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Zhang Y, Nair S, Zhang Z, Zhao J, Zhao H, Lu L, Chang L, Jiao N. Adverse Environmental Perturbations May Threaten Kelp Farming Sustainability by Exacerbating Enterobacterales Diseases. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:5796-5810. [PMID: 38507562 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c09921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Globally kelp farming is gaining attention to mitigate land-use pressures and achieve carbon neutrality. However, the influence of environmental perturbations on kelp farming remains largely unknown. Recently, a severe disease outbreak caused extensive kelp mortality in Sanggou Bay, China, one of the world's largest high-density kelp farming areas. Here, through in situ investigations and simulation experiments, we find indications that an anomalously dramatic increase in elevated coastal seawater light penetration may have contributed to dysbiosis in the kelp Saccharina japonica's microbiome. This dysbiosis promoted the proliferation of opportunistic pathogenic Enterobacterales, mainly including the genera Colwellia and Pseudoalteromonas. Using transcriptomic analyses, we revealed that high-light conditions likely induced oxidative stress in kelp, potentially facilitating opportunistic bacterial Enterobacterales attack that activates a terrestrial plant-like pattern recognition receptor system in kelp. Furthermore, we uncover crucial genotypic determinants of Enterobacterales dominance and pathogenicity within kelp tissue, including pathogen-associated molecular patterns, potential membrane-damaging toxins, and alginate and mannitol lysis capability. Finally, through analysis of kelp-associated microbiome data sets under the influence of ocean warming and acidification, we conclude that such Enterobacterales favoring microbiome shifts are likely to become more prevalent in future environmental conditions. Our study highlights the need for understanding complex environmental influences on kelp health and associated microbiomes for the sustainable development of seaweed farming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongyu Zhang
- Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 189 Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, Shandong, China
- Shandong Energy Institute, No. 189 Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, Shandong, China
- Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, Qingdao 266101, Shandong, China
| | - Shailesh Nair
- Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 189 Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, Shandong, China
- Shandong Energy Institute, No. 189 Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, Shandong, China
- Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, Qingdao 266101, Shandong, China
| | - Zenghu Zhang
- Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 189 Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, Shandong, China
- Shandong Energy Institute, No. 189 Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, Shandong, China
- Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, Qingdao 266101, Shandong, China
| | - Jiulong Zhao
- Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 189 Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, Shandong, China
- Shandong Energy Institute, No. 189 Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, Shandong, China
- Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, Qingdao 266101, Shandong, China
| | - Hanshuang Zhao
- Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 189 Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, Shandong, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Longfei Lu
- Weihai Changqing Ocean Science Technology Co., Ltd., Rongcheng 264300, China
| | - Lirong Chang
- Weihai Changqing Ocean Science Technology Co., Ltd., Rongcheng 264300, China
| | - Nianzhi Jiao
- Institute of Marine Microbes and Ecospheres, State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361100, China
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Almeida-Saá AC, Umanzor S, Zertuche-González JA, Cruz-López R, Muñiz-Salazar R, Ferreira-Arrieta A, Bonet Melià P, García-Pantoja JA, Rangel-Mendoza LK, Vivanco-Bercovich M, Ruiz-Montoya L, Guzmán-Calderón JM, Sandoval-Gil JM. Bathymetric origin shapes the physiological responses of Pterygophora californica (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae) to deep marine heatwaves. JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2024; 60:483-502. [PMID: 38264946 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.13433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/25/2024]
Abstract
Kelp communities are experiencing exacerbated heat-related impacts from more intense, frequent, and deeper marine heatwaves (MHWs), imperiling the long-term survival of kelp forests in the climate change scenario. The occurrence of deep thermal anomalies is of critical importance, as elevated temperatures can impact kelp populations across their entire bathymetric range. This study evaluates the impact of MHWs on mature sporophytes of Pterygophora californica (walking kelp) from the bathymetric extremes (8-10 vs. 25-27 m) of a population situated in Baja California (Mexico). The location is near the southernmost point of the species's broad distribution (from Alaska to Mexico). The study investigated the ecophysiological responses (e.g., photobiology, nitrate uptake, oxidative stress) and growth of adult sporophytes through a two-phase experiment: warming simulating a MHW and a post-MHW phase without warming. Generally, the effects of warming differed depending on the bathymetric origin of the sporophytes. The MHW facilitated essential metabolic functions of deep-water sporophytes, including photosynthesis, and promoted their growth. In contrast, shallow-water sporophytes displayed metabolic stress, reduced growth, and oxidative damage. Upon the cessation of warming, certain responses, such as a decline in nitrate uptake and net productivity, became evident in shallow-water sporophytes, implying a delay in heat-stress response. This indicates that variation in temperatures can result in more prominent effects than warming alone. The greater heat tolerance of sporophytes in deeper waters shows convincing evidence that deep portions of P. californica populations have the potential to serve as refuges from the harmful impacts of MHWs on shallow reefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella C Almeida-Saá
