Family poultry: Multiple roles, systems, challenges, and options for sustainable contributions to household nutrition security through a planetary health lens

Evaluation of selection strategies in dual-purpose and specialized breeding of indigenous chicken

This study aimed to evaluate various selection strategies for adoption in dual-purpose (ICD), meat (ICM) and layer (ICL) breeding goals in indigenous chicken breeding programs. The ICM goal aimed to improve live weight (LW12), daily gain (ADG) and egg weight (EW12) or together with feed efficiency and antibody response. For the ICL goal, age at first egg (AFE) and egg number (EN12) or together with feed efficiency and antibody response were targeted. In the ICD goal, the objective was to improve LW12, ADG, AFE and EN12 or together with feed efficiency and antibody response. Highest total index responses of US$ 49.83, US$ 65.71, and US$ 37.90 were estimated in indices targeting only production traits in the ICD, ICM and ICL goals, respectively. Highest index accuracy estimates of 0.77 and 0.70 were observed in indices that considered production and feed-related traits in the ICD and ICL goals, respectively, while in the ICM goal, the highest estimate of 0.96 was observed in an index targeting only production traits. Inbreeding levels ranged from 0.60 to 1.14% across the various indices considered in the breeding goals. Targeting only production traits in the ICD, ICM and ICL goals required the least number of generations of selection of 7.46, 5.50, and 8.52, respectively, to achieve predefined gains. Generally, a strategy targeting only production traits in a goal was the most optimal but resulted to unfavorable correlated responses in feed efficiency and antibody response. Addition of feed efficiency or/and antibody response in a goal was, however, not attractive due to the decline in total index response and accuracy and increase in inbreeding levels and number of generations of selection. Considering the feed availability and disease challenges in the tropics, choice of including feed efficiency or/and antibody response in the ICD, ICM and ICL goals should depend on targeted production system, resource availability to support breeding activities and magnitude of correlated responses on these traits when not included in the goals.

Purchase, consumption, and ownership of chickens and chicken products among households in Maputo, Mozambique: A cross-sectional study

Background

Chickens are an important source of animal protein, nutrition, and income in many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). They are also a major reservoir of enteropathogens that contribute to the burden of illnesses among children. Food systems present a risk for transmission of enteropathogens from poultry to humans, but there is a lack of population-level data on the pattern of purchase, ownership, and consumption of live chickens and their products in LMICs to better characterize that risk.

Methods

To assess chicken purchase, ownership, and consumption practices, we conducted a population-based survey using a structured questionnaire in Maputo, Mozambique in 2021. Multi-stage cluster sampling was used to obtain a representative sample of households in our study area. To minimize sampling bias and ensure a representative sample, we applied survey weighting using district-level population data and estimated weighted population-level values.

Results

Heads of 570 households in Maputo completed our survey. Approximately half of these households purchased broiler chicken meat (weighted percentage of households: 44.8%) and eggs (46.5%) in the previous week of the survey date, while indigenous chicken meat was less popular (1,950, 1.1%). The most common source of chicken products was corner stores (i.e., small convenience shops on streets), followed by wet markets. Live chickens were raised by 15.6% of households, and chicken feces were observed on the floor or ground at the majority of these households during house visits.

Discussion

Our findings suggest that poultry provides a major source of animal protein in this setting. With the predicted growth of poultry farming in LMICs in the coming decades, ensuring food safety at the primary sources of chicken products (corner stores and wet markets) in urban areas will be critical to mitigate health risks.

Backyard poultry: exploring non-intensive production systems

The concept of backyard poultry historically encompassed "food-producing animals." Nevertheless, a recent shift in livestock production paradigms within developed countries is evident, as backyard poultry owners now raise their birds for purposes beyond self-consumption, raising animals in a familiar way, and fostering emotional bonds with them. Because backyard animals are frequently privately owned, and the resulting products are typically not marketed, very little information is available about the demographic profile of backyard owners and information on flocks' characteristics, husbandry, and welfare. Thus, this review aims to clarify the characteristics of backyard poultry, highlighting the prevalent infectious diseases and the zoonotic risk to which farmers are exposed. According to the FAO, there are different types of poultry production systems: intensive, sub-intensive, and extensive. The system conditions, requirements, and the resulting performance differ extensively due to the type of breed, feeding practices, prevalence of disease, prevention and control of diseases, flock management, and the interactions among all these factors. The presence and transmission of infectious diseases in avian species is a problem that affects both the animals themselves and public health. Bacterial (Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Mycoplasma), parasitic (helminths, louses, and mites), and viral (Avian influenza, Newcastle, Marek, Infectious Bronchitis, Gumboro, Infectious Laringotracheitis, and Fowlpox) are the most important pathogens involved in backyard poultry health. In addition, Avian influenza, Salmonella, Campylobacter, and E. coli, could be a risk for backyard farmers and/or backyard-derived products consumers. Thus, proper biosecurity implementation measures are mandatory to control them. While the principles and practices of on-farm biosecurity may be well-versed among commercial farmers, hobbyists, and backyard farmers might not be familiar with the necessary steps to protect their flocks from infectious diseases and curb their transmission. This sector represents the fourth category of poultry farming, characterized by the lowest biosecurity standards. Consequently, it is imperative to address the legal status of backyard poultry, educate owners about biosecurity measures, and promote proper veterinary care and disease control.

An ethnoveterinary study on medicinal plants used by the Bai people in Yunlong County northwest Yunnan, China

BACKGROUND

The Bai people in Yunlong County, northwest Yunnan, China, have used medicinal plants and traditional remedies for ethnoveterinary practices. The Bai have mastered ethnoveterinary therapeutic methods in livestock breeding since ancient times. The Bai's traditional ethnoveterinary knowledge is now facing extinction, and their unique ethnoveterinary practices have rarely been recorded. This study documented animal diseases, EMPs, and related traditional knowledge in Yunlong County, China.

METHODS

Ethnobotanical fieldwork was conducted in six villages and townships of Yunlong County between 2021 and 2022. Data were obtained through semi-structured interviews, participatory observations, and keyperson interviews. A total of 68 informants were interviewed, and the informant consensus factor and use reports (URs) were used to evaluate the current ethnoveterinary practices among the local communities. Information on livestock diseases, medicinal plants, and traditional ethnoveterinary medicine knowledge were also obtained.

RESULTS

A total of 90 plant species belong to 51 families, 84 genera were recorded as being used as EMPs by the Bai people, and Asteraceae plants are most frequently used. A total of 68 informants were interviewed, including 58 men (85.3%) and 10 women (14.7%). The most commonly used EMPs parts included the roots, whole plants, leaves, and stems, and the common livestock diseases identified in this field investigation included trauma and fracture, gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory disorders, parasitic diseases, miscellaneous, venomous snake bites, reproductive diseases, infectious diseases, skin disease, and urinary diseases. Most of the EMPs are herbs (77.78%). Courtyard is one of the habitats of medicinal plants in Yunlong County.

CONCLUSION

Traditional knowledge of ethnoveterinary medicine is related to the local sociocultural characteristics of the Bai. Plants are used in cultural traditions, which, in turn, nourish the plant culture. Cultural diversity and biodiversity are interdependent. This traditional knowledge is at risk of disappearance because of the increasing extension of Western veterinary medicine, lifestyle changes, and mainstream cultural influences. Therefore, it is important to continue research on ethnoveterinary practices.

