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Hai D, Li J, Jiang D, Cheng J, Fu Y, Xiao X, Yin H, Lin Y, Chen T, Li B, Yu X, Cai Q, Chen W, Kotta-Loizou I, Xie J. Plants interfere with non-self recognition of a phytopathogenic fungus via proline accumulation to facilitate mycovirus transmission. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4748. [PMID: 38834585 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-49110-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Non-self recognition is a fundamental aspect of life, serving as a crucial mechanism for mitigating proliferation of molecular parasites within fungal populations. However, studies investigating the potential interference of plants with fungal non-self recognition mechanisms are limited. Here, we demonstrate a pronounced increase in the efficiency of horizontal mycovirus transmission between vegetatively incompatible Sclerotinia sclerotiorum strains in planta as compared to in vitro. This increased efficiency is associated with elevated proline concentration in plants following S. sclerotiorum infection. This surge in proline levels attenuates the non-self recognition reaction among fungi by inhibition of cell death, thereby facilitating mycovirus transmission. Furthermore, our field experiments reveal that the combined deployment of hypovirulent S. sclerotiorum strains harboring hypovirulence-associated mycoviruses (HAVs) together with exogenous proline confers substantial protection to oilseed rape plants against virulent S. sclerotiorum. This unprecedented discovery illuminates a novel pathway by which plants can counteract S. sclerotiorum infection, leveraging the weakening of fungal non-self recognition and promotion of HAVs spread. These promising insights provide an avenue to explore for developing innovative biological control strategies aimed at mitigating fungal diseases in plants by enhancing the efficacy of horizontal HAV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Du Hai
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Jincang Li
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Daohong Jiang
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Jiasen Cheng
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yanping Fu
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Xueqiong Xiao
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Huanran Yin
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Center of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yang Lin
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Tao Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Bo Li
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Xiao Yu
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Qing Cai
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Wei Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Center of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ioly Kotta-Loizou
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Jiatao Xie
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
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Yang X, Jiang S, Zhang M, Li T, Jin Z, Wu X, Chi YR. Discovery of novel piperidine-containing thymol derivatives as potent antifungal agents for crop protection. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2024. [PMID: 38817109 DOI: 10.1002/ps.8203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plant fungal diseases pose a significant threat to crop production. The extensive use of chemical pesticides has led to growing environmental safety risks and pesticide resistance of various plant pathogens. Therefore, it is an urgent task to explore novel eco-friendly fungicidal agents with high efficacy to combat fungal infection. RESULTS In this study, we rationally designed a series of novel thymol derivatives by incorporation of the sulfonamide moiety and evaluated their biological activities against plant pathogenic fungi. The bioassay results underscored the remarkable in vitro antifungal activity of compounds 5m and 5t against Phytophthora capsici (P. capsici), with EC50 values of 8.420 and 8.414 μg/mL, respectively. Their efficacies were superior to that of widely used commercial fungicides azoxystrobin (AZO, 20.649 μg/mL) and cabendazim (CAB, 251.625 μg/mL). Furthermore, compound 5v exhibited excellent in vitro antifungal activity against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (S. sclerotiorum), with an EC50 value of 12.829 μg/mL, significantly outperforming AZO (63.629 μg/mL). In vivo bioassays demonstrated the impactful activity of compound 5v against S. sclerotiorum, achieving over 98% curative and protective efficacies at the concentration of 200 μg/mL. Further mechanistic investigations unveiled that compound 5v induced mycelial shrinkage and collapse in S. sclerotiorum, resulting in organelle damage and the accumulation of antioxidant enzyme activity. CONCLUSION The significant antifungal efficacy of the prepared thymol derivatives shall encourage further exploration of compound 5v as a promising candidate to develop novel fungicides for crop protection. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqun Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide; Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Shichun Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide; Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide; Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Tingting Li
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide; Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Zhichao Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide; Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Xingxing Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide; Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Yonggui Robin Chi
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide; Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering, and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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Ma M, Tang L, Sun R, Lyu X, Xie J, Fu Y, Li B, Chen T, Lin Y, Yu X, Chen W, Jiang D, Cheng J. An effector SsCVNH promotes the virulence of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum through targeting class III peroxidase AtPRX71. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2024; 25:e13464. [PMID: 38695733 PMCID: PMC11064801 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
Many plant pathogens secrete effector proteins into the host plant to suppress host immunity and facilitate pathogen colonization. The necrotrophic pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum causes severe plant diseases and results in enormous economic losses, in which secreted proteins play a crucial role. SsCVNH was previously reported as a secreted protein, and its expression is significantly upregulated at 3 h after inoculation on the host plant. Here, we further demonstrated that deletion of SsCVNH leads to attenuated virulence. Heterologous expression of SsCVNH in Arabidopsis enhanced pathogen infection, inhibited the host PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI) response and increased plant susceptibility to S. sclerotiorum. SsCVNH interacted with class III peroxidase AtPRX71, a positive regulator of innate immunity against plant pathogens. SsCVNH could also interact with other class III peroxidases, thus reducing peroxidase activity and suppressing plant immunity. Our results reveal a new infection strategy employed by S. sclerotiorum in which the fungus suppresses the function of class III peroxidases, the major component of PTI to promote its own infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Ma
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Liguang Tang
- Wuhan Vegetable Research InstituteWuhan Academy of Agricultural ScienceWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Rui Sun
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Xueliang Lyu
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Jiatao Xie
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Yanping Fu
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Bo Li
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Tao Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Yang Lin
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Xiao Yu
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Weidong Chen
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research ServiceWashington State UniversityPullmanWashingtonUSA
| | - Daohong Jiang
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Jiasen Cheng
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
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4
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Azizi A, Del Río Mendoza LE. Effective Control of Sclerotinia Stem Rot in Canola Plants Through Application of Exogenous Hairpin RNA of Multiple Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Genes. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2024; 114:1000-1010. [PMID: 38506733 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-10-23-0395-kc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Sclerotinia stem rot is a globally destructive plant disease caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Current management of Sclerotinia stem rot primarily relies on chemical fungicides and crop rotation, raising environmental concerns. In this study, we developed an eco-friendly RNA bio-fungicide targeting S. sclerotiorum. Six S. sclerotiorum genes were selected for double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) synthesis. Four genes, a chitin-binding domain, mitogen-activated protein kinase, oxaloacetate acetylhydrolase, and abhydrolase-3, were combined to express hairpin RNA in Escherichia coli HT115. The effect of application of total RNA extracted from E. coli HT115 expressing hairpin RNA on disease progressive and necrosis lesions was evaluated. Gene expression analysis using real-time PCR showed silencing of the target genes using 5 ng/µl of dsRNA in a fungal liquid culture. A detached leaf assay and greenhouse application of dsRNA on canola stem and leaves showed variation in the reduction of necrosis symptoms by dsRNA of different genes, with abhydrolase-3 being the most effective. The dsRNA from a combination of four genes reduced disease severity significantly (P = 0.01). Plants sprayed with hairpin RNA from four genes had lesions that were almost 30% smaller than those of plants treated with abhydrolase-3 alone, in lab and greenhouse assays. The results of this study highlight the potential of RNA interference to manage diseases caused by S. sclerotiorum; however, additional research is necessary to optimize its efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdolbaset Azizi
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Dakota State University, ND, U.S.A
- Department of Plant Protection, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj, Iran
