SAMP8 mice as a neuropathological model of accelerated brain aging and dementia: Toshio Takeda's legacy and future directions

PRG ameliorates cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease mice by regulating β-amyloid and targeting the ERK pathway

BACKGROUND

PRG is derived from Phellinus ribis and is a homogeneous polysaccharide with well-defined structural information. PRG was found to have significant in vitro neurotrophic and neuroprotective activities. Thus, PRG might be a potential treatment for Alzheimer's disease. However, the related mechanisms of action are still unclear, so deeper in vivo experimental validation and the potential mechanisms need to be investigated.

PURPOSE

The effects of PRG on AD mice were investigated using Senescence-accelerated SAMP8 mice as an AD model to elucidate the crucial molecular mechanisms.

METHODS

PRG was obtained from Phellinus ribis by water-alcohol precipitation, column chromatography, and ultrafiltration. The Morris water maze and novel object recognition behavioral assays were used to evaluate the effects of PRG in AD mice. Nissl staining, the TUNEL apoptosis assay, and Golgi staining were used to assess brain neuronal cell damage, apoptosis, and neuronal status. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, Western blotting, and immunofluorescence were used to explore the impacts of correlated factors and protein pathways under relevant mechanisms.

RESULTS

The findings suggest that PRG improved learning ability and spatial memory capacity in SAMP8 mice. PRG hastened the disintegration of β-amyloid, reduced the content and abnormal accumulation of the toxic Aβ1-42 protein, and decreased apoptosis. PRG activated the BDNF/ERK/CREB signaling pathway through a cascade, exerted neurotrophic effects, regulated cell proliferation and differentiation, increased neuronal dendritic branching and spine density, and improved synaptic plasticity.

CONCLUSION

PRG promoted β-amyloid degradation to reduce neuronal damage and apoptosis. It exerted neurotrophic effects by activating the BDNF/ERK/CREB pathway, promoting neuronal dendritic branching and dendritic spine growth, regulating cell proliferation and differentiation, and improving synaptic plasticity, which improved AD. Taken together, as a novel natural active polysaccharide with a well-defined structure, PRG affected AD symptoms in senescence-accelerated mice by interacting with multiple targets. The results indicate that PRG is a promising potential anti-AD drug candidate.

Cannabidiol improves the cognitive function of SAMP8 AD model mice involving the microbiota-gut-brain axis

Cannabidiol (CBD), a natural component extracted from Cannabis sativa L. exerts neuroprotective, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects in Alzheimer's disease (AD), a disease characterized by impaired cognition and accumulation of amyloid-B peptides (Aβ). Interactions between the gut and central nervous system (microbiota-gut-brain axis) play a critical role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorder AD. At present investigations into the mechanisms underlying the neuroprotective action of CBD in AD are not conclusive. The aim of this study was thus to examine the influence of CBD on cognition and involvement of the microbiota-gut-brain axis using a senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) model. Data demonstrated that administration of CBD to SAMP8 mice improved cognitive function as evidenced from the Morris water maze test and increased hippocampal activated microglia shift from M1 to M2. In addition, CBD elevated levels of Bacteriodetes associated with a fall in Firmicutes providing morphologically a protective intestinal barrier which subsequently reduced leakage of intestinal toxic metabolites. Further, CBD was found to reduce the levels of hippocampal and colon epithelial cells lipopolysaccharide (LPS), known to be increased in AD leading to impaired gastrointestinal motility, thereby promoting neuroinflammation and subsequent neuronal death. Our findings demonstrated that CBD may be considered a beneficial therapeutic drug to counteract AD-mediated cognitive impairment and restore gut microbial functions associated with the observed neuroprotective mechanisms.

Taurine reduces microglia activation in the brain of aged senescence-accelerated mice by increasing the level of TREM2

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a chronic neurodegenerative disorder, is the leading cause of dementia. Over-activated microglia is related to amyloid-beta (Aβ) and phosphorylated tau (phospho-tau) accumulation in the AD brain. Taurine is an amino acid with multiple physiological functions including anti-inflammatory effects, and has been reported to be neuroprotective in AD. However, the role of taurine in microglia-mediated AD remains unclear. Here, we examined the effects of taurine on the brains of senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) mice by comparing those administered 1% taurine water with those administered distilled water (DW). We observed increased levels of taurine and taurine transporter (TAUT) in the brains of the taurine-treated mice compared with those of control mice. Immunohistochemical and Western blot analyses revealed that taurine significantly reduced the number of activated microglia, levels of phospho-tau and Aβ deposit in the hippocampus and cortex. Triggering receptors expressed on myeloid cells-2 (TREM2) are known to protect against AD pathogenesis. Taurine upregulated TREM2 expression in the hippocampus and cortex. In conclusion, the present study suggests that taurine treatment may upregulate TREM2 to protect against microglia over-activation by decreasing the accumulation of phospho-tau and Aβ; providing an insight into a novel preventive strategy in AD.

Updates on mouse models of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease in the United States (US). Animal models, specifically mouse models have been developed to better elucidate disease mechanisms and test therapeutic strategies for AD. A large portion of effort in the field was focused on developing transgenic (Tg) mouse models through over-expression of genetic mutations associated with familial AD (FAD) patients. Newer generations of mouse models through knock-in (KI)/knock-out (KO) or CRISPR gene editing technologies, have been developed for both familial and sporadic AD risk genes with the hope to more accurately model proteinopathies without over-expression of human AD genes in mouse brains. In this review, we summarized the phenotypes of a few commonly used as well as newly developed mouse models in translational research laboratories including the presence or absence of key pathological features of AD such as amyloid and tau pathology, synaptic and neuronal degeneration as well as cognitive and behavior deficits. In addition, advantages and limitations of these AD mouse models have been elaborated along with discussions of any sex-specific features. More importantly, the omics data from available AD mouse models have been analyzed to categorize molecular signatures of each model reminiscent of human AD brain changes, with the hope to guide future selection of most suitable models for specific research questions to be addressed in the AD field.