Interactions between the helminth and intestinal microbiome in smallholder chicken farming systems

Helminth parasite infections are widespread in smallholder farming systems affecting farmers and livestock animals. There are pathogenic parasites that populate the gut of their host and coexist closely with the gut microbiota. The physical and immunological environment of the gut can be modified by parasites and microbiota creating a wide range of interactions. These interactions modify the development of infection, affects overall host health, and can modify the way a host interacts with its bacterial microbiota. In addition, where there is a high worm burden parasites will affect the health of the host and intestinal tract colonization. This review highlights key studies on the interaction between helminth parasites and the intestinal microbiome to understand the relationship between parasitic worm infections and gut microbiome health in chickens. Finally, the review discusses modulations, molecular changes, and the importance of helminth-microbiome interactions for the host.

When WASHing Is Not Enough: Food Hygiene and Chicken Production in Mozambique

From egg to market, contamination of poultry products with Campylobacter and Salmonella increases along the "value chain," suggesting opportunities to reduce infection with these enteropathogens and complement WASH approaches to sanitation.

A Comparison of the Meat Quality, Nutritional Composition, Carcass Traits, and Fiber Characteristics of Different Muscular Tissues between Aged Indigenous Chickens and Commercial Laying Hens

The aim of this study is to assess the differences in the meat quality, nutritional composition, carcass traits, and myofiber characteristics between Hy-Line grey chickens (HLG, commercial breed) and Guangyuan grey chickens (GYG, indigenous breed). A total of 20 55-week-old chickens were selected for slaughter. The HLG exhibited a larger carcass weight, breast muscle weight, and abdominal fat weight (p < 0.05). The GYG exhibited a higher crude protein content, lower shear force, and smaller fiber size in the thigh muscles, whereas the HLG presented higher pH values and lower inosine-5'-monophosphate content in the breast muscles (p < 0.05). Darker meat based on higher redness and yellowness values was observed in the GYG instead of the HLG (p < 0.05). The research results also revealed parameter differences between different muscle types. Simultaneously, a correlation analysis showed significant correlations between the meat quality traits and myofiber characteristics (p < 0.05). In conclusion, aged indigenous chickens perform better in terms of tenderness and nutritional value in the thigh muscles, and may exhibit a better flavor in the breast muscles, but have a smaller breast muscle weight. Therefore, the current investigation provides a theoretical basis for the different needs of consumers and the processing of meat from old laying hens.

Reducing antimicrobial use in chicken production in Vietnam: Exploring the systemic dimension of change

Antibiotic use in livestock production is one of the drivers of antibiotic resistance and a shift towards better and reduced antibiotic usage is urgently required. In Vietnam, where there are frequent reports of the misuse and overuse of antibiotics, little attention has been paid to farmers who have successfully changed their practices. This qualitative study aims to understand the transition process of Vietnamese chicken farmers toward reduced antibiotic usage. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 18 chicken farmers, 13 drug sellers, and 5 traders using participatory tools and a socio-anthropological approach. We explored the farmers' histories, current and past antibiotic usage, methods used to reduce antibiotic use, and motivations and barriers to changing practices. Through the thematic analysis of the farmers' transcripts, we identified technical, economic, and social factors that influence change. Out of eighteen farmers, we identified ten farmers who had already reduced antibiotic usage. The main motivations included producing quality chickens (tasty and safe) while reducing farm expenditures. Barriers were related to poor biosecurity in the area, market failures, and the farmers' lack of knowledge. Innovation led to overcome these obstacles included the local development of handmade probiotics and the organization of farmer cooperatives to overcome economic difficulties and guarantee product outlets. Knowledge was increased by workshops organized at the communal level and the influence of competent veterinarians in the area. We showed that the transition process was influenced by several components of the system rather than by any individual alone. Our study demonstrated that local initiatives to reduce antibiotic use in Vietnamese chicken production do exist. As changes depend on the system in which stakeholders are embedded, systemic lock-ins must be removed to allow practices to change. The promotion of locally-developed solutions should be further encouraged.

Indigenous chicken production system in different agro-ecology of Indian Himalayan Region: implication on food and economic security

The indigenous chicken production system (ICPS) has several use values and ecosystem services. In the last few years, ICPS has been recognized for its possible contribution to household food security, income generation, wildlife protection, and bettering the women's lives. This study aimed to collect, for the first time, comprehensive information about ICPS in three different agro-ecologies (tropical, sub-tropical, and sub-temperate) of the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) and its role in food and economic security of traditional communities. In this study region, ICPS is semi-extensive, providing homegrown feed and temporary night shelter. In sub-temperate agro-ecology, females owned non-significant (p = 0.170) more indigenous chicken flocks than males. Households in sub-temperate agro-ecologies had significantly (p ≤ 0.001) larger flock sizes and tropical livestock units (chicken-TLU). However, the livestock diversity index (LDI) was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.001) in tropical and subtropical agro-ecology. The households in the sub-temperate region highly (p ≤ 0.001) valued indigenous chicken because of its survivability and adaptability. In absolute numbers significant (p ≤ 0.001) higher numbers of adult birds died in past 1 year in sub-temperate agro-ecology. The mortality rate of adult birds in sub-temperate agro-ecology was 9%, and it was 14 and 15% in tropical and sub-tropical agro-ecologies, respectively. In sub-temperate agro-ecology, larger flock size translated into significantly higher (p ≤ 0.001) egg production and subsequently a significant (p ≤ 0.001) higher egg consumption per household per month. In sub-temperate agro-ecology, households' dietary diversity score was significantly (p ≤ 0.001) higher. Similarly, the average annual income from ICPS was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.001) in sub-temperate agro-ecology and accounted for 18% of household income. ICPS' marketing chain was relatively short in the sub-temperate region. In all agro-ecologies, indigenous chicken and egg demand was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.001) in the winter. ICPS litter is used as farmyard manure, enhancing ecological resilience. In all agro-ecologies, the three most frequently cited obstacles to extending the indigenous chicken production system are illnesses, predators, and a lack of chicks availability. ICPS contributes to food and nutritional security, economic stability, and ecological resilience in this hilly and fragile ecosystem. Even though the system is self-sustaining, management and health interventions can increase production and productivity.

Impact of a Homestead Food Production program on poultry rearing and egg consumption: A cluster-randomized controlled trial in Bangladesh

Women and children in Bangladesh face high levels of micronutrient deficiencies from inadequate diets. We evaluated the impact of a Homestead Food Production (HFP) intervention on poultry production, as a pathway outcome, and women's and children's egg consumption, as secondary outcomes, as part of the Food and Agricultural Approaches to Reducing Malnutrition cluster-randomized trial in Sylhet division, Bangladesh. The 3-year intervention (2015-2018) promoted home gardening, poultry rearing, and nutrition counseling. We randomly allocated 96 clusters to intervention (48 clusters; 1337 women) or control (48 clusters; 1368 women). Children < 3 years old born to participants were enrolled during the trial. We analyzed poultry production indicators, measured annually, and any egg consumption (24-h recall), measured every 2-6 months for women and their children. We conducted intention-to-treat analyses using mixed-effects logistic regression models with repeat measures, with minimal adjustment to increase precision. Poultry ownership increased by 16% points (pp) and egg production by 13 pp in the final intervention year. The intervention doubled women's odds of egg consumption in the final year (Odds Ratio [OR]: 2.31, 95% CI: 1.68-3.18), with positive effects sustained 1-year post-intervention (OR: 1.58, 95% CI: 1.16-2.15). Children's odds of egg consumption were increased in the final year (OR: 3.04, 95% CI: 1.87-4.95). Poultry ownership was associated with women's egg consumption, accounting for 12% of the total intervention effect, but not with children's egg consumption. Our findings demonstrate that an HFP program can have longer-term positive effects on poultry production and women's and children's diets.