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Cao Y, Zhang X, Song X, Li W, Ren Z, Feng J, Ma Z, Liu X, Wang Y. Efficacy and toxic action of the natural product natamycin against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2024; 80:1981-1990. [PMID: 38087429 DOI: 10.1002/ps.7930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sclerotinia stem rot caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum seriously endangers oilseed rape production worldwide, and the occurrence of fungicide-resistant mutants of S. sclerotiorum leads to control decline. Thus, it is critical to explore new green substitutes with different action mechanisms and high antifungal activity. Herein, the activity and the action mechanism of natamycin against S. sclerotiorum were evaluated. RESULTS Natamycin showed potent inhibition on the mycelial growth of S. sclerotiorum, and half-maximal effective concentration (EC50 ) values against 103 S. sclerotiorum strains ranged from 0.53 to 4.04 μg/mL (mean 1.44 μg/mL). Natamycin also exhibited high efficacy against both carbendazim- and dimethachlone-resistant strains of S. sclerotiorum on detached oilseed rape leaves. No cross-resistance was detected between natamycin and carbendazim. Natamycin markedly disrupted hyphal form, sclerotia formation, integrity of the cell membrane, and reduced the content of oxalic acid and ergosterol, whereas it increased the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde content. Interestingly, exogenous addition of ergosterol could reduce the inhibition of natamycin against S. sclerotiorum. Importantly, natamycin significantly inhibited expression of the Cyp51 gene, which is contrary to results for the triazole fungicide flusilazole, indicating a different action mechanism from triazole fungicides. CONCLUSION Natamycin is a promising effective candidate for the resistance management of S. sclerotiorum. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuxuan Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Key Laboratory of Plant Protection Resources and Pest Management of Ministry of Education, College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
| | - Xu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Key Laboratory of Plant Protection Resources and Pest Management of Ministry of Education, College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
| | - Xiaoning Song
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Key Laboratory of Plant Protection Resources and Pest Management of Ministry of Education, College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
| | - Wenkui Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Key Laboratory of Plant Protection Resources and Pest Management of Ministry of Education, College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
- Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Xianyang, China
| | - Zheng Ren
- College of Language and Culture, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
| | - Juntao Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Key Laboratory of Plant Protection Resources and Pest Management of Ministry of Education, College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
- Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Xianyang, China
| | - Zhiqing Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Key Laboratory of Plant Protection Resources and Pest Management of Ministry of Education, College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
- Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Xianyang, China
| | - Xili Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Key Laboratory of Plant Protection Resources and Pest Management of Ministry of Education, College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
| | - Yong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Key Laboratory of Plant Protection Resources and Pest Management of Ministry of Education, College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
- Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Xianyang, China
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6
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Tian L, Li J, Xu Y, Qiu Y, Zhang Y, Li X. A MAP kinase cascade broadly regulates the lifestyle of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and can be targeted by HIGS for disease control. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2024; 118:324-344. [PMID: 38149487 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum causes white mold or stem rot in a wide range of economically important plants, bringing significant yield losses worldwide. Control of this pathogen is difficult as its resting structure sclerotia can survive in soil for years, and no Resistance genes have been identified in S. sclerotiorum hosts. Host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) has shown promising effects in controlling many fungal pathogens, including S. sclerotiorum. However, better molecular genetic understanding of signaling pathways involved in its development and pathogenicity is needed to provide effective HIGS gene targets. Here, by employing a forward genetic screen, we characterized an evolutionarily conserved mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade in S. sclerotiorum, consisting of SsSte50-SsSte11-SsSte7-Smk1, which controls mycelial growth, sclerotia development, compound appressoria formation, virulence, and hyphal fusion. Moreover, disruption of the putative downstream transcription factor SsSte12 led to normal sclerotia but deformed appressoria and attenuated host penetration, as well as impaired apothecia formation, suggestive of diverged regulation downstream of the MAPK cascade. Most importantly, targeting SsSte50 using host-expressed double-stranded RNA resulted in largely reduced virulence of S. sclerotiorum on both Nicotiana benthamiana leaves and transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plants. Therefore, this MAPK signaling cascade is generally needed for its growth, development, and pathogenesis and can serve as ideal HIGS targets for mitigating economic damages caused by S. sclerotiorum infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Tian
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Josh Li
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Yan Xu
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Yilan Qiu
- Department of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, China
| | - Yuelin Zhang
- College of Life Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, China
| | - Xin Li
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
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7
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Fu M, Qu Z, Pierre-Pierre N, Jiang D, Souza FL, Miklas PN, Porter LD, Vandemark GJ, Chen W. Exploring the Mycovirus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Hypovirulence-Associated DNA Virus 1 as a Biocontrol Agent of White Mold Caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. PLANT DISEASE 2024; 108:624-634. [PMID: 37743591 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-07-23-1458-re] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a necrotrophic fungal pathogen causing white mold on many important economic crops. Recently, some mycoviruses such as S. sclerotiorum hypovirulence-associated DNA virus 1 (SsHADV-1) converted S. sclerotiorum into a beneficial symbiont that helps plants manage pathogens and other stresses. To explore the potential use of SsHADV-1 as a biocontrol agent in the United States and to test the efficacy of SsHADV-1-infected United States isolates in managing white mold and other crop diseases, SsHADV-1 was transferred from the Chinese strain DT-8 to United States isolates of S. sclerotiorum. SsHADV-1 is readily transmitted horizontally among United States isolates of S. sclerotiorum and consistently conferred hypovirulence to its host strains. Biopriming of dry bean seeds with hypovirulent S. sclerotiorum strains enhanced resistance to white mold, gray mold, and Rhizoctonia root rot. To investigate the underlying mechanisms, endophytic growth of hypovirulent S. sclerotiorum in dry beans was confirmed using PCR, and the expression of 12 plant defense-related genes were monitored before and after infection. The results indicated that the endophytic growth of SsHADV-1-infected strains in plants stimulated the expression of plant immunity pathway genes that assisted a rapid response from the plant to fungal infection. Finally, application of the seed biopriming technology with SsHADV-1-infected hypervirulent strain has promise for the biological control of several diseases of wheat, pea, and sunflower.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Fu
- Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, U.S.A
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Crop Pest Management of Anhui Province, College of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Zheng Qu
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Nickisha Pierre-Pierre
- Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, U.S.A
- Grain Legume Genetics and Physiology Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Pullman, WA 99164, U.S.A
| | - Daohong Jiang
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Fernanda L Souza
- Grain Legume Genetics and Physiology Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Prosser, WA 99350, U.S.A
| | - Phillip N Miklas
- Grain Legume Genetics and Physiology Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Prosser, WA 99350, U.S.A
| | - Lyndon D Porter
- Grain Legume Genetics and Physiology Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Prosser, WA 99350, U.S.A
| | - George J Vandemark
- Grain Legume Genetics and Physiology Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Pullman, WA 99164, U.S.A
| | - Weidong Chen
- Grain Legume Genetics and Physiology Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Pullman, WA 99164, U.S.A
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Wockenfuss A, Chan K, Cooper JG, Chaya T, Mauriello MA, Yannarell SM, Maresca JA, Donofrio NM. A Bacillus velezensis strain shows antimicrobial activity against soilborne and foliar fungi and oomycetes. FRONTIERS IN FUNGAL BIOLOGY 2024; 5:1332755. [PMID: 38465255 PMCID: PMC10920214 DOI: 10.3389/ffunb.2024.1332755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Biological control uses naturally occurring antagonists such as bacteria or fungi for environmentally friendly control of plant pathogens. Bacillus spp. have been used for biocontrol of numerous plant and insect pests and are well-known to synthesize a variety of bioactive secondary metabolites. We hypothesized that bacteria isolated from agricultural soil would be effective antagonists of soilborne fungal pathogens. Here, we show that the Delaware soil isolate Bacillus velezensis strain S4 has in vitro activity against soilborne and foliar plant pathogenic fungi, including two with a large host range, and one oomycete. Further, this strain shows putative protease and cellulase activity, consistent with our prior finding that the genome of this organism is highly enriched in antifungal and antimicrobial biosynthetic gene clusters. We demonstrate that this bacterium causes changes to the fungal and oomycete hyphae at the inhibition zone, with some of the hyphae forming bubble-like structures and irregular branching. We tested strain S4 against Magnaporthe oryzae spores, which typically form germ tubes and penetration structures called appressoria, on the surface of the leaf. Our results suggest that after 12 hours of incubation with the bacterium, fungal spores form germ tubes, but instead of producing appressoria, they appear to form rounded, bubble-like structures. Future work will investigate whether a single antifungal molecule induces all these effects, or if they are the result of a combination of bacterially produced antimicrobials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Wockenfuss