Effects of low-dose rapamycin on lymphoid organs of mice prone and resistant to accelerated senescence

Aging is a complex, natural, and irreversible phenomenon that subjects the body to numerous changes in the physiological process, characterized by a gradual decline in the organism's homeostatic mechanisms, closely related to immunosenescence. Here, we evaluated the regulation of immunosenescence in lymphoid organs of senescence-accelerated prone 8 (SAM-P8) and senescence-accelerated resistant 1 (SAM-R1) mice treated with a low dose of rapamycin (RAPA). Mice were treated with a dose of 7.1 µg/kg RAPA for 2 months and had body mass and hematological parameters analyzed prior and during treatment. Cellular and humoral parameters of serum, bone marrow, thymus, and spleen samples were evaluated by ELISA, histology, and flow cytometry. Changes in body mass, hematological parameters, cell number, and in the secretion of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-7, and IL-15 cytokines were different between the 2 models used. In histological analyses, we observed that SAM-P8 mice showed faster thymic involution than SAM-R1 mice. Regarding the T lymphocyte subpopulations in the spleen, CD4+ and CD8+ T cell numbers were higher and lower, respectively, in SAM-P8 mice treated with RAPA, with the opposite observed in SAM-R1. Additionally, we found that the low dose of RAPA used did not trigger changes that could compromise the immune response of these mice and the administered dose may have contributed to changes in important lymphocyte populations in the adaptive immune response and the secretion of cytokines that directly collaborate with the maturation and proliferation of these cells.

Characterization of mitochondria-associated ER membranes in the enteric nervous system under physiological and pathological conditions

Alterations in endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria associations and in mitochondria-associated ER membrane (MAM) behavior have been reported in the brain in several neurodegenerative diseases. Despite the emerging role of the gut-brain axis in neurodegenerative disorders, the biology of MAM in the enteric nervous system (ENS) has not previously been studied. Therefore, we set out to characterize the MAM in the distal colon of wild-type C57BL/6J mice and senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8), a mouse model of age-related neurodegeneration. We showed for the first time that MAMs are widely present in enteric neurons and that their association is altered in SAMP8 mice. We then examined the functions of MAMs in a primary culture model of enteric neurons and showed that calcium homeostasis was altered in SAMP8 mice when compared with control animals. These findings provide the first detailed characterization of MAMs in the ENS under physiological conditions and during age-associated neurodegeneration. Further investigation of MAM modifications in the ENS in disease may provide valuable information about the possible role of enteric MAMs in neurodegenerative diseases.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our work shows for the first time the presence of contacts between endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria in the enteric neurons and that the dynamic of these contacts is affected in these cells from an age-related neurodegeneration mouse model. It provides new insights into the potential role of enteric mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membrane in neurodegenerative disorders.

Dopaminergic neuron loss in mice due to increased levels of wild-type human α-Synuclein only takes place under conditions of accelerated aging

Understanding the intricate pathogenic mechanisms behind Parkinson's disease (PD) and its multifactorial nature presents a significant challenge in disease modeling. To address this, we explore genetic models that better capture the disease's complexity. Given that aging is the primary risk factor for PD, this study investigates the impact of aging in conjunction with overexpression of wild-type human α-synuclein (α-Syn) in the dopaminergic system. This is achieved by introducing a novel transgenic mouse strain overexpressing α-Syn under the TH-promoter within the senescence-accelerated SAMP8 (P8) genetic background. Behavioral assessments, conducted at both 10 and 16 months of age, unveil motor impairments exclusive to P8 α-SynTg mice, a phenomenon conspicuously absent in α-SynTg mice. These findings suggest a synergistic interplay between heightened α-Syn levels and the aging process, resulting in motor deficits. These motor disturbances correlate with reduced dopamine (DA) levels, increased DA turnover, synaptic terminal loss, and notably, the depletion of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus. Furthermore, P8 α-SynTg mice exhibit alterations in gut transit time, mirroring early PD symptoms. In summary, P8 α-SynTg mice effectively replicate parkinsonian phenotypes by combining α-Syn transgene expression with accelerated aging. This model offers valuable insights into the understanding of PD and serves as a valuable platform for further research.

Neuroprotective mechanisms of defatted walnut powder against scopolamine-induced Alzheimer's disease in mice revealed through metabolomics and proteomics analyses

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Defatted walnut powder (DWP), the byproduct remaining after extracting oil from the walnut kernel, has the actions of nourishing liver and the kidney, replenishing blood, and calming the nerves, which is believed to be a brain-nourishing in Chinese medicine. DWP is rich in phenolic substances with demonstrated anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, lipid-lowering and neuroprotective effects. Despite these promising properties of DWP, its effectiveness in treating Alzheimer's disease (AD) remains unclear, and further research is needed to understand the mechanism of action.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the potential mechanism of DWP on AD by constructing the overall metabolic profile of mice with an anti-scopolamine AD model and verification of the highly correlated pathway.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The neuroprotective efficacy of DWP in a mouse model of AD established by scopolamine injection was examined. Spatial memory performance in the Morris water maze (MWM), markers of cholinergic function in hippocampus and cortex, and neuropathological changes were compared among control, model, and DWP-consuming model group mice. In addition, combined metabolomic and proteomic analyses were conducted to investigate changes in metabolite and protein expression profiles in AD model mice induced by DWP consumption. Differentially expressed proteins and metabolites were then analyzed for KEGG pathway enrichment and results confirmed through targeted amino acid metabolomics.