Reproduction and production performance of improved chickens, their production constraints, and opportunities under Ethiopian conditions

Chickens have important roles in human food security and social and cultural values throughout the world. The current review focused on improved chickens' reproduction and production performance, their production constraints, and opportunities under Ethiopian conditions. The review covered nine performance traits, thirteen commercial breeds, and eight crossbreds between commercial breeds, and local chicken. The genotypes affected the age of the first egg, eggs per hen per year, and average egg weight. The three exotic breeds with short ages at first egg were Lohmann Brown, Novo Brown, and Potchefstroom Koekoek at 137, 140, and 142 days, respectively. The three genotypes with the highest egg production were Sasso T44, Bovans Brown, and Isa Browns laying 229, 235, and 276 eggs per hen per year. The three with the highest egg weight were Isa Browns, Bovans Brown, and Sasso T44 with their eggs weighing 58.8, 60.3, and 65.6 g each, respectively. Crossbreeding indigenous chicken with exotic breeds improved the age at first egg-lay, eggs per hen per year, and egg weigh. Crossbreeding indigenous chicken with exotic breeds shortened the age at first egg-lay. Crossbred of indigenous chicken with Fayoumi, Rhode Island Red, and White Leghorn reduced age at first egg-lay to 196.0, 198.3 and 224.3 days, respectively. Crossbreeding Dominant Red Barred with indigenous chicken reduced the age at first egg-lay from 137.3 to 130.7 days. Among the crossbred chicken, crossing between local chicken and Fayoumi, White Leghorn, and Yarkon laid the most eggs per hen per year being 119, 120, and 129 eggs, respectively. The crossbreed between Dominant Red Barred, and Horro ecotype aged 41-44 weeks laid eggs weighing 56.3 g. The management practices affected age at first egg with the smallholder production system tending to delay it and reduced the eggs per hen per year and average egg weight. The age at first egg-lay for Bovans Brown breed ranged from 165.6 to 196.2 days under this system. Potchefstroom Koekoek chicken breed reared under this system laid 130.5 to 187.0 eggs per hen per year. When additional feed was provided, Bovans Brown chicken breed increased their egg production from 133.5 to 235.9 eggs per hen per year. The average egg weight was 43.0, 52.1, and 52.5 g for Fayoumi, White Leghorn, and Rhode Island Red chicken, repectivelly, under this system in northern Ethiopia. Most chicken breeds were reared under inadequate management practices resulting in suboptimal performance. Crossbreeding exotic and indigenous chicken breeds and intensifying the management will improve performance. The existence of suitable market demand for chicken products, readily available commercial feeds, and government and private investor involvement are emerging opportunities for enhanced chicken performance in Ethiopia.

Growth performance, survivability and profitability of improved smallholder chicken genetics in Nigeria: A COVID-19 intervention study

The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on smallholder farming households (SFH) includes increased poverty, and loss of livelihoods. Provision of livestock to SFH is a helpful intervention to mitigate this impact. This study provided a total of 150 smallholder poultry farmers, randomly selected from three states (Kebbi, Nasarawa, and Imo) in Nigeria, with ten 5-week-old chickens (mixed sexes) each, of either FUNAAB Alpha or Noiler chicken genetics. The improved, dual-purpose chickens were evaluated for growth performance (GP), survivability and profitability. The birds were managed under semi-scavenging production system. Body weight, mortality, and cost of production (COP) were recorded every 4 weeks until 21 weeks of age. Profitability was a function of the COP, and the selling price for live-birds (cocks). Body weight of Noiler (1,927 g) birds was not significantly (p > .05) higher than FUNAAB Alpha (1,792 g) at 21 weeks. Agroecology and genetics had significant (p < .05) effects on GP and survivability. Survivability of FUNAAB Alpha was higher (p < .05) than Noiler, with Nasarawa (81%-96%), having the highest (p < .0001) survival rate compared to Imo (62%-81%), and Kebbi (58%-75%). At 21 weeks, the number of cocks and hens differed significantly (p < .05) within the states (Imo: 2.4 ± .2 and 5.4 ± .3; Kebbi: 2.6 ± .2 and 5.5 ± .3; and Nasarawa: 2.9 ± .2 and 5.8 ± .3). Nasarawa (NGN 7,808; USD 19) ranked best for profitability, followed by Kebbi (NGN 6,545; USD 16) and Imo (NGN 5,875; USD 14). Overall, this study demonstrates that provision of improved chickens to vulnerable SFH in Nigeria holds great potential for economic growth, and resilience during emergencies, such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Genetic and non-genetic factors influencing KLH binding natural antibodies and specific antibody response to Newcastle disease in Kenyan chicken populations

This study aimed at investigating the influence of genetic and non-genetic factors on immune traits to inform on possibilities of genetic improvement of disease resistance traits in local chicken of Kenya. Immune traits such as natural and specific antibodies are considered suitable indicators of an individual's health status and consequently, used as indicator traits of disease resistance. In this study, natural antibodies binding to Keyhole Limpet Hemocyanin (KLH-NAbs) was used to measure general disease resistance. Specific antibodies binding to Newcastle disease virus (NDV-IgG) post vaccination was used to measure specific disease resistance. Titers of KLH-NAbs isotypes (KLH-IgM, KLH-IgG and KLH-IgA) and NDV-IgG were measured in 1,540 chickens of different ages ranging from 12 to 56 weeks. A general linear model was fitted to determine the effect of sex, generation, population type, phylogenetic cluster, line, genotype and age on the antibody traits. A multivariate animal mixed model was fitted to estimate heritability and genetic correlations among the antibody traits. The model constituted of non-genetic factors found to have a significant influence on the antibody traits as fixed effects, and animal and residual effects as random variables. Overall mean (±SE) concentration levels for KLH-IgM, KLH-IgG, KLH-IgA and NDV-IgG were 10.33 ± 0.04, 9.08 ± 0.02, 6.00 ± 0.02 and 10.12 ± 0.03, respectively. Sex, generation and age (linear covariate) significantly (p < 0.05) influenced variation across all the antibody traits. Genotype effects (p < 0.05) were present in all antibody traits, apart from KLH-IgA. Interaction between generation and line was significant (p < 0.05) in KLH-IgM and NDV-IgG while nesting phylogenetic cluster within population significantly (p < 0.05) influenced all antibody traits, apart from KLH-IgA. Heritability estimates for KLH-IgM, KLH-IgG, KLH-IgA and NDV-IgG were 0.28 ± 0.08, 0.14 ± 0.06, 0.07 ± 0.04 and 0.31 ± 0.06, respectively. There were positive genetic correlations (0.40-0.61) among the KLH-NAbs while negative genetic correlations (-0.26 to -0.98) were observed between the KLH-NAbs and NDV-IgG. Results from this study indicate that non-genetic effects due to biological and environmental factors influence natural and specific antibodies and should be accounted for to reduce bias and improve accuracy when evaluating the traits. Subsequently, the moderate heritability estimates in KLH-IgM and NDV-IgG suggest selection possibilities for genetic improvement of general and specific immunity, respectively, and consequently disease resistance. However, the negative correlations between KLH-NAbs and NDV-IgG indicate the need to consider a suitable approach that can optimally combine both traits in a multiple trait selection strategies.