- Microbiology Graduate Program, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Kevin Chan
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Jessica G. Cooper
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Timothy Chaya
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Megan A. Mauriello
- Microbiology Graduate Program, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Sarah M. Yannarell
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Julia A. Maresca
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Nicole M. Donofrio
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
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9
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Huang Y, Zhaxi Z, Fu Y, Xie J, Chen T, Li B, Yu X, Lin Y, Jiang D, Cheng J. The Transcription Factor SsZNC1 Mediates Virulence, Sclerotial Development, and Osmotic Stress Response in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:135. [PMID: 38392807 PMCID: PMC10890190 DOI: 10.3390/jof10020135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 01/28/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a fungal pathogen with a broad range of hosts, which can cause diseases and pose a great threat to many crops. Fungal-specific Zn2Cys6 transcription factors (TFs) constitute a large family prevalent among plant pathogens. However, the function of Zn2Cys6 TFs remains largely unknown. In this study, we identified and characterized SsZNC1, a Zn2Cys6 TF in S. sclerotiorum, which is involved in virulence, sclerotial development, and osmotic stress response. The expression of SsZNC1 was significantly up-regulated in the early stages of S. sclerotiorum infection on Arabidopsis leaves. The target deletion of SsZNC1 resulted in reduced virulence on Arabidopsis and oilseed rape. In addition, sclerotial development ability and growth ability under hyperosmotic conditions of SsZNC1 knockout transformants were reduced. A transcriptomic analysis unveiled its regulatory role in key cellular functions, including cellulose catabolic process, methyltransferase activity, and virulence, etc. Together, our results indicated that SsZNC1, a core regulatory gene involved in virulence, sclerotial development and stress response, provides new insight into the transcription regulation and pathogenesis of S. sclerotiorum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongkun Huang
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- The Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zhima Zhaxi
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- The Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yanping Fu
- The Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Jiatao Xie
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- The Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Tao Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- The Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Bo Li
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- The Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Xiao Yu
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- The Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yang Lin
- The Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Daohong Jiang
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- The Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Jiasen Cheng
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- The Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
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10
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Singh R, Caseys C, Kliebenstein DJ. Genetic and molecular landscapes of the generalist phytopathogen Botrytis cinerea. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2024; 25:e13404. [PMID: 38037862 PMCID: PMC10788480 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea Pers. Fr. (teleomorph: Botryotinia fuckeliana) is a necrotrophic fungal pathogen that attacks a wide range of plants. This updated pathogen profile explores the extensive genetic diversity of B. cinerea, highlights the progress in genome sequencing, and provides current knowledge of genetic and molecular mechanisms employed by the fungus to attack its hosts. In addition, we also discuss recent innovative strategies to combat B. cinerea. TAXONOMY Kingdom: Fungi, phylum: Ascomycota, subphylum: Pezizomycotina, class: Leotiomycetes, order: Helotiales, family: Sclerotiniaceae, genus: Botrytis, species: cinerea. HOST RANGE B. cinerea infects almost all of the plant groups (angiosperms, gymnosperms, pteridophytes, and bryophytes). To date, 1606 plant species have been identified as hosts of B. cinerea. GENETIC DIVERSITY This polyphagous necrotroph has extensive genetic diversity at all population levels shaped by climate, geography, and plant host variation. PATHOGENICITY Genetic architecture of virulence and host specificity is polygenic using multiple weapons to target hosts, including secretory proteins, complex signal transduction pathways, metabolites, and mobile small RNA. DISEASE CONTROL STRATEGIES Efforts to control B. cinerea, being a high-diversity generalist pathogen, are complicated. However, integrated disease management strategies that combine cultural practices, chemical and biological controls, and the use of appropriate crop varieties will lessen yield losses. Recently, studies conducted worldwide have explored the potential of small RNA as an efficient and environmentally friendly approach for combating grey mould. However, additional research is necessary, especially on risk assessment and regulatory frameworks, to fully harness the potential of this technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritu Singh
- Department of Plant ScienceUniversity of CaliforniaDavisCaliforniaUSA
| | - Celine Caseys
- Department of Plant ScienceUniversity of CaliforniaDavisCaliforniaUSA
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11
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Xu Y, Tan J, Lu J, Zhang Y, Li X. RAS signalling genes can be used as host-induced gene silencing targets to control fungal diseases caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Botrytis cinerea. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2024; 22:262-277. [PMID: 37845842 PMCID: PMC10754012 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.14184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum causes white mold (also called stem rot, Sclerotinia blight, etc.) in many economically important plants. It is a notorious soilborne fungal pathogen due to its wide host range and ability to survive in soil for long periods of time as sclerotia. Although host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) was recently demonstrated to be an effective method for controlling white mold, limited gene targets are available. Here, using a forward genetics approach, we identified a RAS-GTPase activating protein, SsGAP1, which plays essential roles in sclerotia formation, compound appressoria production and virulence. In parallel, as revealed by our knockout analysis, the SsGAP1 ortholog in Botrytis cinerea, BcGAP1, plays similar roles in fungal development and virulence. By knocking down SsRAS1 and SsRAS2, we also revealed that both SsRAS1 and SsRAS2 are required for vegetative growth, sclerotia development, compound appressoria production and virulence in S. sclerotiorum. Due to the major roles these RAS signalling components play in Sclerotiniaceae biology, they can be used as HIGS targets to control diseases caused by both S. sclerotiorum and B. cinerea. Indeed, when we introduced HIGS constructs targeting SsGAP1, SsRAS1 and SsRAS2 in Nicotiana benthamiana and Arabidopsis thaliana, we observed reduced virulence. Taken together, our forward genetics gene discovery pipeline in S. sclerotiorum is highly effective in identifying novel HIGS targets to control S. sclerotiorum and B. cinerea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Xu
- Michael Smith LaboratoriesUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
- Department of BotanyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
| | - Jinyi Tan
- Michael Smith LaboratoriesUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
- Department of BotanyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
| | - Junxing Lu
- Michael Smith LaboratoriesUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
- College of Life ScienceChongqing Normal UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Yuelin Zhang
- Department of BotanyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
| | - Xin Li
- Michael Smith LaboratoriesUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
- Department of BotanyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
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12
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Ruan R, Huang K, Luo H, Zhang C, Xi D, Pei J, Liu H. Occurrence and Characterization of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Causing Fruit Rot on Sweet Cherry in Southern China. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:4165. [PMID: 38140492 PMCID: PMC10747181 DOI: 10.3390/plants12244165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) is widely planted in northern China due to its high economic value, and its cultivation has gradually spread south to warm regions. However, fruit rot, observed on the young fruits, poses a considerable threat to the development of sweet cherry. To determine the causal agent, morphological observation, molecular identification, and pathogenicity tests were performed on isolates obtained from diseased fruits. As a result, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum was identified as the pathogen. Pathogenicity tests on different sweet cherry cultivars indicated that 'Summit' was highly sensitive to S. sclerotiorum, whereas 'Hongmi' showed significant resistance. Besides sweet cherry, S. sclerotiorum could also infect other vegetable crops we tested, such as cowpea, soybean, tomato, and chili. Fungicide sensitivity and efficacy assays showed that both fludioxonil and pyraclostrobin can effectively inhibit the mycelial growth of S. sclerotiorum and decrease disease incidences on the young fruits of sweet cherry. Furthermore, genome sequencing resulted in a 37.8 Mb assembly of S. sclerotiorum strain ScSs1, showing abundant SNPs, InDels, and SVs with the genome of S. sclerotiorum reference strain 1980 UF-70. The above results provide an important basis for controlling the fruit rot of sweet cherry caused by S. sclerotiorum in China.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Hui Liu
- Institute of Horticulture, Hangzhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China; (R.R.)
