41.9 years, 66.4% female) from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety (NESDA). Five personality dimensions (NEO Five Factor Inventory) and cognitive reactivity measures (Leiden Index of Depression Sensitivity-Revised and Anxiety Sensitivity Index) were assessed. Plasma n-3 PUFA and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels (as ratios against total fatty acids; mmol%) were assessed using a nuclear magnetic resonance platform.

RESULTS

Low n-3 PUFA and DHA levels were associated with high neuroticism (Standardized beta (Beta) = -0.045, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = -0.079 to -0.010, p = 0.011; Beta = -0.058, 95%CI = -0.093 to -0.022, p = 0.001), low extraversion (Beta = 0.065, 95%CI = 0.031 to 0.099, p < 0.001; Beta = 0.074, 95%CI = 0.039 to 0.109, p < 0.001) and low conscientiousness (Beta = 0.060, 95%CI = 0.027 to 0.093, p < 0.001; Beta = 0.074, 95%CI = 0.039 to 0.108, p < 0.001). Low n-3 PUFA and DHA levels were related to high hopelessness/suicidality (Beta = -0.059, 95%CI = -0.096 to -0.023, p = 0.001; Beta = -0.078, 95%CI = -0.116 to -0.041, p < 0.001), but not with other cognitive reactivity measures. Directions of associations were generally consistent in subjects with and without a current depressive disorder.

CONCLUSION

Low n-3 PUFA and DHA levels are associated with personality (high neuroticism, low extraversion and low conscientiousness) and cognitive reactivity (high hopelessness/suicidality). Effect sizes were rather small, but in line with previous research on personality and chronic diseases. Future research should examine which lifestyle and/or biological pathways underlie these associations.

Conscientiousness, hair cortisol concentration, and health behaviour in older men and women

Conscientious is associated with greater longevity and other favourable health outcomes, but the processes underlying these links are poorly understood. Health behaviours such as physical activity and avoidance of smoking and excessive alcohol consumption may contribute, but direct associations with neuroendocrine and inflammatory processes may also be relevant. We tested the associations between conscientiousness and hair cortisol concentration in 2318 older men and women (mean age 66.2 years) from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Conscientiousness was positively associated with physical activity and fruit and vegetable consumption, and negatively related to alcohol intake, sedentary behaviour, body mass index and depressive symptoms (all p<0.001). We found an inverse association between conscientiousness and hair cortisol concentration that was independent of age, sex, education and wealth (β=-0.053, p=0.012), and the relationship remained significant with additional adjustment for health behaviour and depressive symptoms (β=-0.048, p=0.025). The observation that greater conscientiousness was correlated with lower hair cortisol indicates that this trait might impact central nervous regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical function, with effects that are possibly advantageous for health.

Adversity-driven changes in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning during adolescence. The trails study

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis has been proposed to be a key mechanism underlying the link between adversity and mental health, but longitudinal studies on adversity and HPA-axis functioning are scarce. Here, we studied adversity-driven changes in HPA-axis functioning during adolescence (N=141). HPA-axis functioning (basal cortisol, cortisol awakening response, anticipation of, reaction to and recovery after a stress task) was measured twice, at age 16 and 19. Adversity (i.e., social defeat and loss/illness) since age 16 was measured extensively with the Life Stress Interview at age 19. Adolescents who reported being exposed to social defeat showed increases in basal cortisol (ɳ²=0.029) and decreases in reaction to the stress task (ɳ²=0.030) from age 16-19, compared to their peers in the loss/illness and no stress group. The current study provides unique longitudinal data on the role of adversity in HPA-axis functioning. Evidence is provided that adversity can affect the body's neuroendocrine response to stress, dependent on the nature of both the HPA-measures and adverse events under study.

Psychosocial functioning and the cortisol awakening response: Meta-analysis, P-curve analysis, and evaluation of the evidential value in existing studies

Cortisol levels rise immediately after awakening and peak approximately 30-45min thereafter. Psychosocial functioning influences this cortisol awakening response (CAR), but there is considerable heterogeneity in the literature. The current study used p-curve and meta-analysis on 709 findings from 212 studies to test the evidential value and estimate effect sizes of four sets of findings: those associating worse psychosocial functioning with higher or lower cortisol increase relative to the waking period (CARi) and to the output of the waking period (AUCw). All four sets of findings demonstrated evidential value. Psychosocial predictors explained 1%-3.6% of variance in CARi and AUCw responses. Based on these effect sizes, cross-sectional studies assessing CAR would need a minimum sample size of 617-783 to detect true effects with 80% power. Depression was linked to higher AUCw and posttraumatic stress to lower AUCw, whereas inconclusive results were obtained for predictor-specific effects on CARi. Suggestions for future CAR research are discussed.