Backyard poultry farming with improved germplasm: Sustainable food production and nutritional security in fragile ecosystem

Approximately 3 billion people were unable to afford a healthy diet in 2019 because of poverty and inequality. Most of these people live in Asia and Africa. Furthermore, 30% of the world population was affected by moderate to severe food insecurity in 2020, and most of this population lives in low- and middle-income countries. The world is at a critical juncture, and there is an urgent need for transformative food systems that ensure the empowerment of poor and vulnerable population groups, often smallholders with limited access to resources or those living in remote locations, as well as the empowerment of women, children, and youth (FAO, 2018). The backyard poultry production system (BPPS), as practiced by 80% of the world's rural population, can be that transformative change in low- and middle-income countries. Although the BPPS has low productivity, it still plays an important role in the food and nutritional security of rural people living in fragile ecosystems. Backyard poultry has been recognized as a tool for poverty alleviation and women empowerment besides ensuring food and nutritional security for rural poor. Poultry meat and eggs are the cheapest and best source of good quality protein, minerals, and vitamins. The introduction of improved backyard poultry germplasm has improved the productivity of this system in resource-poor settings and thereby improved the income and nutritional security of poor households. With these birds, the availability, access, utilization, and stability of food security have improved at household and national levels. Diseases, predation, non-availability of improved germplasm, lack of access to markets, and lack of skills are the major constraints to the adoption of improved backyard poultry. These constraints can be addressed by involving a network of community animal service providers. The improved backyard poultry germplasm will dominate the backyard poultry production system in the future and will be a tool for ensuring food and nutritional security on a sustainable basis, more particularly in low- and middle-income countries.

Assessment of poultry rearing practices and risk factors of H5N1 and H9N2 virus circulating among backyard chickens and ducks in rural communities

Background

The avian influenza virus (AIV) causes significant economic losses by infecting poultry and occasional spillover to humans. Backyard farms are vulnerable to AIV epidemics due to poor health management and biosecurity practices, threatening rural households’ economic stability and nutrition. We have limited information about the risk factors associated with AIV infection in backyard poultry in Bangladesh. Hence, we conducted a cross-sectional survey comprising epidemiological and anthropological investigations to understand the poultry rearing practices and risk factors of AIV circulation among backyard poultry in selected rural communities.

Methods

We sampled 120 poultry from backyard farms (n = 30) of the three selected communities between February 2017 and January 2018. We tested swab samples for the matrix gene (M gene) followed by H5, H7, and H9 subtypes using real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). We applied multivariable logistic regression for risk factor analysis. Furthermore, we conducted an observational study (42 hours) and informal interviews (n = 30) with backyard farmers to record poultry-raising activities in rural communities.

Results

We detected that 25.2% of the backyard poultry tested positive for AIV, whereas 5% tested positive for H5N1 and 10.8% tested positive for H9N2. Results showed that scavenging in both household garden and other crop fields has higher odds of AIV than scavenging in the household garden (AOR: 24.811; 95% CI: 2.11–292.28), and keeping a cage inside the house has higher odds (AOR:14.5; 95% CI: 1.06–198.51) than keeping it in the veranda, cleaning the cage twice a week or weekly has a higher risk than cleaning daily (AOR: 34.45; 95% CI: 1.04–1139.65), dumping litter or droppings (AOR: 82.80; 95% CI: 3.91–1754.59) and dead birds or wastage (AOR: 109.92, 95% CI: 4.34–2785.29) near water bodies and bushes have a higher risk than burring in the ground, slaughtering and consuming sick birds also had a higher odd of AIV (AOR: 73.45, 95% CI: 1.56–3457.73) than treating the birds. The anthropological investigation revealed that household members had direct contact with the poultry in different ways, including touching, feeding, slaughtering, and contacting poultry feces. Poultry is usually kept inside the house, sick poultry are traditionally slaughtered and eaten, and most poultry raisers do not know that diseases can transmit from backyard poultry to humans.

Conclusions

This study showed the circulation of H5N1 and H9N2 virus in backyard poultry in rural communities; associated with species, scavenging area of the poultry, location of the poultry cage, the practice of litter, wastage, droppings, and dead bird disposal, and practice of handling sick poultry. We suggest improving biosecurity practices in backyard poultry and mass awareness campaigns to reduce incidences of AIV in household-level poultry farms in rural communities in Bangladesh.

Consumer awareness and production practices of farmers on antimicrobial residues in chicken eggs and Chinese cabbage in Dodoma, Central Tanzania

BACKGROUND

Antimicrobial residues (ABs) in foods contribute to the development of antimicrobial resistance, which is becoming a major public health concern around the world. Understanding food production practices concerning antimicrobial use and consumer awareness on the possibility of ABs in foods is necessary for developing mitigation strategies. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess the production practices and awareness among eggs and Chinese cabbage consumers in Dodoma city.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted using a structured questionnaire and checklist to collect data on awareness and production practices from 420 consumers, 30 chicken egg farmers, and 30 Chinese cabbage farmers in eight city wards.

FINDINGS

About 42% of consumers of eggs and Chinese cabbages were not aware of the likelihood of antimicrobial residues in these foods. The awareness was significantly influenced by the consumer's educational level (p = 0.001) and geographical location (p = 0.045), with educated and urban consumers being 7.7 and 1.6 times more informed than their uneducated and peri-urban counterparts. Furthermore, the majority of chicken farmers raised more layers than broilers, and they all used antimicrobial drugs, mainly tetracycline and its variants, to treat and prevent diseases. The findings also revealed that many vegetable producers utilized wastes from animals treated with antimicrobials as manure to amend the soil.

CONCLUSION

In a view of the findings, a considerable number of egg and Chinese cabbage consumers in Dodoma city were unaware on the likelihood of antimicrobial residues in these foods from their production practices. All chicken farmers utilized antimicrobial drugs mainly tetracycline and its derivatives, for the treatment and prevention of diseases while vegetable producers used wastes from animals treated with antimicrobials as soil manure. Therefore, initiatives to inform farmers and consumers about the possibility of antimicrobial residues in these foods and their related public health risks upon long-term consumption are strongly advised.

Child dietary patterns in Homo sapiens evolution: A systematic review

Dietary patterns spanning millennia could inform contemporary public health nutrition. Children are largely absent from evidence describing diets throughout human evolution, despite prevalent malnutrition today signaling a potential genome-environment divergence. This systematic review aimed to identify dietary patterns of children ages 6 months to 10 years consumed before the widespread adoption of agriculture. Metrics of mention frequency (counts of food types reported) and food groups (globally standardized categories) were applied to: compare diets across subsistence modes [gatherer-hunter-fisher (GHF), early agriculture (EA) groups]; examine diet quality and diversity; and characterize differences by life course phase and environmental context defined using Köppen-Geiger climate zones. The review yielded child diet information from 95 cultural groups (52 from GHF; 43 from EA/mixed subsistence groups). Animal foods (terrestrial and aquatic) were the most frequently mentioned food groups in dietary patterns across subsistence modes, though at higher frequencies in GHF than in EA. A broad range of fruits, vegetables, roots and tubers were more common in GHF, while children from EA groups consumed more cereals than GHF, associated with poor health consequences as reported in some studies. Forty-eight studies compared diets across life course phases: 28 showed differences and 20 demonstrated similarities in child versus adult diets. Climate zone was a driver of food patterns provisioned from local ecosystems. Evidence from Homo sapiens evolution points to the need for nutrient-dense foods with high quality proteins and greater variety within and across food groups. Public health solutions could integrate these findings into food-based dietary guidelines for children.