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13
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Tian B, Chen Z, Yu Y, Yang Y, Fang A, Bi C, Qu Z, Fu Y, Mehmood MA, Zhou C, Jiang D. Transcriptional plasticity of schizotrophic Sclerotinia sclerotiorum responds to symptomatic rapeseed and endophytic wheat hosts. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0261223. [PMID: 37905914 PMCID: PMC10714719 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02612-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE The broad host range of fungi with differential fungal responses leads to either a pathogenic or an endophytic lifestyle in various host plants. Yet, the molecular basis of schizotrophic fungal responses to different plant hosts remains unexplored. Here, we observed a general increase in the gene expression of S. sclerotiorum associated with pathogenicity in symptomatic rapeseed, including small protein secretion, appressorial formation, and oxalic acid toxin production. Conversely, in wheat, many carbohydrate metabolism and transport-associated genes were induced, indicating a general increase in processes associated with carbohydrate acquisition. Appressorium is required for S. sclerotiorum during colonization in symptomatic hosts but not in endophytic wheat. These findings provide new clues for understanding schizotrophic fungi, fungal evolution, and the emergence pathways of new plant diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binnian Tian
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Biosafety and Green Production of Upper Yangtze River (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ziyang Chen
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Biosafety and Green Production of Upper Yangtze River (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yang Yu
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Biosafety and Green Production of Upper Yangtze River (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yuheng Yang
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Biosafety and Green Production of Upper Yangtze River (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Anfei Fang
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Biosafety and Green Production of Upper Yangtze River (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chaowei Bi
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Biosafety and Green Production of Upper Yangtze River (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zheng Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yanping Fu
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Mirza Abid Mehmood
- Plant Pathology, Institute of Plant Protection, Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Changyong Zhou
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Biosafety and Green Production of Upper Yangtze River (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Daohong Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
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14
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Macioszek VK, Marciniak P, Kononowicz AK. Impact of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Infection on Lettuce ( Lactuca sativa L.) Survival and Phenolics Content-A Case Study in a Horticulture Farm in Poland. Pathogens 2023; 12:1416. [PMID: 38133299 PMCID: PMC10747159 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12121416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a cause of a prevalent and destructive disease that attacks many horticultural food crops, such as lettuce. This soil-borne necrotrophic fungal pathogen causes significant economic losses in worldwide lettuce production annually. Furthermore, current methods utilized for management and combatting the disease, such as biocontrol, are insufficient. In this study, three cultivars of lettuce (one Crispy and two Leafy cultivars of red and green lettuce) were grown in central Poland (Lodz Voivodeship), a widely known Polish horticultural region. In the summer and early autumn, lettuce cultivars were grown in control and S. sclerotiorum-infected fields. The lettuce cultivars (Templin, Lollo Rossa, and Lollo Bionda) differed phenotypically and in terms of the survival of the fungal infection. The Crispy iceberg Templin was the most susceptible to S. sclerotiorum infection compared to the other cultivars during both vegetation seasons. The total content of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and anthocyanins varied among cultivars and fluctuated during infection. Moreover, phenolic content was affected by vegetation season with alterable environmental factors such as air temperature, humidity, soil temperature, and pH. The most increased levels of phenolics, both flavonoids and anthocyanins in infected plants, were observed in the Leafy red Lollo Rossa cultivar in both crops. However, the highest survival/resistance to the fungus was noticed for Lollo Rossa in the summer crop and Lollo Bionda in the autumn crop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Violetta Katarzyna Macioszek
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Department of Biology and Plant Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bialystok, 15-245 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Paulina Marciniak
- Wiesław and Izabela Królikiewicz Horticulture Market Farm, 97-306 Majków Średni, Poland
- Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-237 Lodz, Poland
| | - Andrzej Kiejstut Kononowicz
- Department of Plant Ecophysiology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-237 Lodz, Poland;
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15
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Fei YC, Cheng Q, Zhang H, Han C, Wang X, Li YF, Li SQ, Zhao XH. Maleic acid and malonic acid reduced the pathogenicity of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum by inhibiting mycelial growth, sclerotia formation and virulence factors. STRESS BIOLOGY 2023; 3:45. [PMID: 37955738 PMCID: PMC10643788 DOI: 10.1007/s44154-023-00122-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a necrotrophic plant pathogenic fungus with broad distribution and host range. Bioactive compounds derived from plant extracts have been proven to be effective in controlling S. sclerotiorum. In this study, the mycelial growth of S. sclerotiorum was effectively inhibited by maleic acid, malonic acid, and their combination at a concentration of 2 mg/mL, with respective inhibition rates of 32.5%, 9.98%, and 67.6%. The treatment of detached leaves with the two acids resulted in a decrease in lesion diameters. Interestingly, maleic acid and malonic acid decreased the number of sclerotia while simultaneously increasing their weight. The two acids also disrupted the cell structure of sclerotia, leading to sheet-like electron-thin regions. On a molecular level, maleic acid reduced oxalic acid secretion, upregulated the expression of Ss-Odc2 and downregulated CWDE10, Ss-Bi1 and Ss-Ggt1. Differently, malonic acid downregulated CWDE2 and Ss-Odc1. These findings verified that maleic acid and malonic acid could effectively inhibit S. sclerotiorum, providing promising evidence for the development of an environmentally friendly biocontrol agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Chen Fei
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology / College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Fujian Universities and Colleges Engineering Research Center of Modern Facility Agriculture, Fuqing, 350300, China
| | - Qin Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology / College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Huan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology / College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Chuang Han
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology / College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Xu Wang
- Institute of Quality Standard and Monitoring Technology for Agro-Products of Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Yan-Feng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology / College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Shi-Qian Li
- Fujian Universities and Colleges Engineering Research Center of Modern Facility Agriculture, Fuqing, 350300, China.
| | - Xiao-Hu Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology / College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China.