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Mexico
| | - Schery Umanzor
- College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Juneau, Alaska, USA
| | | | - Ricardo Cruz-López
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Mexico
| | - Raquel Muñiz-Salazar
- Escuela de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Mexico
| | | | - Paula Bonet Melià
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Mexico
| | | | - Laura K Rangel-Mendoza
- Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Ensenada, Mexico
| | - Manuel Vivanco-Bercovich
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Mexico
| | - Leonardo Ruiz-Montoya
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Mexico
| | | | - Jose Miguel Sandoval-Gil
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Mexico
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Vivanco-Bercovich M, Sandoval-Gil JM, Bonet-Meliá P, Cabello-Pasini A, Muñiz-Salazar R, Montoya LR, Schubert N, Marín-Guirao L, Procaccini G, Ferreira-Arrieta A. Marine heatwaves recurrence aggravates thermal stress in the surfgrass Phyllospadix scouleri. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2024; 199:115943. [PMID: 38176159 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
The surfgrass Phyllospadix scouleri grows in highly productive meadows along the Pacific coast of North America. This region has experienced increasingly severe marine heatwaves (MHWs) in recent years. Our study evaluated the impact of consecutive MHWs, simulated in mesocosms, on essential ecophysiological features of P. scouleri. Overall, our findings show that the plants' overall physiological status has been progressively declining. Interestingly, the indicators of physiological stress in photosynthesis only showed up once the initial heat exposure stopped (i.e., during the recovery period). The warming caused increased oxidative damage and a decrease in nitrate uptake rates. However, the levels of non-structural carbohydrates and relative growth rates were not affected. Our findings emphasize the significance of incorporating recovery periods in this type of study as they expose delayed stress responses. Furthermore, experiencing consecutive intense MHWs can harm surfgrasses over time, compromising the health of their meadows and the services they offer to the ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Vivanco-Bercovich
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas (IIO), Marine Botany Research Group, Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico
| | - Jose Miguel Sandoval-Gil
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas (IIO), Marine Botany Research Group, Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico.
| | - Paula Bonet-Meliá
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas (IIO), Marine Botany Research Group, Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Cabello-Pasini
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas (IIO), Marine Botany Research Group, Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico
| | - Raquel Muñiz-Salazar
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas (IIO), Marine Botany Research Group, Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico; Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Escuela de Ciencias de la Salud, Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico
| | - Leonardo Ruiz Montoya
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas (IIO), Marine Botany Research Group, Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico
| | - Nadine Schubert
- CCMAR - Center of Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Lázaro Marín-Guirao
- Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO), Centro Oceanográfico de Murcia, Seagrass Ecology Group, C/Varadero s/n, 30740 San Pedro del Pinatar, Murcia, Spain
| | - Gabriele Procaccini
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Villa Comunale, Naples, Italy
| | - Alejandra Ferreira-Arrieta
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas (IIO), Marine Botany Research Group, Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico
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Sandoval-Gil JM, Sánchez-Barredo M, Cruz-López R, Zertuche-González JA, Beas-Luna R, Lorda J, Montaño-Moctezuma G. Shading by giant kelp canopy can restrict the invasiveness of Undaria pinnatifida (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae). JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2023; 59:552-569. [PMID: 36973579 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.13330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The spread of non-indigenous and invasive seaweeds has increased worldwide, and their potential effects on native seaweeds have raised concern. Undaria pinnatifida is considered among the most prolific non-indigenous species. This species has expanded rapidly in the Northeast Pacific, overlapping with native communities such as the iconic giant kelp forests (Macrocystis pyrifera). Canopy shading by giant kelp has been argued to be a limiting factor for the presence of U. pinnatifida in the understory, thus its invasiveness capacity. However, its physiological plasticity under light limitation remains unclear. In this work, we compared the physiology and growth of juvenile U. pinnatifida and M. pyrifera sporophytes transplanted to the understory of a giant kelp forest, to juveniles growing outside of the forest. Extreme low light availability compared to that outside (~0.2 and ~4.4 mol photon ⋅ m-2 ⋅ d-1 , respectively) likely caused a "metabolic energy crisis" in U. pinnatifida, thus restricting its photoacclimation plasticity and nitrogen acquisition, ultimately reducing its growth. Despite M. pyrifera juveniles showing photoacclimatory responses (e.g., increases in photosynthetic efficiency and lower compensation irradiance, Ec ), their physiological/vegetative status deteriorated similarly to U. pinnatifida, which explains the low recruitment inside the forest. Generally, our results revealed the ecophysiological basis behind the limited growth and survival of juvenile U. pinnatifida sporophytes in the understory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Miguel Sandoval-Gil