Conventional use and sustainable valorization of spent egg-laying hens as functional foods and biomaterials: A review

Spent hen are egg-laying hens reaching the end of their laying cycles; billions of spent hens are produced globally each year. Differences in people's attitudes towards spent hen as foods lead to their different fates among countries. While spent hens are consumed as raw or processed meat products in Asian countries such as China, India, Korea, and Thailand, they are treated as a byproduct or waste, not a food product, in the western society; they are instead disposed by burial, incineration, composting (as fertilizers), or rendering into animal feed and pet food, which either create little market value or cause animal welfare and environmental concerns. Despite being a waste, spent hen is a rich source of animal proteins and lipids, which are suitable starting materials for developing valorized products. This review discussed the conventional uses of spent hens, including food, animal feed, pet food, and compost, and the emerging uses, including biomaterials and functional food ingredients. These recent advances enable more sustainable utilization of spent hen, contributing to alternative solutions to its disposal while yielding residual value to the egg industry. Future research will continue to focus on the conversion of spent hen biomass into value-added products.

Graphical abstract

Ruminant-Related Risk Factors are Associated with Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Infection in Children in Southern Ghana

Livestock can provide benefits to low-income households, yet may expose children to zoonotic enteropathogens that cause illness and negative long-term health outcomes. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to determine whether livestock-related risk factors, including animal ownership, exposure to animal feces, and consumption of animal-source foods, were associated with bacterial zoonotic enteropathogen infections in children 6-59 months old in Greater Accra, Ghana. Stool samples from 259 children and 156 household chickens were analyzed for atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (aEPEC), Campylobacter jejuni/coli (C. jejuni/coli), Salmonella, and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). aEPEC, C. jejuni/coli, STEC, and Salmonella were detected in 45.6%, 11.6%, 4.3%, and 0.8% of children's stool samples, respectively. In adjusted logistic regression models, household ownership of goats or sheep was associated with STEC detection in children (odds ratio [95% confidence interval]: 4.30 [1.32, 14.08]), as were positive detection of STEC in chicken feces (7.85 [2.54, 24.30]) and frequent consumption of fresh cow's milk (3.03 [1.75, 5.24]). No livestock-related risk factors were associated with aEPEC or C. jejuni/coli infection in children. Our findings suggest that ruminant ownership in southern Ghana may expose children to STEC through household fecal contamination and foodborne routes. The lack of association between livestock risk factors and the more commonly detected pathogens, aEPEC and C. jejuni/coli, warrants further research, particularly to help explain how animal-keeping and sanitation practices affect transmission of fecal pathogens that were highly prevalent in chicken feces.

Risk Assessment of Nine Coccidiostats in Commercial and Home Raised Poultry

For the first time, this paper aimed to evaluate nine ionophore and synthetic coccidiostat residues in poultry muscle samples, obtained from different production types, by solid-liquid extraction followed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The fully validated methodology was successfully applied to a total of 101 chicken and turkey samples obtained from canteens, supermarkets, and home productions in Portugal. Halofuginone, diclazuril, decoquinate, narasin, lasalocid, and salinomycin were detected in 20.8% of the samples. Home raised samples showed a greater frequency, 47.1%. The synthetic coccidiostats halofuginone, diclazuril, and decoquinate were found in averages of 0.7 μg kg^-1,2.9 μg kg^-1, and 3.7 μg kg^-1, respectively, while averages of 1.2 μg kg^-1, 1.6 μg kg^-1, and 1.3 μg kg^-1 were found regarding the ionophores narasin, lasalocid, and salinomycin. As for the risk assessment, values lower than 8.06% of the acceptable daily intake (ADI) were observed, indicating that exposure to coccidiostats through consumption of poultry meat does not represent risk to consumers.

Benefits and Risks of Smallholder Livestock Production on Child Nutrition in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Livestock production may improve nutritional outcomes of pregnant women and children by increasing household income, availability of nutrient-dense foods, and women's empowerment. Nevertheless, the relationship is complex, and the nutritional status of children may be impaired by presence of or proximity to livestock and their pathogens. In this paper, we review the benefits and risks of livestock production on child nutrition. Evidence supports the nutritional benefits of livestock farming through income, production, and women's empowerment. Increasing animal source food consumption requires a combination of efforts, including improved animal management so that herd size is adequate to meet household income needs and consumption and addressing sociocultural and gendered norms. Evidence supports the inclusion of behavior change communication strategies into livestock production interventions to facilitate the sustainability of nutritional benefits over time, particularly interventions that engage women and foster dimensions of women's empowerment. In evaluating the risks of livestock production, evidence indicates that a broad range of enteric pathogens may chronically infect the intestines of children and, in combination with dietary deficits, may cause environmental enteric dysfunction (EED), a chronic inflammation of the gut. Some of the most important pathogens associated with EED are zoonotic in nature with livestock as their main reservoir. Very few studies have aimed to understand which livestock species contribute most to colonization with these pathogens, or how to reduce transmission. Control at the point of exposure has been investigated in a few studies, but much less effort has been spent on improving animal husbandry practices, which may have additional benefits. There is an urgent need for dedicated and long-term research to understand which livestock species contribute most to exposure of young children to zoonotic enteric pathogens, to test the potential of a wide range of intervention methods, to assess their effectiveness in randomized trials, and to assure their broad adaptation and sustainability. This review highlights the benefits and risks of livestock production on child nutrition. In addition to identifying research gaps, findings support inclusion of poor gut health as an immediate determinant of child undernutrition, expanding the established UNICEF framework which includes only inadequate diet and disease.

Biosecurity and Antimicrobial Use Practices in Live Bird Markets within Abeokuta Metropolis, Southwest, Nigeria: A Preliminary Survey

The development of an antimicrobial stewardship plan (AMSP) for live bird sellers (LBS) requires an understanding of the current biosecurity status, antimicrobial use (AMU) and the practices involved in live bird selling (e.g., drivers, sellers, etc.) which is a direct source of poultry meat for human consumption. Seven Live Bird Markets (LBMs) within Abeokuta, Ogun State were surveyed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Data on LBMs characteristics, LBS demographics, biosecurity, and AMU practices, awareness on Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR), as well as preferred channels of information on antimicrobial stewardship were gathered. A total of 40 consenting LBS with 82.5% female and 17.5% male participants were included in the study. The participants’ mean age was 45.3 years (SD±11.9, range: 23-70 years). Laying hens, broilers, and cockerels were the main poultry types sold by LBS. Antimicrobials (AMs) were used for growth promotion (57.5%), therapeutic (40.0%), and prophylactic (2.5%) purposes. Tetracycline, metronidazole, and chloramphenicol were the most frequently used AMs. The majority of the participants (90.0%) have treated birds based on their empirical experience, with little or no inputs from veterinarians. Biosecurity and AMU practices were generally low (54.0% and 34.0%, respectively). The contact with veterinarians was associated with satisfactory biosecurity practices (p=0.049). No significant factors were found to be linked with AMU. This study has provided recent evidence-based data on practices in poultry management among LBS in Abeokuta, Ogun state. The findings would be useful for policy decisions and the development of AMSP on prudent AMU among LBS.