RESULTS

The results showed that consumption of DWP improved spatial learning and memory in the MWM, enhanced cholinergic function, and reduced histopathological damage in the cortex and hippocampus of AD model mice. Based on differentially abundant metabolites and proteins, 43 metabolic pathways modulated by DWP were identified, mainly involving in amino acid metabolic pathways strongly associated with cellular energetics and antioxidant capacity, and targeted amino acid metabolomics confirmed that DWPE significantly elevated the levels of Arginine (Arg), Histidine (His), Proline (Pro), Serine (Ser), and Tyrosine (Tyr), while reducing the levels of Glutamate (Glu). This ultimately resulted in an improvement in the progression of AD.

CONCLUSION

This study identified numerous metabolic networks modulated by DWP that can mitigate scopolamine-induced AD neuropathology and cognitive dysfunction. DWP is a promising resource to identify AD-related pathogenic pathways and therapeutic strategies.

A renal clearable fluorogenic probe for in vivo β-galactosidase activity detection during aging and senolysis

Accumulation of senescent cells with age leads to tissue dysfunction and related diseases. Their detection in vivo still constitutes a challenge in aging research. We describe the generation of a fluorogenic probe (sulfonic-Cy7Gal) based on a galactose derivative, to serve as substrate for β-galactosidase, conjugated to a Cy7 fluorophore modified with sulfonic groups to enhance its ability to diffuse. When administered to male or female mice, β-galactosidase cleaves the O-glycosidic bond, releasing the fluorophore that is ultimately excreted by the kidneys and can be measured in urine. The intensity of the recovered fluorophore reliably reflects an experimentally controlled load of cellular senescence and correlates with age-associated anxiety during aging and senolytic treatment. Interestingly, our findings with the probe indicate that the effects of senolysis are temporary if the treatment is discontinued. Our strategy may serve as a basis for developing fluorogenic platforms designed for easy longitudinal monitoring of enzymatic activities in biofluids.

Neurotransmission, Vasculogenesis, and Osteogenesis Activities are Altered in the Aging Temporomandibular Joint of the Senescence-Accelerated Prone 8 Mouse Model

BACKGROUND

Alterations in neurotransmission, vasculogenesis, and osteogenesis pathways that may play pivotal roles in age-related changes in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) are poorly understood.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to measure the associations between gene and protein profiles in senescence-accelerated prone 8 (SAMP8) mice.

STUDY DESIGN

The investigators designed and used 3 groups of 2 mouse models: 1) early aging SAMP8 at 24 weeks of age and control SAMR1 at 12 and 24 weeks (each stage n = 12).

PREDICTOR/EXPOSURE/INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

The independent variable was investigated using 3 mouse models: an early aging mouse model and a control mouse model (12 and 24 weeks).

MAIN OUTCOME VARIABLE(S)

The primary outcome variables were CGRP, VEGF-A, CD31, LYVE-1, osteocalcin, osteopontin, type I and II collagen, and MMP-2. The secondary outcome variables were histological characteristics.

COVARIATES

Not applicable.

ANALYSES

The gene and protein expression profiles of neurotransmitters, vasculogenesis, and osteogenesis were identified by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and dot blot analysis, respectively. The cellular localization of these events was verified by in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. Bivariate statistics were computed for each of the outcome variables. Statistical significance was set to a P value < .05.

RESULTS

The expression of CGRP mRNA in the bony mandibular condyle (BMC) of SAMP8 mice (SAMP8, 3.3 ± 0.39 vs SAMR1, 0.001 ± 0.0001) was high at 24 weeks of age (24 weeks) (P < .001). Higher numbers of cells positive percentage for CGRP (MF, SAMP8, 28.67 ± 1.60 vs SAMR 1, 6.36 ± 1.10; CMC, 27.5 ± 2.12 vs 9.00 ± 1.21; BMC, 31.31 ± 2.81 vs 7.85 ± 1.14) and VEGF-A (MF, 34.43 ± 2.45 vs 14.01 ± 1.28; MD, 32.69 ± 1.86 vs 8.00 ± 0.91; CMC, 36.60 ± 2.05 vs 14.19 ± 1.25 BMC 36.49 vs 12.59 ± 1.41) antibodies were found in the 24 weeks TMJ (P < .01).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The neurotransmitter, vasculogenesis, and osteogenesis pathways are associated with TMJ aging in the SAMP8 mouse model. In the future, the SAMP8 mouse model may prove to be a robust model for identifying molecular and biochemical events underlying the effects of feeding, occlusal changes, and tooth loss in the aging TMJ.

Addressing the Discrepancies Between Animal Models and Human Alzheimer's Disease Pathology: Implications for Translational Research

Animal models, particularly transgenic mice, are extensively used in Alzheimer's disease (AD) research to emulate key disease hallmarks, such as amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles formation. Although these models have contributed to our understanding of AD pathogenesis and can be helpful in testing potential therapeutic interventions, their reliability is dubious. While preclinical studies have shown promise, clinical trials often yield disappointing results, highlighting a notable gap and disparity between animal models and human AD pathology. Existing models frequently overlook early-stage human pathologies and other key AD characteristics, thereby limiting their application in identifying optimal therapeutic interventions. Enhancing model reliability necessitates rigorous study design, comprehensive behavioral evaluations, and biomarker utilization. Overall, a nuanced understanding of each model's neuropathology, its fidelity to human AD, and its limitations is essential for accurate interpretation and successful translation of findings. This article analyzes the discrepancies between animal models and human AD pathology that complicate the translation of findings from preclinical studies to clinical applications. We also delve into AD pathogenesis and attributes to propose a new perspective on this pathology and deliberate over the primary limitations of key experimental models. Additionally, we discuss several fundamental problems that may explain the translational failures and suggest some possible directions for more effective preclinical studies.