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16
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Poudel RS, Belay K, Nelson B, Brueggeman R, Underwood W. Population and genome-wide association studies of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum isolates collected from diverse host plants throughout the United States. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1251003. [PMID: 37829452 PMCID: PMC10566370 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1251003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a necrotrophic fungal pathogen causing disease and economic loss on numerous crop plants. This fungus has a broad host range and can infect over 400 plant species, including important oilseed crops such as soybean, canola, and sunflower. S. sclerotiorum isolates vary in aggressiveness of lesion formation on plant tissues. However, the genetic basis for this variation remains to be determined. The aims of this study were to evaluate a diverse collection of S. sclerotiorum isolates collected from numerous hosts and U.S. states for aggressiveness of stem lesion formation on sunflower, to evaluate the population characteristics, and to identify loci associated with isolate aggressiveness using genome-wide association mapping. Methods A total of 219 S. sclerotiorum isolates were evaluated for stem lesion formation on two sunflower inbred lines and genotyped using genotyping-by-sequencing. DNA markers were used to assess population differentiation across hosts, regions, and climatic conditions and to perform a genome-wide association study of isolate aggressiveness. Results and discussion We observed a broad range of aggressiveness for lesion formation on sunflower stems, and only a moderate correlation between aggressiveness on the two lines. Population genetic evaluations revealed differentiation between populations from warmer climate regions compared to cooler regions. Finally, a genome-wide association study of isolate aggressiveness identified three loci significantly associated with aggressiveness on sunflower. Functional characterization of candidate genes at these loci will likely improve our understanding of the virulence strategies used by this pathogen to cause disease on a wide array of agriculturally important host plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roshan Sharma Poudel
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, United States
| | - Kassaye Belay
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, United States
| | - Berlin Nelson
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, United States
| | - Robert Brueggeman
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - William Underwood
- Edward T. Schafer Agricultural Research Center, Sunflower and Plant Biology Research Unit, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Fargo, ND, United States
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17
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Djami-Tchatchou AT, Tetorya M, Godwin J, Codjoe JM, Li H, Shah DM. Small Cationic Cysteine-Rich Defensin-Derived Antifungal Peptide Controls White Mold in Soybean. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:873. [PMID: 37754982 PMCID: PMC10532163 DOI: 10.3390/jof9090873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
White mold disease caused by a necrotrophic ascomycete pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum results in serious economic losses of soybean yield in the USA. Lack of effective genetic resistance to this disease in soybean germplasm and increasing pathogen resistance to fungicides makes white mold difficult to manage. Small cysteine-rich antifungal peptides with multi-faceted modes of action possess potential for development as sustainable spray-on bio-fungicides. We have previously reported that GMA4CG_V6 peptide, a 17-amino acid variant of the MtDef4 defensin-derived peptide GMA4CG containing the active γ-core motif, exhibits potent antifungal activity against the gray mold fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea in vitro and in planta. GMA4CG_V6 exhibited antifungal activity against an aggressive field isolate of S. sclerotiorum 555 in vitro with an MIC value of 24 µM. At this concentration, internalization of this peptide into fungal cells occurred prior to discernible membrane permeabilization. GMA4CG_V6 markedly reduced white mold disease symptoms when applied to detached soybean leaves, pods, and stems. Its spray application on soybean plants provided robust control of this disease. GMA4CG_V6 at sub-lethal concentrations reduced sclerotia production. It was also non-phytotoxic to soybean plants. Our results demonstrate that GMA4CG_V6 peptide has potential for development as a bio-fungicide for white mold control in soybean.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Dilip M. Shah
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, MO 63132, USA; (A.T.D.-T.); (M.T.); (J.G.); (J.M.C.); (H.L.)
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18
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Newman TE, Kim H, Khentry Y, Sohn KH, Derbyshire MC, Kamphuis LG. The broad host range pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum produces multiple effector proteins that induce host cell death intracellularly. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2023; 24:866-881. [PMID: 37038612 PMCID: PMC10346375 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 03/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a broad host range necrotrophic fungal pathogen, which causes disease on many economically important crop species. S. sclerotiorum has been shown to secrete small effector proteins to kill host cells and acquire nutrients. We set out to discover novel necrosis-inducing effectors and characterize their activity using transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. Five intracellular necrosis-inducing effectors were identified with differing host subcellular localization patterns, which were named intracellular necrosis-inducing effector 1-5 (SsINE1-5). We show for the first time a broad host range pathogen effector, SsINE1, that uses an RxLR-like motif to enter host cells. Furthermore, we provide preliminary evidence that SsINE5 induces necrosis via an NLR protein. All five of the identified effectors are highly conserved in globally sourced S. sclerotiorum isolates. Taken together, these results advance our understanding of the virulence mechanisms employed by S. sclerotiorum and reveal potential avenues for enhancing genetic resistance to this damaging fungal pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toby E. Newman
- Centre for Crop and Disease Management, School of Molecular and Life SciencesCurtin UniversityBentleyWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Haseong Kim
- Plant Immunity Research CenterSeoul National UniversitySeoul08826Republic of Korea
| | - Yuphin Khentry
- Centre for Crop and Disease Management, School of Molecular and Life SciencesCurtin UniversityBentleyWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Kee Hoon Sohn
- Plant Immunity Research CenterSeoul National UniversitySeoul08826Republic of Korea
- Department of Agricultural BiotechnologySeoul National UniversitySeoul08826Republic of Korea
- Research Institute of Agriculture and Life SciencesSeoul National UniversitySeoul08826Republic of Korea
| | - Mark C. Derbyshire
- Centre for Crop and Disease Management, School of Molecular and Life SciencesCurtin UniversityBentleyWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Lars G. Kamphuis
- Centre for Crop and Disease Management, School of Molecular and Life SciencesCurtin UniversityBentleyWestern AustraliaAustralia
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19
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Krishnan P, Caseys C, Soltis N, Zhang W, Burow M, Kliebenstein DJ. Polygenic pathogen networks influence transcriptional plasticity in the Arabidopsis-Botrytis pathosystem. Genetics 2023; 224:iyad099. [PMID: 37216906 PMCID: PMC10789313 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyad099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Bidirectional flow of information shapes the outcome of the host-pathogen interactions and depends on the genetics of each organism. Recent work has begun to use co-transcriptomic studies to shed light on this bidirectional flow, but it is unclear how plastic the co-transcriptome is in response to genetic variation in both the host and pathogen. To study co-transcriptome plasticity, we conducted transcriptomics using natural genetic variation in the pathogen, Botrytis cinerea, and large-effect genetic variation abolishing defense signaling pathways within the host, Arabidopsis thaliana. We show that genetic variation in the pathogen has a greater influence on the co-transcriptome than mutations that abolish defense signaling pathways in the host. Genome-wide association mapping using the pathogens' genetic variation and both organisms' transcriptomes allowed an assessment of how the pathogen modulates plasticity in response to the host. This showed that the differences in both organism's responses were linked to trans-expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) hotspots within the pathogen's genome. These hotspots control gene sets in either the host or pathogen and show differential allele sensitivity to the host's genetic variation rather than qualitative host specificity. Interestingly, nearly all the trans-eQTL hotspots were unique to the host or pathogen transcriptomes. In this system of differential plasticity, the pathogen mediates the shift in the co-transcriptome more than the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parvathy Krishnan