"Chicken dumping": Motivations and perceptions in shifting poultry production practices

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) often implement overseas development aid through intensive small-scale animal agriculture to alleviate food insecurity in low- and middle-income countries. Intensive animal farming can pose unclear outcomes to households engaged in the practice because of the reliance on industrial animal breeds that are reared with antibiotics and raised in higher densities compared to traditional scavenging husbandry systems. As a result, intensive small-scale farming operations that lack proper infrastructure, training, and financial resources could facilitate the spread of antimicrobial resistance and infectious diseases. We applied a mixed-methods framework towards analyzing the effectiveness of small-scale broiler chicken farming in northern Ecuador. First, from May 2016 – May 2017, our observational surveys indicated that intensive small-scale poultry farming follows a boom-and-bust cycle that is extremely vulnerable to environmental stressors. Second, in May 2016, we followed a cohort of households enrolled in a poultry development project led by an NGO. We observed a substantial decline in chicken survivorship from Survey period 1 to 2 (mean chicken count decrease from 50 to 35 corresponding to a 70% survivorship) and from Survey period 2 to 3 (mean chicken count decrease from 35 to 20.3 corresponding to a 58% survivorship). Heads of households were self-reporting broiler chicken survivorship substantially higher than our recorded observations during survey period two (46 compared to 35 respectively) and three (44.3 compared to 20.3 respectively). We speculate that if households continue to inaccurately report poultry demographics, then it could perpetuate a negative feedback loop where NGOs continue to conduct the same intervention practices without receiving accurate outcome metrics. Third, we used semi-structured questionnaires to determine that access to financial resources was the major motivation for determining when to farm broiler chickens. Intensive small-scale poultry farming can be unreliable and disease-enhancing, yet also associated with dubious self-reports of success.

Biosecurity in Village and Other Free-Range Poultry-Trying to Square the Circle?

Village poultry commonly suffer significant disease related losses and a plethora of biosecurity measures is widely advocated as a means to reduce morbidity and mortality. This paper uses a household economy perspective to assess some "economic" considerations determining biosecurity investments of village poultry keepers. It draws on the 2012/13 Tanzania National Panel Survey (TZ-NPS), which covered 1,228 poultry-keeping households. Disease was the most frequently reported cause of bird losses and, in the majority of households, accounted for more than half of reported bird losses. However, given that poultry rarely contributed more than 10% to total annual household income, for 95% of households the value of birds lost to disease represented <10% of annual income. The value placed on poultry within households may vary by gender and the overall figure may mask differential intra-household impacts. The break-even cost for various levels of reduction of disease losses is estimated using a partial budget analysis. Even if achieved at no cost, a 75% reduction in disease-associated mortality would only result in a one percent increase of annual household income. Thus, to the "average" village poultry-keeping household, investments in poultry may not be of high priority, even when cost-effective. Where risks of disease spread impact on the wider community and generate significant externalities, poultry keepers must be supported by wider societal actions rather than being expected to invest in biosecurity for purely personal gain.

Sustainable intensification of indigenous village chicken production system: matching the genotype with the environment

The multi-purpose indigenous village chickens (IVCs) are kept in low- and middle-income countries. IVCs are hardy and are resilient to disease, hostile environment, global warming, and climate change. The IVCs are a little impacted by anthropogenic effects; consequently, they possess high genetic and phenotypic diversity. Likewise, the genetic structure of IVCs is principally shaped by natural selection, which enables them to accumulate high genetic polymorphism and to adaptively radiate. Regardless of this, the genetic wealth of IVCs has been eroded by indiscriminate crossbreeding. Emerging infectious and non-infectious diseases, flawed assumptions, predation, inadequate nutrition, poorly maintained night enclosures, and underdeveloped market infrastructure, and the overlooked multiple-use values and unique attributes of IVCs have threatened their mere survival. The IVCs lay a few eggs and produce less meat, which cannot meet the growing (existing) demand. However, the demand for IVC products is growing attributable to the flavor and texture of eggs and meat, and they are well-aligned with the subsistence farming system. The several use values and ecosystem services provided by IVCs have been increasingly realized. Enhanced production can be attained through sustainable use of local (genetic) resources and by scaling up and out best practices. Genetic improvement needs to mainly rely upon IVC genetic resources and should have to match the genotype with the environment. Moreover, it has to maintain the genetic polymorphism that has been accumulated for time immemorial to respond to unanticipated changes in the production system and consumers' demand. In this review, enhanced management, selection strategies, and genetic crosses including the crossing of commercial chickens with red junglefowl have been proposed to sustainably intensify the IVC production system.

Intensification of fragility: Poultry production and distribution in Bangladesh and its implications for disease risk

Poultry production is a valuable source of nutritious food and income and is considered a crucial part of global development. This is especially important for countries such as Bangladesh where levels of hunger and childhood stunting remain high. However, in many low- and middle-income countries poultry production remains dominated by small to medium scale enterprises operating with poor farm biosecurity associated with poultry and zoonotic disease risks. We aimed to characterize the structure of poultry production in Bangladesh in order to identify the underlying structural factors and resulting practices which create risk environments for emergence, persistence and transmission of infectious diseases. Using the concept of a production and distribution network (PDN), we conducted a review of the literature, 27 in-depth interviews with key-informants and stakeholders, and 20 structured interviews with poultry distributors to map the ways which poultry are raised, distributed and marketed in Bangladesh. Findings indicate that the PDN can be considered in the context of four major sub-networks, based on the types of chickens; broadly indigenous, cross-bred, exotic broiler, and layer chickens. These sub-networks do not exist in isolation; their transactional nodes - actors and sites - are dynamic and numerous interactions occur within and between the PDN. Our findings suggest that the growth in small and medium scale poultry enterprises is conducted within 'fragile' enterprises by inexperienced and poorly supported producers, many of whom lack capacity for the level of system upgrading needed to mitigate disease risk. Efforts could be taken to address the structural underlying factors identified, such as the poor bargaining power of producers and lack of access to independent credit and indemnity schemes, as a way to reduce the fragility of the PDN and increase its resilience to disease threats. This knowledge on the PDN structure and function provide the essential basis to better study the generation, mitigation and consequences of disease risks associated to livestock, including the analysis of potential hotspots for disease emergence and transmission.

Combined innovations in public policy, the private sector and culture can drive sustainability transitions in food systems

Global food system analyses call for an urgent transition to sustainable human diets but how this might be achieved within the current global food regime is poorly explored. Here we examine the factors that have fostered major dietary shifts across eight countries in the past 70 years. Guided by transition and food-regime theories, we draw on data from diverse disciplines, reviewing post-World War 2 shifts in consumption of three food commodities: farmed tilapia, milk and chicken. We show that large-scale shifts in commodity systems and diets have taken place when public-funded technological innovation is scaled-up by the private sector under supportive state and international policy regimes, highlighting pathways between commodity systems transformation and food-system transitions. Our analysis suggests that the desired sustainability transition will require public policy leadership and private-sector technological innovation alongside consumers who culturally value and can afford healthy, sustainable diets.

Pakistan's backyard poultry farming initiative: impact analysis from a public health perspective

Commercial poultry rearing in Pakistan dates back to the 1960s. Meanwhile, backyard poultry setups have been providing meat and eggs for human consumption and supplementing the livelihood of farmers in many rural setups for ages. Different poultry rearing practices have varied approaches to feed supplementation, administration, biosafety practices, and flock size. All are important factors affecting disease spread and vulnerability. Recently, the Pakistani government announced the prime minister's Backyard Poultry Initiative under the National Agricultural Emergency program to economically develop farmers, especially women. Widespread adoption of this scheme with little to no training of inexperienced farmers may lead to the emergence of zoonotic infections in the population. The focus of the current review is to examine the probable impact of the promotion of backyard poultry farming practices by the government on the spread of zoonotic illnesses, both in the farmers and consumer population.