Fermented soybean foods (natto) ameliorate age-related cognitive decline by hippocampal TAAR1-mediated activation of the CaMKII/CREB/BDNF signaling pathway in senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8)

Natto is a traditional fermented soybean-based food that has been an integral part of Japanese cuisine for several centuries. Although there have been extensive studies on the cognitive benefits of soybeans, only limited studies have examined the effects of natto on cognitive function. This study investigated the potential cognitive benefits of natto in senescence-accelerated mouse-prone 8 (SAMP8) mice. After 12 weeks of oral administering natto fermented for 18 h, the spatial learning and memory performance were improved compared with those in SAMP8 control mice. Furthermore, activation of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)/tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB)/cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) signaling and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR)-calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) cascade was observed in the hippocampus of SAMP8 mice that were fed natto. Additionally, natto administration upregulated trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) as a modulator of NMDAR. These findings suggest that natto ameliorates cognitive decline by activating the TAAR1-mediated CaMKII/CREB/BDNF signaling pathway in the hippocampus of SAMP8 mice.

1,5-anhydro-D-fructose induces anti-aging effects on aging-associated brain diseases by increasing 5'-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase activity via the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ co-activator-1α/brain-derived neurotrophic factor pathway

5'-Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a metabolic sensor that serves as a cellular housekeeper; it also controls energy homeostasis and stress resistance. Thus, correct regulation of this factor can enhance health and survival. AMPK signaling may have a critical role in aging-associated brain diseases. Some in vitro studies have shown that 1,5-anhydro-D-fructose (1,5-AF) induces AMPK activation. In the present study, we experimentally evaluated the effects of 1,5-AF on aging-associated brain diseases in vivo using an animal model of acute ischemic stroke (AIS), stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSPs), and the spontaneous senescence-accelerated mouse-prone 8 (SAMP8) model. In the AIS model, intraperitoneal injection of 1,5-AF reduced cerebral infarct volume, neurological deficits, and mortality. In SHRSPs, oral administration of 1,5-AF reduced blood pressure and prolonged survival. In the SAMP8 model, oral administration of 1,5-AF alleviated aging-related decline in motor cognitive function. Although aging reduced the expression levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ co-activator-1α (PGC-1α) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), we found that 1,5-AF activated AMPK, which led to upregulation of the PGC-1α/BDNF pathway. Our results suggest that 1,5-AF can induce endogenous neurovascular protection, potentially preventing aging-associated brain diseases. Clinical studies are needed to determine whether 1,5-AF can prevent aging-associated brain diseases.

Phenotypic Frailty Assessment in SAMP8 Mice: Sex Differences and Potential Role of miRNAs as Peripheral Biomarkers

Frailty is a geriatric syndrome characterized by age-related decline in physiological reserves and functions in multiple organ systems, including the musculoskeletal, neuroendocrine/metabolic, and immune systems. Animal models are essential to study the biological basis of aging and potential ways to delay the onset of age-related phenotypes. Unfortunately, validated animal models of frailty are still lacking in preclinical research. The senescence-accelerated prone-8 (SAMP8) mouse strain exhibits early cognitive loss that mimics the deterioration of learning and memory in the elderly and is widely used as a model of aging and neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we examined the frailty phenotype, which includes body weight, strength, endurance, activity, and slow walking speed, in male and female SAMP8 and senescence-accelerated mouse resistant (SAMR1) mice at 6- and 9-months of age. We found that the prevalence of frailty was higher in SAMP8 mice compared with SAMR1 mice, regardless of sex. The overall percentage of prefrail and frail mice was similar in male and female SAMP8 mice, although the percentage of frail mice was slightly higher in males than in females. In addition, we found sex- and frailty-specific changes in selected miRNAs blood levels. In particular, the levels of miR-34a-5p and miR-331-3p were higher in both prefrail and frail mice, whereas miR-26b-5p was increased only in frail mice compared with robust mice. Finally, levels of miR-331-3p were also increased in whole blood from a small group of frail patients. Overall, these results suggest that SAMP8 mice may be a useful mouse model for identifying potential biomarkers and studying biological mechanisms of frailty.

Cholinergic neurodegeneration and cholesterol metabolism dysregulation by constitutive p75NTR signaling in the p75exonIII-KO mice

Degeneration of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, few mouse models of AD recapitulate the neurodegeneration of the cholinergic system. The p75 neurotrophin receptor, p75NTR, has been associated with the degeneration of BFCNs in AD. The senescence-accelerated mouse prone number 8 (SAMP8) is a well-accepted model of accelerated and pathological aging. To gain a better understanding of the role of p75NTR in the basal forebrain during aging, we generated a new mouse line, the SAMP8-p75exonIII-/-. Deletion of p75NTR in the SAMP8 background induces an increase in the number of BFCNs at birth, followed by a rapid decline during aging compared to the C57/BL6 background. This decrease in the number of BFCNs correlates with a worsening in the Y-maze memory test at 6 months in the SAMP8-p75exonIII-/-. We found that SAMP8-p75exonIII-/- and C57/BL6-p75exonIII-/- mice expressed constitutively a short isoform of p75NTR that correlates with an upregulation of the protein levels of SREBP2 and its targets, HMGCR and LDLR, in the BF of both SAMP8-p75exonIII-/- and C57/BL6-p75exonIII-/- mice. As the neurodegeneration of the cholinergic system and the dysregulation of cholesterol metabolism are implicated in AD, we postulate that the generated SAMP8-p75exonIII-/- mouse strain might constitute a good model to study long-term cholinergic neurodegeneration in the CNS. In addition, our results support the role of p75NTR signaling in cholesterol biosynthesis regulation.