Conduct problems in youth and the RDoC approach: A developmental, evolutionary-based view

Problems related to aggression in young people are traditionally subsumed under the header of conduct problems, which include conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder. Such problems in children and adolescents are an important societal and mental health problem. In this paper we present an evolutionarily informed developmental psychopathology view of conduct problems inspired by the NIMH Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative. We assume that while there are many pathways to conduct problems, chronic or temporary impairments in the domain of social cognition or mentalizing are a common denominator. Specifically, we conceptualize conduct problems as reflecting temporary or chronic difficulties with mentalizing, that is, the capacity to understand the self and others in terms of intentional mental states, leading to a failure to inhibit interpersonal violence through a process of perspective-taking and empathy. These difficulties, in turn, stem from impairments in making use of a normally evolutionarily protected social learning system that functions to facilitate intergenerational knowledge transmission and protect social collaborative processes from impulsive and aggressive action. Temperamental, biological, and social risk factors in different combinations may all contribute to this outcome. This adaptation then interacts with impairments in other domains of functioning, such as in negative and positive valence systems and cognitive systems. This view highlights the importance of a complex interplay among biological, psychological, and environmental factors in understanding the origins of conduct problems. We outline the implications of these views for future research and intervention.

Trait positive and negative emotionality differentially associate with diurnal cortisol activity

Inter-individual variability in metrics of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) activity, such as the slope of the diurnal decline in cortisol, cortisol awakening response (CAR), and total cortisol output, have been found to associate inversely with trait ratings of extraversion and positive affect (E/PA) and positively with neuroticism and negative affect (N/NA) in some, but not all, investigations. These inconsistencies may partly reflect varied intensity of cortisol sampling among studies and reliance on self-rated traits, which are subject to reporting biases and limitations of introspection. Here, we further examined dispositional correlates of HPA activity in 490 healthy, employed midlife volunteers (M age=43 years; 54% Female; 86% white). Trait ratings were requested from participants and 2 participant-elected informants using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and Extraversion and Neuroticism dimensions of NEO personality inventories. CAR was assessed as percent increase in cortisol levels from awakening to 30min after awakening; and the diurnal slope and total output of cortisol [Area Under the Curve (AUC)] were determined from cortisol measurements taken at awakening, +4 and +9h later, and bedtime, across 3 workdays. Structural equation modeling was used to estimate multi-informant E/PA and N/NA factors. We used 3days of measurement as indicators to model each of the three latent cortisol factors (slope, CAR, and AUC). With the two latent emotionality and three latent cortisol indices included there was good fit to the data (χ(2)(200)=278.38, p=0.0002; RMSEA=0.028, 90% CI=0.02-0.04; CFI/TLI=0.97/0.96; SRMR=0.04). After controlling for covariates (age, sex, race), results showed higher latent E/PA associated with a steeper diurnal slope (Standardized β=-0.19, p=0.02) and smaller CAR (Standardized β=-0.26, p=0.004), whereas N/NA did not associate with any cortisol metric (Standardized β's=-0.12 to 0.13, p's=0.10 to 0.53). These findings suggest that positive emotionality may be more closely associated with indices of diurnal cortisol release than negative emotionality.

Chronic Stress and Adolescents' Mental Health: Modifying Effects of Basal Cortisol and Parental Psychiatric History. The TRAILS Study

Large individual differences in adolescent mental health following chronic psychosocial stress suggest moderating factors. We examined two established moderators, basal cortisol and parental psychiatric history, simultaneously. We hypothesized that individuals with high basal cortisol, assumed to indicate high context sensitivity, would show relatively high problem levels following chronic stress, especially in the presence of parental psychiatric history. With Linear Mixed Models, we investigated the hypotheses in 1917 Dutch adolescents (53.2 % boys), assessed at ages 11, 13.5, and 16. Low basal cortisol combined with the absence of a parental psychiatric history increased the risk of externalizing but not internalizing problems following chronic stress. Conversely, low basal cortisol combined with a substantial parental psychiatric history increased the risk of internalizing but not externalizing problems following chronic stress. Thus, parental psychiatric history moderated stress- cortisol interactions in predicting psychopathology, but in a different direction than hypothesized. We conclude that the premise that basal cortisol indicates context sensitivity may be too crude. Context sensitivity may not be a general trait but may depend on the nature of the context (e.g., type or duration of stress exposure) and on the outcome of interest (e.g., internalizing vs. externalizing problems). Although consistent across informants, our findings need replication.

Neuroticism and extraversion in relation to physiological stress reactivity during adolescence

The current study examined mean level and change in extraversion and neuroticism across adolescence in relation to physiological stress reactivity to social evaluation. Adolescents (n=327) from the Dutch general population reported on personality measures at five annual assessments. At age 17 years, adolescents participated in a psychosocial stress procedure characterized by social evaluation during which cortisol, heart rate, pre-ejection period (PEP) and heart rate variability were assessed. Dual latent growth curve models were fitted in which the intercepts (mean level) and slopes (change) of personality across adolescence predicted the intercepts (baseline) and slopes (reactivity) of the physiological stress measures. Most comparisons revealed no relation between personality and stress reactivity. Adolescents with higher mean level scores on extraversion did show lower cortisol reactivity. Adolescents with higher mean level neuroticism scores showed higher PEP reactivity. Our findings lend partial support for a relation between personality and physiological stress reactivity.