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Ensenada, Baja California, 22830, Mexico
| | - Mariana Sánchez-Barredo
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Ensenada, Baja California, 22830, Mexico
| | - Ricardo Cruz-López
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Ensenada, Baja California, 22830, Mexico
| | - José Antonio Zertuche-González
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Ensenada, Baja California, 22830, Mexico
| | - Rodrigo Beas-Luna
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Facultad de Ciencias Marinas, Ensenada, Baja California, 22830, Mexico
| | - Julio Lorda
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Facultad de Ciencias, Ensenada, Baja California, 22830, Mexico
| | - Gabriela Montaño-Moctezuma
- Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Ensenada, Baja California, 22830, Mexico
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Bass AV, Smith KE, Smale DA. Marine heatwaves and decreased light availability interact to erode the ecophysiological performance of habitat-forming kelp species. JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2023; 59:481-495. [PMID: 36964952 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.13332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Coastal marine ecosystems are threatened by a range of anthropogenic stressors, operating at global, local, and temporal scales. We investigated the impact of marine heatwaves (MHWs) combined with decreased light availability over two seasons on the ecophysiological responses of three kelp species (Laminaria digitata, L. hyperborea, and L. ochroleuca). These species function as important habitat-forming foundation organisms in the northeast Atlantic and have distinct but overlapping latitudinal distributions and thermal niches. Under low-light conditions, summertime MHWs induced significant declines in biomass, blade surface area, and Fv/Fm values (a measure of photosynthetic efficiency) in the cool-water kelps L. digitata and L. hyperborea, albeit to varying degrees. Under high-light conditions, all species were largely resistant to simulated MHW activity. In springtime, MHWs had minimal impacts and in some cases promoted kelp performance, while reduced light availability resulted in lower growth rates. While some species were negatively affected by summer MHWs under low-light conditions (particularly L. digitata), they were generally resilient to MHWs under high-light conditions. As such, maintaining good environmental quality and water clarity may increase resilience of populations to summertime MHWs. Our study informs predictions of how habitat-forming foundation kelp species will be affected by interacting, concurrent stressors, typical of compound events that are intensifying under anthropogenic climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alissa V Bass
- Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, UK
| | - Kathryn E Smith
- Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, UK
| | - Dan A Smale
- Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, UK
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Umanzor S, Sandoval-Gil J, Sánchez-Barredo M, Ladah LB, Ramírez-García MM, Zertuche-González JA. Short-term stress responses and recovery of giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera, Laminariales, Phaeophyceae) juvenile sporophytes to a simulated marine heatwave and nitrate scarcity 1. JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2021; 57:1604-1618. [PMID: 34124800 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.13189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The frequency of marine heatwaves (MHWs) is increasing due to climate change. Although seaweeds are resilient to environmental changes, an increasing body of evidence shows that rising sea surface temperatures have deleterious effects on temperate kelp species. However, information on the vulnerability of juvenile kelp to these stressors and their population stability is limited. This study summarizes findings on the ability of juvenile sporophytes of Macrocystis pyrifera to survive and recover from simulated MHW conditions (22°C, 5 d) in combination with nitrate limitation (<1 µM) by evaluating photosynthetic capacity, nitrate uptake, tissue composition, bio-optical properties, and oxidative stress of single-blade juvenile sporophytes (<20 cm). Temperature, nitrate availability, and their interaction had significant effects on the physiological status of juvenile sporophytes after the exposure and recovery periods. Overall, as expected, the photosynthetic capacity of juvenile sporophytes decreased with increased temperature and lower nitrate availability. Short-term exposure to simulated MHWs resulted in oxidative damage and reduced growth. The termination of the experimental warming allowed partial recovery to control values, indicating high physiological resilience. However, the interaction of both high temperature and nitrate scarcity induced irreversible damage to their photosynthetic capacity, with an increase in compensation irradiance, highlighting potential limitations in the carbon balance of juvenile sporophytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Schery Umanzor
- College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Juneau, Alaska, 99801, USA
| | - José Sandoval-Gil