Investigation into Molecular Brain Aging in Senescence-Accelerated Mouse (SAM) Model Employing Whole Transcriptomic Analysis in Search of Potential Molecular Targets for Therapeutic Interventions

With the progression of an aging society, cognitive aging has emerged as a pressing concern necessitating attention. The senescence-accelerated mouse-prone 8 (SAMP8) model has proven instrumental in investigating the early stages of cognitive aging. Through an extensive examination of molecular changes in the brain cortex, utilizing integrated whole-genome transcriptomics, our principal aim was to uncover potential molecular targets with therapeutic applications and relevance to drug screening. Our investigation encompassed four distinct conditions, comparing the same strain at different time points (1 year vs. 16 weeks) and the same time point across different strains (SAMP8 vs. SAMR1), namely: physiological aging, accelerated aging, early events in accelerated aging, and late events in accelerated aging. Focusing on key functional alterations associated with aging in the brain, including neurogenesis, synapse dynamics, neurometabolism, and neuroinflammation, we identified candidate genes linked to these processes. Furthermore, employing protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis, we identified pivotal hub genes involved in interactions within these functional domains. Additionally, gene-set perturbation analysis allowed us to uncover potential upstream genes or transcription factors that exhibited activation or inhibition across the four conditions. In summary, our comprehensive analysis of the SAMP8 mouse brain through whole-genome transcriptomics not only deepens our understanding of age-related changes but also lays the groundwork for a predictive model to facilitate drug screening for cognitive aging.

Differential Epigenetic Changes in the Dorsal Hippocampus of Male and Female SAMP8 Mice: A Preliminary Study

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common age-related neurodegenerative disease characterized by memory loss and cognitive impairment. The causes of the disease are not well understood, as it involves a complex interaction between genetic, environmental, and epigenetic factors. SAMP8 mice have been proposed as a model for studying late-onset AD, since they show age-related learning and memory deficits as well as several features of AD pathogenesis. Epigenetic changes have been described in SAMP8 mice, although sex differences have never been evaluated. Here we used western blot and qPCR analyses to investigate whether epigenetic markers are differentially altered in the dorsal hippocampus, a region important for the regulation of learning and memory, of 9-month-old male and female SAMP8 mice. We found that H3Ac was selectively reduced in male SAMP8 mice compared to male SAMR1 control mice, but not in female mice, whereas H3K27me3 was reduced overall in SAMP8 mice. Moreover, the levels of HDAC2 and JmjD3 were increased, whereas the levels of HDAC4 and Dnmt3a were reduced in SAMP8 mice compared to SAMR1. In addition, levels of HDAC1 were reduced, whereas Utx and Jmjd3 were selectively increased in females compared to males. Although our results are preliminary, they suggest that epigenetic mechanisms in the dorsal hippocampus are differentially regulated in male and female SAMP8 mice.

Potential antidepressant effects of a dietary supplement from Huáng qí and its complex in aged senescence-accelerated mouse prone-8 mice

Healthcare is an emerging industry with significant market potential in the 21st century. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the benefits of tube feeding Huáng qí and its complexes for 8 weeks on 3-month-old senescence-accelerated mouse prone-8 (SAMP8) mice, 48 in total, randomly divided into 3 groups including control, Huáng qí extract [820 mg/kg Body weight (BW)/day], and Huáng qí complexes (6.2 mL /kg BW/day), where each group consisted of males (n = 8) and females (n = 8). Behavioral tests (locomotion test and aging score assessment on week 6, the single-trial passive avoidance test on week 7, and the active shuttle avoidance test on week 8) were conducted to evaluate the ability of the mice to learn and remember. In addition, after sacrificing the animals, the blood and organs were measured for antioxidant and aging bioactivities, including malondialdehyde (MDA) content and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and catalase activities (CAT), and the effects on promoting aging in SAMP8 mice were investigated. The findings showed that Huáng qí enhanced locomotor performance and had anti-aging effects, with positive effects on health, learning, and memory in SAMP-8 mice (p < 0.05), whether applied as a single agent (820 mg/kg BW/day) or as a complex (6.2 mL/kg BW/day) (p < 0.05). Based on existing strengths, a more compelling platform for clinical validation of human clinical evidence will be established to enhance the development and value-added of astragalus-related products while meeting the diversified needs of the functional food market.

Peripheral Administration of the Kv1.3-Blocking Peptide HsTX1[R14A] Improves Cognitive Performance in Senescence Accelerated SAMP8 Mice

Increased expression of the voltage-gated potassium channel Kv1.3 in activated microglia, and the subsequent release of pro-inflammatory mediators, are closely associated with the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Studies have shown that reducing neuroinflammation through the non-selective blockade of microglial Kv1.3 has the potential to improve cognitive function in mouse models of familial AD. We have previously demonstrated that a potent and highly-selective peptide blocker of Kv1.3, HsTX1[R14A], not only entered the brain parenchyma after peripheral administration in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mouse model of inflammation, but also significantly reduced pro-inflammatory mediator release from activated microglia. In this study, we show that microglial expression of Kv1.3 is increased in senescence accelerated mice (SAMP8), an animal model of sporadic AD, and that subcutaneous dosing of HsTX1[R14A] (1 mg/kg) every other day for 8 weeks provided a robust improvement in cognitive deficits in SAMP8 mice. The effect of HsTX1[R14A] on the whole brain was assessed using transcriptomics, which revealed that the expression of genes associated with inflammation, neuron differentiation, synapse function, learning and memory were altered by HsTX1[R14A] treatment. Further study is required to investigate whether these changes are downstream effects of microglial Kv1.3 blockade or a result of alternative mechanisms, including any potential effect of Kv1.3 blockade on other brain cell types. Nonetheless, these results collectively demonstrate the cognitive benefits of Kv1.3 blockade with HsTX1[R14A] in a mouse model of sporadic AD, demonstrating its potential as a therapeutic candidate for this neurodegenerative disease.