- DynaMo Center of Excellence, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen DL-1165Denmark
| | - Celine Caseys
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616USA
| | - Nik Soltis
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616USA
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Botany & Plant Sciences, Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Meike Burow
- DynaMo Center of Excellence, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen DL-1165Denmark
| | - Daniel J Kliebenstein
- DynaMo Center of Excellence, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen DL-1165Denmark
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616USA
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Hu Y, Gong H, Lu Z, Zhang P, Zheng S, Wang J, Tian B, Fang A, Yang Y, Bi C, Cheng J, Yu Y. Variable Tandem Glycine-Rich Repeats Contribute to Cell Death-Inducing Activity of a Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-Anchored Cell Wall Protein That Is Associated with the Pathogenicity of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0098623. [PMID: 37140432 PMCID: PMC10269696 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00986-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchoring of proteins is a conserved posttranslational modification in eukaryotes. GPI-anchored proteins are widely distributed in fungal plant pathogens, but the specific roles of the GPI-anchored proteins in the pathogenicity of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, a devastating necrotrophic plant pathogen with a worldwide distribution, remain largely unknown. This research addresses SsGSR1, which encodes an S. sclerotiorum glycine- and serine-rich protein named SsGsr1 with an N-terminal secretory signal and a C-terminal GPI-anchor signal. SsGsr1 is located at the cell wall of hyphae, and deletion of SsGSR1 leads to abnormal cell wall architecture and impaired cell wall integrity of hyphae. The transcription levels of SsGSR1 were maximal in the initial stage of infection, and SsGSR1-deletion strains showed impaired virulence in multiple hosts, indicating that SsGSR1 is critical for the pathogenicity. Interestingly, SsGsr1 targeted the apoplast of host plants to induce cell death that relies on the glycine-rich 11-amino-acid repeats arranged in tandem. The homologs of SsGsr1 in Sclerotinia, Botrytis, and Monilinia species contain fewer repeat units and have lost their cell death activity. Moreover, allelic variants of SsGSR1 exist in field isolates of S. sclerotiorum from rapeseed, and one of the variants lacking one repeat unit results in a protein that exhibits loss of function relative to the cell death-inducing activity and the virulence of S. sclerotiorum. Taken together, our results demonstrate that a variation in tandem repeats provides the functional diversity of GPI-anchored cell wall protein that, in S. sclerotiorum and other necrotrophic pathogens, allows successful colonization of the host plants. IMPORTANCE Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is an economically important necrotrophic plant pathogen and mainly applies cell wall-degrading enzymes and oxalic acid to kill plant cells before colonization. In this research, we characterized a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored cell wall protein named SsGsr1, which is critical for the cell wall architecture and the pathogenicity of S. sclerotiorum. Additionally, SsGsr1 induces rapid cell death of host plants that is dependent on glycine-rich tandem repeats. Interestingly, the number of repeat units varies among homologs and alleles of SsGsr1, and such a variation creates alterations in the cell death-inducing activity and the role in pathogenicity. This work advances our understanding of the variation of tandem repeats in accelerating the evolution of a GPI-anchored cell wall protein associated with the pathogenicity of necrotrophic fungal pathogens and prepares the way toward a fuller understanding of the interaction between S. sclerotiorum and host plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yawen Hu
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
| | - Hang Gong
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
| | - Ziyang Lu
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
| | - Pengpeng Zhang
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
| | - Sinian Zheng
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
| | - Jing Wang
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Biosafety and Green Production of Upper Yangtze River, Ministry of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
| | - Binnian Tian
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Biosafety and Green Production of Upper Yangtze River, Ministry of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
| | - Anfei Fang
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Biosafety and Green Production of Upper Yangtze River, Ministry of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
| | - Yuheng Yang
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Biosafety and Green Production of Upper Yangtze River, Ministry of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
| | - Chaowei Bi
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Biosafety and Green Production of Upper Yangtze River, Ministry of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
| | - Jiasen Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan City, China
| | - Yang Yu
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Biosafety and Green Production of Upper Yangtze River, Ministry of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing City, China
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21
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Rai P, Prasad L, Rai PK. Fungal effectors versus defense-related genes of B. juncea and the status of resistant transgenics against fungal pathogens. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1139009. [PMID: 37360735 PMCID: PMC10285668 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1139009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Oilseed brassica has become instrumental in securing global food and nutritional security. B. juncea, colloquially known as Indian mustard, is cultivated across tropics and subtropics including Indian subcontinent. The production of Indian mustard is severely hampered by fungal pathogens which necessitates human interventions. Chemicals are often resorted to as they are quick and effective, but due to their economic and ecological unsustainability, there is a need to explore their alternatives. The B. juncea-fungal pathosystem is quite diverse as it covers broad-host range necrotrophs (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), narrow-host range necrotrophs (Alternaria brassicae and A. brassicicola) and biotrophic oomycetes (Albugo candida and Hyaloperonospora brassica). Plants ward off fungal pathogens through two-step resistance mechanism; PTI which involves recognition of elicitors and ETI where the resistance gene (R gene) interacts with the fungal effectors. The hormonal signalling is also found to play a vital role in defense as the JA/ET pathway is initiated at the time of necrotroph infection and SA pathway is induced when the biotrophs attack plants. The review discuss the prevalence of fungal pathogens of Indian mustard and the studies conducted on effectoromics. It covers both pathogenicity conferring genes and host-specific toxins (HSTs) that can be used for a variety of purposes such as identifying cognate R genes, understanding pathogenicity and virulence mechanisms, and establishing the phylogeny of fungal pathogens. It further encompasses the studies on identifying resistant sources and characterisation of R genes/quantitative trait loci and defense-related genes identified in Brassicaceae and unrelated species which, upon introgression or overexpression, confer resistance. Finally, the studies conducted on developing resistant transgenics in Brassicaceae have been covered in which chitinase and glucanase genes are mostly used. The knowledge gained from this review can further be used for imparting resistance against major fungal pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prajjwal Rai
- Division of Plant Pathology, Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Laxman Prasad
- Division of Plant Pathology, Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Pramod Kumar Rai
- Division of Plant Pathology, Directorate of Rapeseed-Mustard Research, Bharatpur, India
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Wei J, Yao C, Zhu Z, Gao Z, Yang G, Pan Y. Nitrate reductase is required for sclerotial development and virulence of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1096831. [PMID: 37342142 PMCID: PMC10277653 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1096831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023]
Abstract