Interindividual differences in stress sensitivity: basal and stress-induced cortisol levels differentially predict neural vigilance processing under stress

Stress exposure is known to precipitate psychological disorders. However, large differences exist in how individuals respond to stressful situations. A major marker for stress sensitivity is hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis function. Here, we studied how interindividual variance in both basal cortisol levels and stress-induced cortisol responses predicts differences in neural vigilance processing during stress exposure. Implementing a randomized, counterbalanced, crossover design, 120 healthy male participants were exposed to a stress-induction and control procedure, followed by an emotional perception task (viewing fearful and happy faces) during fMRI scanning. Stress sensitivity was assessed using physiological (salivary cortisol levels) and psychological measures (trait questionnaires). High stress-induced cortisol responses were associated with increased stress sensitivity as assessed by psychological questionnaires, a stronger stress-induced increase in medial temporal activity and greater differential amygdala responses to fearful as opposed to happy faces under control conditions. In contrast, high basal cortisol levels were related to relative stress resilience as reflected by higher extraversion scores, a lower stress-induced increase in amygdala activity and enhanced differential processing of fearful compared with happy faces under stress. These findings seem to reflect a critical role for HPA-axis signaling in stress coping; higher basal levels indicate stress resilience, whereas higher cortisol responsivity to stress might facilitate recovery in those individuals prone to react sensitively to stress.

The Impact of Goal Disturbance after Cancer on Cortisol Levels over Time and the Moderating Role of COMT

Due to physical hindrance and time spent in hospital, a cancer diagnosis can lead to disturbance of personally important goals. Goal disturbance in cancer patients has been related to poorer psychological well-being. However, the relation with physiological measures is yet unknown. The purpose of the current study is to examine the impact of goal disturbance on cortisol as a measure of response to stress over time, and a possibly moderating role of a DNA genotype associated with HPA-axis functioning, Catechol-O-Methyl transferase (COMT). We examined the predictive value of goal disturbance on Cortisol Awakening Response (CAR) and Diurnal Cortisol Slope (DCS) over two periods: 1–7 and 7–18 months post-diagnosis, and the moderating role of COMT during these periods. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that goal disturbance 7 months post-diagnosis significantly predicted a steeper CAR a year later. During that period, the slow COMT variant moderated the relation, in that patients reporting high goal disturbance and had the Met/Met variant, had a more flattened CAR. No other significant effects were found. As steeper CARs have been related to adverse health outcomes, and COMT genotype may modify this risk, these results indicate that goal disturbance and genotype may be important factors to consider in maintaining better psychological and physical health in the already vulnerable population of cancer patients.

Activity mediates conscientiousness' relationship to diurnal cortisol slope in a national sample

OBJECTIVE

The present study explored pathways from the personality traits of neuroticism and conscientiousness through health-related behaviors to diurnal patterns of the stress hormone cortisol using data from a large national study.

METHOD

Using prospective data from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS II) study and the National Study of Daily Experiences (NSDE II, a MIDUS substudy), hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) and Monte Carlo estimation for multilevel model mediation were used to test direct and indirect effects (via general activity level, moderate and vigorous physical activity, lifetime history of regular smoking, and alcohol consumption) of neuroticism and conscientiousness on cortisol at wakeup, diurnal cortisol slope, and cortisol awakening response (N = 960).

RESULTS

Initial HLM models showed greater levels of conscientiousness were associated with steeper (i.e., healthier) diurnal cortisol slope. Consistent with a hypothesized indirect biobehavioral pathway, when controlling for demographic factors, cortisol-related medications, daily stressors, and positive affect, HLM models showed the relationship between conscientiousness and diurnal cortisol slope was mediated by general activity levels. Lifetime history of smoking was associated with flatter diurnal cortisol slope, but did not mediate the effect of conscientiousness on diurnal cortisol slope. No effects were found for neuroticism.

CONCLUSIONS

The results support a psychophysiological model of resilience--one that provides a more complete rendering of the health-protective mechanisms of conscientiousness via hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning. Specifically, the mediated pathway suggests greater engagement in the activities of day-to-day life are an instrumental means by which conscientious individuals experience healthier patterns of stress hormone secretion.

The cortisol awakening response and major depression: examining the evidence

A vast body of literature has revealed that dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) stress axis is associated with etiology of major depressive disorder (MDD). There are many ways that the dysregulation of the HPA axis can be assessed: by sampling diurnal basal secretion and/or in response to a stress task, pharmacological challenge, and awakening. Here, we focus on the association between cortisol awakening response (CAR), as one index of HPA axis function, and MDD, given that the nature of this association is particularly unclear. Indeed, in the following selective review, we attempt to reconcile sometimes-divergent evidence of the role of CAR in the pathway to depression. We first examine association of CAR with psychological factors that have been linked with increased vulnerability to develop depression. Then, we summarize the findings regarding the CAR profile in those with current depression, and evaluate evidence for the role of CAR following depression resolution and continued vulnerability. Finally, we showcase longitudinal studies showing the role of CAR in predicting depression onset and recurrence. Overall, the studies reveal an important, but complex, association between CAR and vulnerability to depression.