Proteomic analysis of anti-aging effects of Dendrobium nobile Lindl. alkaloids in aging-accelerated SAMP8 mice

Senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) mice exhibit cognitive defects and neuron loss with aging, and were used to study anti-aging effects of Dendrobium nobile alkaloids (DNLA). DNLA (20 and 40 mg/kg) were orally administered to SAMP8 mice from 6 to 10 months of age. At 10-month of age, behavioral tests via Y-maze and Open-field and neuron damage via Nissl staining were evaluated. Protein was extracted and subjected to phosphorylated proteomic analysis followed by bioinformatic analysis. The cognitive deficits and neuron loss in hippocampus and cortex of aged SAMP8 mice were improved by DNLA. Hippocampal proteomic analysis revealed 196 differentially expressed protein/genes in SAMP8 compared to age-matched senescence-accelerated resistant SAMR1 mice. Gene Oncology enriched the tubulin binding, microtubule binding, and other activities. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) revealed endocytosis, mRNA surveillance, tight junction, protein processing in endoplasmic reticulum, aldosterone synthesis and secretion, and glucagon signaling pathway changes. Upregulated protein/genes in the hippocampus of SAMP8 mice, such as Lmtk3, Usp10, Dzip1, Csnk2b, and Rtn1, were attenuated by DNLA; whereas downregulated protein/genes, such as Kctd16, Psd3, Bsn, Atxn2l, and Kif1a, were rescued by DNLA. The aberrant protein/gene expressions of SAMP8 mice were correlated with transcriptome changes of Alzheimer's disease in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database, and the scores were attenuated by DNLA. Thus, DNLA improved cognitive dysfunction and ameliorated neuronal injury in aged SAMP8 mice, and attenuated aberrant protein/gene expressions.

The emerging roles of tRNAs and tRNA-derived fragments during aging: Lessons from studies on model organisms

Aging is a gradual decline of various functions of organisms resulting in diminished abilities to protect against the environmental damage and reinforce the physiological harmony. Age-related functional declines have been thought to be passive and not regulated. However, studies on numerous model organisms, from yeast to mammals, exposed that the mechanisms of lifespan regulation are remarkably conserved throughout the evolution. Following the pioneering genetic studies in C. elegans, it has been shown that the genes related to the longevity are conserved in yeast, flies and mice. For a long time, tRNAs have been only considered as molecules transporting amino acids to the ribosome during translation. Nonetheless, it has become apparent from many biological studies that tRNAs are entangled in a variety of physiological and pathological processes. This review focuses on the emerging roles of tRNA-associated processes in aging and lifespan of model organisms. More specificaly, we present a summary on the importance of tRNA metabolism, epitranscriptome and possible roles of tRNA-derived fragments in aging and lifespan regulation. Better understanding of the basic mechanisms of aging could lead to the development of new diagnostics and treatments for aging-related diseases.

Effects of Scrophularia buergeriana Extract (Brainon®) on Aging-Induced Memory Impairment in SAMP8 Mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a worldwide problem. Currently, there are no effective drugs for AD treatment. Scrophularia buergeriana Miquel (SB) is a traditional herbal medicine used in Korea to treat various diseases. Our previous studies have shown that ethanol extract of SB roots (SBE, Brainon^®) exhibits potent anti-amnesic effects in Aβ_1-42- or scopolamine-treated memory impairment mice model and neuroprotective effects in a glutamate-induced SH-SY5Y cell model. In this study, we evaluated the therapeutic effects of Brainon^® and its mechanism of action in senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) mice. Brainon^® (30 or 100 mg/kg/day) was orally treated to six-month-old SAMP8 mice for 12 weeks. Results revealed that Brainon^® administration effectually ameliorated cognitive deficits in Y-maze and passive avoidance tests. Following the completion of behavioral testing, western blotting was performed using the cerebral cortex. Results revealed that Brainon^® suppressed Aβ_1-42 accumulation, Tau hyperphosphorylation, oxidative stress, and inflammation and alleviated apoptosis in SAMP8 mice. Brainon^® also promoted synaptic function by downregulating the expression of AChE and upregulating the expression of p-CREB/CREB and BDNF. Furthermore, Brainon^® restored SAMP8-reduced expression of ChAT and -dephosphorylated of ERK and also decreased AChE expression in the hippocampus. Furthermore, Brainon^® alleviated AD progression by promoting mitophagy/autophagy to maintain normal cellular function as a novel finding of this study. Our data suggest that Brainon^® can remarkably improve cognitive deficiency with the potential to be utilized in functional food for improving brain health.

The role of substance P on maintaining ligament homeostasis by inhibiting endochondral ossification during osteoarthritis progression

PURPOSE

Osteoarthritis (OA) is characterized by the degeneration of various tissues, including ligaments. However, pathological changes such as chondrogenesis and ossification in ligaments during OA are still unclear. Substance P (SP), a neuropeptide, has various functions including bone metabolism. This study aimed to analyze the expression and function of SP in OA ligaments, and the therapeutic potential of SP agonists in OA mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Expressions of SP, SOX9, and MMP13 were histologically analyzed in the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) in humans with OA and Senescence-accelerated mouse-prone 8 (SAMP8) mice as a spontaneous OA model. The effect of SP agonists on chondrogenesis was evaluated using human ligament cells. Finally, SP agonists were administered intraperitoneally to destabilized medial meniscus (DMM) mice, and the PCL was histologically evaluated.