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, the causal agent of Sclerotinia stem rot (SSR) on more than 450 plant species, is a notorious fungal pathogen. Nitrate reductase (NR) is required for nitrate assimilation that mediates the reduction of nitrate to nitrite and is the major enzymatic source for NO production in fungi. To explore the possible effects of nitrate reductase SsNR on the development, stress response, and virulence of S. sclerotiorum, RNA interference (RNAi) of SsNR was performed. The results showed that SsNR-silenced mutants showed abnormity in mycelia growth, sclerotia formation, infection cushion formation, reduced virulence on rapeseed and soybean with decreased oxalic acid production. Furthermore SsNR-silenced mutants are more sensitive to abiotic stresses such as Congo Red, SDS, H2O2, and NaCl. Importantly, the expression levels of pathogenicity-related genes SsGgt1, SsSac1, and SsSmk3 are down-regulated in SsNR-silenced mutants, while SsCyp is up-regulated. In summary, phenotypic changes in the gene silenced mutants indicate that SsNR plays important roles in the mycelia growth, sclerotia development, stress response and fungal virulence of S. sclerotiorum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjun Wei
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management on Crops, Key Laboratory of Biology and Sustainable Management of Plant Diseases and Pests of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Chuanchun Yao
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management on Crops, Key Laboratory of Biology and Sustainable Management of Plant Diseases and Pests of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Zonghe Zhu
- College of Agronomy, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Zhimou Gao
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management on Crops, Key Laboratory of Biology and Sustainable Management of Plant Diseases and Pests of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Guogen Yang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management on Crops, Key Laboratory of Biology and Sustainable Management of Plant Diseases and Pests of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Yuemin Pan
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management on Crops, Key Laboratory of Biology and Sustainable Management of Plant Diseases and Pests of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
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23
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Hadimani S, De Britto S, Udayashankar AC, Geetha N, Nayaka CS, Ali D, Alarifi S, Ito SI, Jogaiah S. Genome-Wide Characterization of Effector Protein-Encoding Genes in Sclerospora graminicola and Its Validation in Response to Pearl Millet Downy Mildew Disease Stress. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9040431. [PMID: 37108886 PMCID: PMC10142805 DOI: 10.3390/jof9040431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] is the essential food crop for over ninety million people living in drier parts of India and South Africa. Pearl millet crop production is harshly hindered by numerous biotic stresses. Sclerospora graminicola causes downy mildew disease in pearl millet. Effectors are the proteins secreted by several fungi and bacteria that manipulate the host cell structure and function. This current study aims to identify genes encoding effector proteins from the S. graminicola genome and validate them through molecular techniques. In silico analyses were employed for candidate effector prediction. A total of 845 secretory transmembrane proteins were predicted, out of which 35 proteins carrying LxLFLAK (Leucine–any amino acid–Phenylalanine–Leucine–Alanine–Lysine) motif were crinkler, 52 RxLR (Arginine, any amino acid, Leucine, Arginine), and 17 RxLR-dEER putative effector proteins. Gene validation analysis of 17 RxLR-dEER effector protein-producing genes was carried out, of which 5genes were amplified on the gel. These novel gene sequences were submitted to NCBI. This study is the first report on the identification and characterization of effector genes in Sclerospora graminicola. This dataset will aid in the integration of effector classes that act independently, paving the way to investigate how pearl millet responds to effector protein interactions. These results will assist in identifying functional effector proteins involving the omic approach using newer bioinformatics tools to protect pearl millet plants against downy mildew stress. Considered together, the identified effector protein-encoding functional genes can be utilized in screening oomycetes downy mildew diseases in other crops across the globe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiva Hadimani
- Laboratory of Plant Healthcare and Diagnostics, PG Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Karnatak University, Dharwad 580003, India
| | - Savitha De Britto
- Division of Biological Sciences, School of Science and Technology, University of Goroka, Goroka 441, Papua New Guinea
| | - Arakere C. Udayashankar
- Department of Studies in Biotechnology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru 570006, India
| | - Nagaraj Geetha
- Department of Studies in Biotechnology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru 570006, India
| | - Chandra S. Nayaka
- Department of Studies in Biotechnology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru 570006, India
| | - Daoud Ali
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Saud Alarifi
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shin-ichi Ito
- Research Center for Thermotolerant Microbial Resources, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi 753-8515, Japan
| | - Sudisha Jogaiah
- Laboratory of Plant Healthcare and Diagnostics, PG Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Karnatak University, Dharwad 580003, India
- Department of Environmental Science, Central University of Kerala, Tejaswini Hills, Periye (PO) 671316, Kasaragod (DT), Kerala, India
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +91-836-2779533; Fax: +91-836-2747884
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Hossain MM, Sultana F, Li W, Tran LSP, Mostofa MG. Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary: Insights into the Pathogenomic Features of a Global Pathogen. Cells 2023; 12:cells12071063. [PMID: 37048136 PMCID: PMC10093061 DOI: 10.3390/cells12071063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary is a broad host-range fungus that infects an inclusive array of plant species and afflicts significant yield losses globally. Despite being a notorious pathogen, it has an uncomplicated life cycle consisting of either basal infection from myceliogenically germinated sclerotia or aerial infection from ascospores of carpogenically germinated sclerotia. This fungus is unique among necrotrophic pathogens in that it inevitably colonizes aging tissues to initiate an infection, where a saprophytic stage follows the pathogenic phase. The release of cell wall-degrading enzymes, oxalic acid, and effector proteins are considered critical virulence factors necessary for the effective pathogenesis of S. sclerotiorum. Nevertheless, the molecular basis of S. sclerotiorum pathogenesis is still imprecise and remains a topic of continuing research. Previous comprehensive sequencing of the S. sclerotiorum genome has revealed new insights into its genome organization and provided a deeper comprehension of the sophisticated processes involved in its growth, development, and virulence. This review focuses on the genetic and genomic aspects of fungal biology and molecular pathogenicity to summarize current knowledge of the processes utilized by S. sclerotiorum to parasitize its hosts. Understanding the molecular mechanisms regulating the infection process of S. sclerotiorum will contribute to devising strategies for preventing infections caused by this destructive pathogen.
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Macioszek VK, Jęcz T, Ciereszko I, Kononowicz AK. Jasmonic Acid as a Mediator in Plant Response to Necrotrophic Fungi. Cells 2023; 12:cells12071027. [PMID: 37048100 PMCID: PMC10093439 DOI: 10.3390/cells12071027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Jasmonic acid (JA) and its derivatives, all named jasmonates, are the simplest phytohormones which regulate multifarious plant physiological processes including development, growth and defense responses to various abiotic and biotic stress factors. Moreover, jasmonate plays an important mediator’s role during plant interactions with necrotrophic oomycetes and fungi. Over the last 20 years of research on physiology and genetics of plant JA-dependent responses to pathogens and herbivorous insects, beginning from the discovery of the JA co-receptor CORONATINE INSENSITIVE1 (COI1), research has speeded up in gathering new knowledge on the complexity of plant innate immunity signaling. It has been observed that biosynthesis and accumulation of jasmonates are induced specifically in plants resistant to necrotrophic fungi (and also hemibiotrophs) such as mostly investigated model ones, i.e., Botrytis cinerea, Alternaria brassicicola or Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. However, it has to be emphasized that the activation of JA-dependent responses takes place also during susceptible interactions of plants with necrotrophic fungi. Nevertheless, many steps of JA function and signaling in plant resistance and susceptibility to necrotrophs still remain obscure. The purpose of this review is to highlight and summarize the main findings on selected steps of JA biosynthesis, perception and regulation in the context of plant defense responses to necrotrophic fungal pathogens.