Associations between livestock ownership and lower odds of anaemia among children 6-59 months old are not mediated by animal-source food consumption in Ghana

Livestock ownership may mitigate anaemia among young children by providing access to animal-source foods (ASFs) yet exacerbate anaemia by exposing children to animal-source pathogens. This study aimed to assess the association between household livestock ownership and child anaemia and examine whether this relationship is mediated by child ASF consumption or by child morbidity and inflammation. We conducted a cross-sectional study of 470 children aged 6-59 months in Greater Accra, Ghana. Child blood samples were analysed for haemoglobin concentration, iron status biomarkers and inflammatory biomarkers. Caregivers were asked about the child's frequency of ASF consumption in the past 3 months. Livestock ownership was categorized into five typologies to distinguish households by the number and combinations of species owned. In adjusted logistic regression, children from households in Type 5, owning cattle, small livestock (goats, sheep or pigs) and poultry, had lower odds of anaemia compared with those in Type 1, owning no livestock (OR [95% CI]: 0.32 [0.14, 0.71]). Although children from households that owned poultry were more likely to consume chicken meat, and children from households with cattle were more likely to drink cow's milk, consumption of these ASFs did not mediate the observed association between livestock ownership and child anaemia. There were no associations between livestock ownership and children's symptoms of illness or inflammation. Further research is needed to understand how ownership of certain livestock species, or a greater diversity of livestock species, may be associated with the risk of child anaemia, including the role of dietary and income-based pathways.

Backyard poultry farming for sustained production and enhanced nutritional and livelihood security with special reference to India: a review

A comprehensive review on backyard poultry farming (BYPF) was carried out with respect to history, status, production systems, management practices, role in socio-economic development, etc., considering the Indian scenario in particular. Backyard poultry is an age-old traditional practice where small numbers of native chickens are reared with or without inputs under the free-range scavenging conditions. Currently, BYPF contributes about 17.8% (18.41 billion) of the total egg production (103.32 billion) of India. The introduction of high yielding chicken varieties, which resemble the native chicken, transformed the BYPF into a highly remunerative farming activity. The BYPF has a proven potential to alleviate poverty, eradicate malnutrition, empower women, and provide subsidiary income, and gainful employment in rural and tribal areas. In India, four types of backyard poultry farming are practiced, i.e., traditional, small-scale rural, small-scale intensive, and native chicken farming. The aspects of breeding and nutritional strategies in the nursery, and free-range conditions, besides the housing and health care practices that are followed in India, are discussed in detail. Backyard poultry farming has huge potential for further expansion as the produce from this system is preferred across the country.

Genomic diversity of Escherichia coli isolates from backyard chickens and guinea fowl in the Gambia

Chickens and guinea fowl are commonly reared in Gambian homes as affordable sources of protein. Using standard microbiological techniques, we obtained 68 caecal isolates of Escherichia coli from 10 chickens and 9 guinea fowl in rural Gambia. After Illumina whole-genome sequencing, 28 sequence types were detected in the isolates (4 of them novel), of which ST155 was the most common (22/68, 32 %). These strains span four of the eight main phylogroups of E. coli, with phylogroups B1 and A being most prevalent. Nearly a third of the isolates harboured at least one antimicrobial resistance gene, while most of the ST155 isolates (14/22, 64 %) encoded resistance to ≥3 classes of clinically relevant antibiotics, as well as putative virulence factors, suggesting pathogenic potential in humans. Furthermore, hierarchical clustering revealed that several Gambian poultry strains were closely related to isolates from humans. Although the ST155 lineage is common in poultry from Africa and South America, the Gambian ST155 isolates belong to a unique cgMLST cluster comprising closely related (38-39 alleles differences) isolates from poultry and livestock from sub-Saharan Africa - suggesting that strains can be exchanged between poultry and livestock in this setting. Continued surveillance of E. coli and other potential pathogens in rural backyard poultry from sub-Saharan Africa is warranted.

The Structural Characteristics, Management, and Challenges of Backyard Poultry Farming in Residential Areas of Turkey

Simple Summary

Relatively little is known about backyard poultry flocks in urban areas in Turkey, their size and how they are managed. To address this knowledge gap, a semi-structured survey was conducted of backyard poultry owners in Turkey with regard to flock characteristics, management, biosecurity practices and the challenges of backyard poultry flocks. Data derived from 1094 respondents across Turkey showed that the majority of respondents owned small flocks with fewer than 50 birds. Most participants reported keeping poultry as food for family use and free-range coops were the most preferred type of housing. Keeping different poultry species together, which poses a significant biosecurity risk, was reported by 64% of owners. Internal-external parasites, Escherichia coli infections and chronic respiratory diseases were the most common health problems in backyard flocks. Although there is a significant amount of backyard poultry farming activity in residential districts of Turkey, lack of regional regulations and animal theft were the most cited challenges. The results highlighted the need for biosecurity measures and for a regulatory framework that takes into account the risks to commercial poultry flocks and public health. A thorough understanding of the complexities of backyard poultry practices and the needs of backyard breeders will help authorities to design effective policies for the backyard poultry sector in Turkey.

Abstract

The aim of this study was to collect, for the first time, comprehensive information about the backyard poultry sector in Turkey. This included a profile of the poultry owners, flock characteristics, husbandry, housing conditions, the owners’ biosecurity measures and the challenges of backyard poultry farming in residential areas of Turkey. An online semi-structured survey was fully completed by 1094 respondents. The majority of respondents (91%) owned fewer than 50 birds and reported raising other poultry species besides chickens (64%). Most of the participants indicated that they kept poultry as food for family use (83%) and had been involved in chicken-raising activities for less than 10 years (86%). Free-range coops were the type of housing most preferred by the respondents (86%). However, there was a lack of awareness about poultry diseases and poultry health care conditions. Respondents that confirmed wild bird and rodent access to their feeders and drinkers reported high rates of internal-external parasites, Escherichia coli infections and chronic respiratory diseases (p < 0.001). Lack of regional regulations (84%), animal theft (80%), lack of information on poultry management (79%), minimizing predation (75%), and the need for vaccination and veterinary services (73%) were the most cited challenges. The results highlighted the need for improved biosecurity measures and for a regulatory framework that takes into account the risks to commercial poultry flocks and public health.

Early intensification of backyard poultry systems in the tropics: a case study

Poultry production is an important way of enhancing the livelihoods of rural populations, especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). As poultry production in LMICs remains dominated by backyard systems with low inputs and low outputs, considerable yield gaps exist. Intensification can increase poultry productivity, production and income. This process is relatively recent in LMICs compared to high-income countries. The management practices and the constraints faced by smallholders trying to scale-up their production, in the early stages of intensification, are poorly understood and described. We thus investigated the features of the small-scale commercial chicken sector in a rural area distant from major production centres. We surveyed 111 commercial chicken farms in Kenya in 2016. We targeted farms that sell the majority of their production, owning at least 50 chickens, partly or wholly confined and provided with feeds. We developed a typology of semi-intensive farms. Farms were found mainly to raise dual-purpose chickens of local and improved breeds, in association with crops and were not specialized in any single product or market. We identified four types of semi-intensive farms that were characterized based on two groups of variables related to intensification and accessibility: (i) remote, small-scale old farms, with small flocks, growing a lot of their own feed; (ii) medium-scale, old farms with a larger flock and well located in relation to markets and (iii) large-scale recently established farms, with large flocks, (iii-a) well located and buying chicks from third-party providers and (iii-b) remotely located and hatching their own chicks. The semi-intensive farms we surveyed were highly heterogeneous in terms of size, age, accessibility, management, opportunities and challenges. Farm location affects market access and influences the opportunities available to farmers, resulting in further diversity in farm profiles. The future of these semi-intensive farms could be compromised by several factors, including the competition with large-scale intensive farmers and with importations. Our study suggests that intensification trajectories in rural areas of LMICs are potentially complex, diverse and non-linear. A better understanding of intensification trajectories should, however, be based on longitudinal data. This could, in turn, help designing interventions to support small-scale farmers.