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Km 106 Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada, Ensenada, Baja California, CP 22860, Mexico
| | - Mariana Sánchez-Barredo
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Km 106 Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada, Ensenada, Baja California, CP 22860, Mexico
| | - Lydia B Ladah
- Department of Biological Oceanography, CICESE, Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico
| | - Mary-Mar Ramírez-García
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Km 106 Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada, Ensenada, Baja California, CP 22860, Mexico
| | - José Antonio Zertuche-González
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Km 106 Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada, Ensenada, Baja California, CP 22860, Mexico
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Effect of environmental history on the habitat-forming kelp Macrocystis pyrifera responses to ocean acidification and warming: a physiological and molecular approach. Sci Rep 2021; 11:2510. [PMID: 33510300 PMCID: PMC7843619 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-82094-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The capacity of marine organisms to adapt and/or acclimate to climate change might differ among distinct populations, depending on their local environmental history and phenotypic plasticity. Kelp forests create some of the most productive habitats in the world, but globally, many populations have been negatively impacted by multiple anthropogenic stressors. Here, we compare the physiological and molecular responses to ocean acidification (OA) and warming (OW) of two populations of the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera from distinct upwelling conditions (weak vs strong). Using laboratory mesocosm experiments, we found that juvenile Macrocystis sporophyte responses to OW and OA did not differ among populations: elevated temperature reduced growth while OA had no effect on growth and photosynthesis. However, we observed higher growth rates and NO3- assimilation, and enhanced expression of metabolic-genes involved in the NO3- and CO2 assimilation in individuals from the strong upwelling site. Our results suggest that despite no inter-population differences in response to OA and OW, intrinsic differences among populations might be related to their natural variability in CO2, NO3- and seawater temperatures driven by coastal upwelling. Further work including additional populations and fluctuating climate change conditions rather than static values are needed to precisely determine how natural variability in environmental conditions might influence a species' response to climate change.
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Palacios M, Osman D, Ramírez J, Huovinen P, Gómez I. Photobiology of the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera in the land-terminating glacier fjord Yendegaia (Tierra del Fuego): A look into the future? THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 751:141810. [PMID: 32882566 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The channel and fjord region of southern Chilean Patagonia hosts giant kelp forests (Macrocystis pyrifera) that have little known site-specific responses to diverse physical gradients. In this study, the functionality of the bio-optical, morphological and biochemical features of the kelps, that determine their light trapping and acclimation, were studied along a gradient of varying turbidity and light conditions at the land-terminating glacier of fjord Yendegaia in the Beagle Channel. These habitats are marked by glacial retreat, and M. pyrifera has successfully colonized new areas due to the effects of warming. Results indicated that under a sharp gradient of turbidity and light availability, the kelps have adapted shading characteristics. The photobiological traits (e.g. light absorption, pigment concentration, photochemistry and blade optics) of algae from depths between 6 and 13 m varied in relation to the degree of turbidity along the fjord. However, these populations did not show obvious intra-thallus variation along the longitudinal profile e.g. blades located at different depths showed relatively similar acclimation potential to the prevailing light field. Only basal sporophylls showed general differences in comparison with the vegetative fronds. Otherwise, the high phenolic (phlorotannin) content, which was reflected in the massive presence of intracellular physodes, suggests that these organisms could be biochemically well-equipped to cope with changes in physical conditions or the presence of herbivore invertebrates (e.g. sea urchins).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauricio Palacios
- Programa de Doctorado en Biología Marina, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile; Centro FONDAP de Investigación en Dinámica de Ecosistemas Marinos de Altas Latitudes (IDEAL), Valdivia, Chile; Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Magallanes, Punta Arenas, Chile.
| | - Dayane Osman
- Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Limnológicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile; Centro FONDAP de Investigación en Dinámica de Ecosistemas Marinos de Altas Latitudes (IDEAL), Valdivia, Chile
| | - Jaime Ramírez
- Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Limnológicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile; Centro FONDAP de Investigación en Dinámica de Ecosistemas Marinos de Altas Latitudes (IDEAL), Valdivia, Chile
| | - Pirjo Huovinen
- Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Limnológicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile; Centro FONDAP de Investigación en Dinámica de Ecosistemas Marinos de Altas Latitudes (IDEAL), Valdivia, Chile
| | - Iván Gómez
- Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Limnológicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile; Centro FONDAP de Investigación en Dinámica de Ecosistemas Marinos de Altas Latitudes (IDEAL), Valdivia, Chile
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