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Yang C, Tang L, Qin L, Zhong W, Tang X, Gong X, Xie W, Li Y, Xia S. mRNA Turnover Protein 4 Is Vital for Fungal Pathogenicity and Response to Oxidative Stress in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12020281. [PMID: 36839553 PMCID: PMC9960052 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12020281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Ribosome assembly factors have been extensively studied in yeast, and their abnormalities may affect the assembly process of ribosomes and cause severe damage to cells. However, it is not clear whether mRNA turnover protein 4 (MRT4) functions in the fungal growth and pathogenicity in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Here, we identified the nucleus-located gene SsMRT4 using reverse genetics, and found that knockdown of SsMRT4 resulted in retard mycelia growth and complete loss of pathogenicity. Furthermore, mrt4 knockdown mutants showed almost no appressorium formation and oxalic acid production comparing to the wild-type and complementary strains. In addition, the abilities to ROS elimination and resistance to oxidative and osmotic stresses were also seriously compromised in mrt4 mutants. Overall, our study clarified the role of SsMRT4 in S. sclerotiorum, providing new insights into ribosome assembly in regulating pathogenicity and resistance to environmental stresses of fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenghuizi Yang
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Phytohormones and Growth Development, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Lan Tang
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Lei Qin
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Phytohormones and Growth Development, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Weiping Zhong
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Phytohormones and Growth Development, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Xianyu Tang
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Phytohormones and Growth Development, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Xin Gong
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Phytohormones and Growth Development, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Wenqi Xie
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Yifu Li
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Phytohormones and Growth Development, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Shitou Xia
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Phytohormones and Growth Development, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
- Correspondence:
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Bi K, Liang Y, Mengiste T, Sharon A. Killing softly: a roadmap of Botrytis cinerea pathogenicity. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 28:211-222. [PMID: 36184487 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2022.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea, a widespread plant pathogen with a necrotrophic lifestyle, causes gray mold disease in many crops. Massive secretion of enzymes and toxins was long considered to be the main driver of infection, but recent studies have uncovered a rich toolbox for B. cinerea pathogenicity. The emerging picture is of a multilayered infection process governed by the exchange of factors that collectively contribute to disease development. No plant shows complete resistance against B. cinerea, but pattern-triggered plant immune responses have the potential to significantly reduce disease progression, opening new possibilities for producing B. cinerea-tolerant plants. We examine current B. cinerea infection models, highlight knowledge gaps, and suggest directions for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Bi
- College of Life Science and Technology, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China
| | - Yong Liang
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Tesfaye Mengiste
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, 915 West State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Amir Sharon
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.
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28
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Genome-Wide Association Studies in Sunflower: Towards Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Diaporthe/Phomopsis Resistance Breeding. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13122357. [PMID: 36553624 PMCID: PMC9777803 DOI: 10.3390/genes13122357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Diseases caused by necrotrophic fungi, such as the cosmopolitan Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and the Diaporthe/Phomopsis complex, are among the most destructive diseases of sunflower worldwide. The lack of complete resistance combined with the inefficiency of chemical control makes assisted breeding the best strategy for disease control. In this work, we present an integrated genome-wide association (GWA) study investigating the response of a diverse panel of sunflower inbred lines to both pathogens. Phenotypic data for Sclerotinia head rot (SHR) consisted of five disease descriptors (disease incidence, DI; disease severity, DS; area under the disease progress curve for DI, AUDPCI, and DS, AUDPCS; and incubation period, IP). Two disease descriptors (DI and DS) were evaluated for two manifestations of Diaporthe/Phomopsis: Phomopsis stem canker (PSC) and Phomopsis head rot (PHR). In addition, a principal component (PC) analysis was used to derive transformed phenotypes as inputs to a univariate GWA (PC-GWA). Genotypic data comprised a panel of 4269 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), generated via genotyping-by-sequencing. The GWA analysis revealed 24 unique marker-trait associations for SHR, 19 unique marker-trait associations for Diaporthe/Phomopsis diseases, and 7 markers associated with PC1 and PC2. No common markers were found for the response to the two pathogens. Nevertheless, epistatic interactions were identified between markers significantly associated with the response to S. sclerotiorum and Diaporthe/Phomopsis. This suggests that, while the main determinants of resistance may differ for the two pathogens, there could be an underlying common genetic basis. The exploration of regions physically close to the associated markers yielded 364 genes, of which 19 were predicted as putative disease resistance genes. This work presents the first simultaneous evaluation of two manifestations of Diaporthe/Phomopsis in sunflower, and undertakes a comprehensive GWA study by integrating PSC, PHR, and SHR data. The multiple regions identified, and their exploration to identify candidate genes, contribute not only to the understanding of the genetic basis of resistance, but also to the development of tools for assisted breeding.
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Wingfield BD, Berger DK, Coetzee MPA, Duong TA, Martin A, Pham NQ, van den Berg N, Wilken PM, Arun-Chinnappa KS, Barnes I, Buthelezi S, Dahanayaka BA, Durán A, Engelbrecht J, Feurtey A, Fourie A, Fourie G, Hartley J, Kabwe ENK, Maphosa M, Narh Mensah DL, Nsibo DL, Potgieter L, Poudel B, Stukenbrock EH, Thomas C, Vaghefi N, Welgemoed T, Wingfield MJ. IMA genome‑F17 : Draft genome sequences of an Armillaria species from Zimbabwe, Ceratocystis colombiana, Elsinoë necatrix, Rosellinia necatrix, two genomes of Sclerotinia minor, short‑read genome assemblies and annotations of four Pyrenophora teres isolates from barley grass, and a long-read genome assembly of Cercospora zeina. IMA Fungus 2022; 13:19. [PMID: 36411457 PMCID: PMC9677705 DOI: 10.1186/s43008-022-00104-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Brenda D. Wingfield
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Dave K. Berger
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0028 South Africa
| | - Martin P. A. Coetzee
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Tuan A. Duong
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Anke Martin
- grid.1048.d0000 0004 0473 0844Centre for Crop Health, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350 Australia
| | - Nam Q. Pham
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0028 South Africa
| | - Noelani van den Berg
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - P. Markus Wilken
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Kiruba Shankari Arun-Chinnappa
- grid.1048.d0000 0004 0473 0844Centre for Crop Health, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350 Australia ,PerkinElmer Pty Ltd., Level 2, Building 5, Brandon Business Park, 530‑540, Springvale Road, Glen Waverley, VIC 3150 Australia
| | - Irene Barnes
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Sikelela Buthelezi
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | | | - Alvaro Durán
- Plant Health Program, Research and Development, Asia Pacific Resources International Holdings Ltd. (APRIL), Pangkalan Kerinci, Riau 28300 Indonesia
| | - Juanita Engelbrecht
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Alice Feurtey
- grid.419520.b0000 0001 2222 4708Environmental Genomics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany ,grid.9764.c0000 0001 2153 9986Environmental Genomics, Christian-Albrechts University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Arista Fourie
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Gerda Fourie
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Jesse Hartley
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Eugene N. K. Kabwe
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Centre for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Mkhululi Maphosa
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Deborah L. Narh Mensah
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa ,grid.423756.10000 0004 1764 1672CSIR, Food Research Institute, Accra, Ghana
| | - David L. Nsibo
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0028 South Africa
| | - Lizel Potgieter
- grid.419520.b0000 0001 2222 4708Environmental Genomics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany ,grid.9764.c0000 0001 2153 9986Environmental Genomics, Christian-Albrechts University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Barsha Poudel
- grid.1048.d0000 0004 0473 0844Centre for Crop Health, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350 Australia
| | - Eva H. Stukenbrock
- grid.419520.b0000 0001 2222 4708Environmental Genomics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany ,grid.9764.c0000 0001 2153 9986Environmental Genomics, Christian-Albrechts University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Chanel Thomas
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Niloofar Vaghefi
- grid.1048.d0000 0004 0473 0844Centre for Crop Health, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350 Australia ,grid.1008.90000 0001 2179 088XSchool of Agriculture and Food, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Tanya Welgemoed
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Centre for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Michael J. Wingfield
- grid.49697.350000 0001 2107 2298Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0028 South Africa
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