A Chicken Production Intervention and Additional Nutrition Behavior Change Component Increased Child Growth in Ethiopia: A Cluster-Randomized Trial

BACKGROUND

Chicken production in the context of nutrition-sensitive agriculture may benefit child nutrition in low-income settings.

OBJECTIVES

This study evaluated effects of 1) a chicken production intervention [African Chicken Genetic Gains (ACGG)], and 2) the ACGG intervention with nutrition-sensitive behavior change communication (BCC) [ACGG + Agriculture to Nutrition (ATONU)], on child nutrition and health outcomes and hypothesized intermediaries.

METHODS

Forty ACGG villages received 25 genetically improved chickens and basic husbandry guidance; of these, 20 ACGG + ATONU villages in addition received a nutrition-sensitive behavior change and homegardening intervention; 20 control clusters received no intervention. We assessed effects of the interventions on height-for-age z scores (HAZ), weight-for-age z scores (WAZ), and weight-for-height z scores (WHZ) at 9 (midline) and 18 mo (endline) through unadjusted and adjusted ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions. We examined the interventions' effects on hypothesized intermediaries including egg production and consumption, dietary diversity, women's empowerment, income, child morbidities, anemia, and chicken management practices through OLS and log binomial models.

RESULTS

Data included 829 children aged 0-36 mo at baseline. ACGG + ATONU children had higher midline HAZ [mean difference (MD): 0.28; 95% CI: 0.02, 0.54] than controls. The ACGG group had higher HAZ (MD: 0.28; 95% CI: 0.05, 0.50) and higher WAZ (MD: 0.18; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.36) at endline than controls; after adjusting for potential baseline imbalance, effects were similar but not statistically significant. At endline, differences in ACGG + ATONU children's HAZ and WAZ compared with controls were similar in magnitude to those of ACGG, but not statistically significant. There were no differences in anthropometry between the intervention groups. ACGG + ATONU children had higher dietary diversity and egg consumption than ACGG children at endline. Both interventions showed improvements in chicken management practices. The interventions did not increase anemia, diarrhea, fever, or vomiting, and the ACGG + ATONU group at midline showed reduced risk of fever.

CONCLUSIONS

A chicken production intervention with or without nutrition-sensitive BCC may have benefited child nutrition and did not increase morbidity.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03152227.

A Review of Antimicrobial Resistance in Poultry Farming within Low-Resource Settings

The emergence, spread, and persistence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) remain a pressing global health issue. Animal husbandry, in particular poultry, makes up a substantial portion of the global antimicrobial use. Despite the growing body of research evaluating the AMR within industrial farming systems, there is a gap in understanding the emergence of bacterial resistance originating from poultry within resource-limited environments. As countries continue to transition from low- to middle income countries (LMICs), there will be an increased demand for quality sources of animal protein. Further promotion of intensive poultry farming could address issues of food security, but it may also increase risks of AMR exposure to poultry, other domestic animals, wildlife, and human populations. Given that intensively raised poultry can function as animal reservoirs for AMR, surveillance is needed to evaluate the impacts on humans, other animals, and the environment. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of poultry production within low-resource settings in order to inform future small-scale poultry farming development. Future research is needed in order to understand the full extent of the epidemiology and ecology of AMR in poultry within low-resource settings.

Nutrition Justice: Uncovering Invisible Pathways to Malnutrition

We propose the use of the analytic frame of "nutrition justice" to reconcile the separate imperatives of Global Health for nutritional sufficiency for all, the requirement to eradicate childhood malnutrition, and the need for strategies to check the emerging pandemic of the double burden of malnutrition in the Global South. Malnutrition and its consequences of growth stunting are the result of disruption to the nutritional ecology of childhood from structural violence. This is mediated through loss of food security and perturbation to the cultural status of food, and on the prerequisites for nurture during infancy and early childhood. These socio-political factors obscure the role of biological adaptation to nutritional constraint on growth and hence the causal pathway to the double burden of malnutrition. In this paper we describe how the effects of historical and contemporary structural violence on the nutritional ecology of childhood are mediated using the examples of remote Aboriginal Australia and the Lao PDR. Both populations live by force of circumstance in a "metabolic ghetto" that has disrupted the prerequisites for parental nurturing through loss of food security and of traditional sources of transitional staple foods for weaning. Growth faltering and stunting of stature are markers of adaptation to nutritional constraint yet are also the first steps on the track to the double burden. We discuss the implications of these observations for strategies for global food sufficiency by mean of a thought-experiment of the effect of food and nutrient sufficiency for growth on future health and metabolic adaptation.

Modeling the Impact of Newcastle Disease Virus Vaccinations on Chicken Production Systems in Northeastern Madagascar

Chickens are a key source of nutrition for rural Malagasy communities. Due to high endemic rates of Newcastle disease, it remains challenging to raise sustainable chicken flocks as a consistent food source. Here, we explore the impact of triannual Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vaccine interventions on the growth and herd immunity acquisition of Malagasy chicken flocks. Between 2011 and 2018 we collected longitudinal data to assess the population dynamics of chicken populations in remote Malagasy communities. In 2016, we launched a pilot campaign for vaccination in six rural communities to determine the impacts on chicken survivorship and productivity. We used these data to specify a mathematical model of realistic Malagasy chicken population dynamics under a triannual vaccination regime. The mathematical model represents an extension to conventional SIR models that allows for modeling the impact of specific vaccinations on chicken flock dynamics, rather than estimation of parameters. Understanding chicken population dynamics is important for realizing the potential for domestic chicken flocks to serve as sustainable food sources. The results suggested that vaccination coverage of at least ~40% is necessary over 5+ years to achieve population doubling, while complete herd immunity may not be possible given the short duration of effectiveness of vaccination, and the high levels of births and deaths in the chicken flocks.

Family poultry: Multiple roles, systems, challenges, and options for sustainable contributions to household nutrition security through a planetary health lens

Achieving sustainable production of eggs by family poultry production systems that meet both environmental health and welfare standards is a complex endeavour. Humans have been raising different species of poultry for thousands of years across many different agroecological zones. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations has identified four different family poultry production systems: small extensive, extensive, semi‐intensive, and intensive. Each of these systems varies in terms of inputs, outputs, gender dimensions, poultry health and welfare, and environmental impacts. This paper addresses key issues associated with the production of family poultry eggs in support of both improved maternal and child nutrition and sustainable, nutrition‐sensitive agricultural practices. It provides an overview of the history of poultry raising; characteristics of the different family poultry production systems; challenges and solutions to poultry production in low‐ and middle‐income countries; poultry husbandry (including breeds, nutrition, and shelter); infectious disease prevention and control in line with national and international animal health regulations; and food safety (microbial pathogens, toxins, and egg storage). To ensure that bird, human, and environmental health can flourish, it is essential for interdisciplinary research and development teams to work in collaboration with communities to ensure the long‐term environmental and economic sustainability of family poultry production enterprises that are a good fit with local circumstances.