RESULTS

In PCL of humans and mice, the expression of SP, SOX9, and MMP13 was upregulated as OA progressed, but their expression was downregulated in severe degeneration. SP and SOX9 were co-expressed in chondrocyte-like cells. In ligament cells, SP agonists downregulated SOX9, RUNX2, and COL10A1. On evaluating chondrogenesis in ligament cells, pellet diameter was reduced in those treated with the SP agonists compared to those untreated. Administration of SP agonists ameliorated PCL degeneration in DMM mice. The Osteoarthritis Research Society and ligament scores in mice with SP agonists were significantly lower than those without SP agonists.

CONCLUSIONS

SP plays an important role in maintaining ligament homeostasis by inhibiting endochondral ossification during OA progression. Targeting SP has therapeutic potential for preventing ligament degeneration.

Probing the relevance of the accelerated aging mouse line SAMP8 as a model for certain types of neuropsychiatric symptoms in dementia

INTRODUCTION

People with dementia (PwD) often present with neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS). NPS are of substantial burden to the patients, and current treatment options are unsatisfactory. Investigators searching for novel medications need animal models that present disease-relevant phenotypes and can be used for drug screening. The Senescence Accelerated Mouse-Prone 8 (SAMP8) strain shows an accelerated aging phenotype associated with neurodegeneration and cognitive decline. Its behavioural phenotype in relation to NPS has not yet been thoroughly investigated. Physical and verbal aggression in reaction to the external environment (e.g., interaction with the caregiver) is one of the most prevalent and debilitating NPS occurring in PwD. Reactive aggression can be studied in male mice using the Resident-Intruder (R-I) test. SAMP8 mice are known to be more aggressive than the Senescence Accelerated Mouse-Resistant 1 (SAMR1) control strain at specific ages, but the development of the aggressive phenotype over time, is still unknown.

METHODS

In our study, we performed a longitudinal, within-subject, assessment of aggressive behaviour of male SAMP8 and SAMR1 mice at 4, 5, 6 and 7 months of age. Aggressive behaviour from video recordings of the R-I sessions was analysed using an in-house developed behaviour recognition software.

RESULTS

SAMP8 mice were more aggressive relative to SAMR1 mice starting at 5 months of age, and the phenotype was still present at 7 months of age. Treatment with risperidone (an antipsychotic frequently used to treat agitation in clinical practice) reduced aggression in both strains. In a three-chamber social interaction test, SAMP8 mice also interacted more fervently with male mice than SAMR1, possibly because of their aggression-seeking phenotype. They did not show any social withdrawal.

DISCUSSION

Our data support the notion that SAMP8 mice might be a useful preclinical tool to identify novel treatment options for CNS disorders associated with raised levels of reactive aggression such as dementia.

Evaluation of Antiaging Effect of Sheep Placenta Extract Using SAMP8 Mice

Widely used in traditional medicine, sheep placenta extract (SPE) is known for its physiological effects such as wound healing, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. However, the effect of SPE on antiaging is still unclear. In this study, we investigated the effect of SPE on aging through the senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) strain. We designed an experiment using both male and female mice randomly divided into 4 groups (n = 10) as follows: Group A—control group; Group B—low-dose SPE (61.5 mg/kg BW/day); Group C—medium-dose SPE (123 mg/kg BW/day); and Group D—high-dose SPE (184.5 mg/kg BW/day). As a result of measuring the aging index parameters such as skin glossiness, spine lordosis, and kyphosis, it was found that the treatment of SPE lowered the aging index. In addition, we found that biochemical parameters such as lactic acid, glucose, ketone bodies, free fatty acids, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin 6 (IL-6) were not changed in the experimental group treated with SPE for 13 weeks. Finally, we found that lipid peroxidation (LPO) was decreased, while the activities of catalase and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were significantly increased in the brain tissues of SPE-treated male and female mice. Supplementation of SPE lowered the oxidative stress caused by the aging process in mice without toxicity and decreased the aging index, suggesting the value of SPE as an effective antiaging treatment.

Interplay between aging and other factors of the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a complex eye disease with the retina as the target tissue and aging as per definition the most serious risk factor. However, the retina contains over 60 kinds of cells that form different structures, including the neuroretina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) which can age at different rates. Other established or putative AMD risk factors can differentially affect the neuroretina and RPE and can differently interplay with aging of these structures. The occurrence of β-amyloid plaques and increased levels of cholesterol in AMD retinas suggest that AMD may be a syndrome of accelerated brain aging. Therefore, the question about the real meaning of age in AMD is justified. In this review we present and update information on how aging may interplay with some aspects of AMD pathogenesis, such as oxidative stress, amyloid beta formation, circadian rhythm, metabolic aging and cellular senescence. Also, we show how this interplay can be specific for photoreceptors, microglia cells and RPE cells as well as in Bruch's membrane and the choroid. Therefore, the process of aging may differentially affect different retinal structures. As an accurate quantification of biological aging is important for risk stratification and early intervention for age-related diseases, the determination how photoreceptors, microglial and RPE cells age in AMD may be helpful for a precise diagnosis and treatment of this largely untreatable disease.

Age-related metabolic and neurodegenerative changes in SAMP8 mice

The most important risk factor for the development of sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is ageing. Senescence accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) is a model of sporadic AD, with senescence accelerated resistant mouse (SAMR1) as a control. In this study, we aimed to determine the onset of senescence-induced neurodegeneration and the related potential therapeutic window using behavioral experiments, immunohistochemistry and western blotting in SAMP8 and SAMR1 mice at 3, 6 and 9 months of age. The Y-maze revealed significantly impaired working spatial memory of SAMP8 mice from the 6^th month. With ageing, increasing plasma concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines in SAMP8 mice were detected as well as significantly increased astrocytosis in the cortex and microgliosis in the brainstem. Moreover, from the 3^rd month, SAMP8 mice displayed a decreased number of neurons and neurogenesis in the hippocampus. From the 6^th month, increased pathological phosphorylation of tau protein at Thr231 and Ser214 was observed in the hippocampi of SAMP8 mice. In conclusion, changes specific for neurodegenerative processes were observed between the 3^rd and 6^th month of age in SAMP8 mice; thus, potential neuroprotective interventions could be applied between these ages.

Cognitive Decline and BPSD Are Concomitant with Autophagic and Synaptic Deficits Associated with G9a Alterations in Aged SAMP8 Mice

Behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) are presented in 95% of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) patients and are also associated with neurotrophin deficits. The molecular mechanisms leading to age-related diseases are still unclear; however, emerging evidence has suggested that epigenetic modulation is a key pathophysiological basis of ageing and neurodegeneration. In particular, it has been suggested that G9a methyltransferase and its repressive histone mark (H3K9me2) are important in shaping learning and memory by modulating autophagic activity and synaptic plasticity. This work deepens our understanding of the epigenetic mechanisms underlying the loss of cognitive function and BPSD in AD. For this purpose, several tasks were performed to evaluate the parameters of sociability (three-chamber test), aggressiveness (resident intruder), anxiety (elevated plus maze and open field) and memory (novel object recognition test) in mice, followed by the evaluation of epigenetic, autophagy and synaptic plasticity markers at the molecular level. The behavioural alterations presented by senescence-accelerated mice prone 8 (SAMP8) of 12 months of age compared with their senescence-accelerated mouse resistant mice (SAMR1), the healthy control strain was accompanied by age-related cognitive deficits and alterations in epigenetic markers. Increased levels of G9a are concomitant to the dysregulation of the JNK pathway in aged SAMP8, driving a failure in autophagosome formation. Furthermore, lower expression of the genes involved in the memory-consolidation process modulated by ERK was observed in the aged male SAMP8 model, suggesting the implication of G9a. In any case, two of the most important neurotrophins, namely brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf) and neurotrophin-3 (NT3), were found to be reduced, along with a decrease in the levels of dendritic branching and spine density presented by SAMP8 mice. Thus, the present study characterizes and provides information regarding the non-cognitive and cognitive states, as well as molecular alterations, in aged SAMP8, demonstrating the AD-like symptoms presented by this model. In any case, our results indicate that higher levels of G9a are associated with autophagic deficits and alterations in synaptic plasticity, which could further explain the BPSD and cognitive decline exhibited by the model.

New Therapeutic Approaches to and Mechanisms of Ginsenoside Rg1 against Neurological Diseases

Neurological diseases, including Parkinson’s disease (PD), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Huntington’s disease (HD), stroke, cerebral infarction, ischemia-reperfusion injury, depression and, stress, have high incidence and morbidity and often lead to disability. However, there is no particularly effective medication against them. Therefore, finding drugs with a suitable efficacy, low toxicity and manageable effects to improve the quality of life of patients is an urgent problem. Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) is the main active component of ginseng and has a variety of pharmacological effects. In this review, we focused on the therapeutic potential of Rg1 for improving neurological diseases. We introduce the mechanisms of Ginsenoside Rg1 in neurological diseases, including apoptosis, neuroinflammation, the microRNA (miRNA) family, the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family, oxidative stress, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), and learning and memory of Rg1 in neurological diseases. In addition, Rg1 can also improve neurological diseases through the interaction of different signal pathways. The purpose of this review is to explore more in-depth ideas for the clinical treatment of neurological diseases (including PD, AD, HD, stroke, cerebral infarction, ischemia–reperfusion injury, depression, and stress). Therefore, Rg1 is expected to become a new therapeutic method for the clinical treatment of neurological diseases.

A Combined Chronic Low-Dose Soluble Epoxide Hydrolase and Acetylcholinesterase Pharmacological Inhibition Promotes Memory Reinstatement in Alzheimer’s Disease Mice Models

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurological disorder with multifactorial and heterogeneous causes. AD involves several etiopathogenic mechanisms such as aberrant protein accumulation, neurotransmitter deficits, synaptic dysfunction and neuroinflammation, which lead to cognitive decline. Unfortunately, the currently available anti-AD drugs only alleviate the symptoms temporarily and provide a limited therapeutic effect. Thus, new therapeutic strategies, including multitarget approaches, are urgently needed. It has been demonstrated that a co-treatment of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor with other neuroprotective agents has beneficial effects on cognition. Here, we have assessed the neuroprotective effects of chronic dual treatment with a soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) inhibitor (TPPU) and an AChE inhibitor (6-chlorotacrine or rivastigmine) in in vivo studies. Interestingly, we have found beneficial effects after chronic low-dose co-treatment with TPPU and 6-chlorotacrine in the senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) mouse model as well as with TPPU and rivastigmine co-treatment in the 5XFAD mouse model, in comparison with the corresponding monotherapy treatments. In the SAMP8 model, no substantial improvements in synaptic plasticity markers were found, but the co-treatment of TPPU and 6-chlorotacrine led to a significantly reduced gene expression of neuroinflammatory markers, such as interleukin 6 (Il-6), triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cell 2 (Trem2) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (Gfap). In 5XFAD mice, chronic low-dose co-treatment of TPPU and rivastigmine led to enhanced protein levels of synaptic plasticity markers, such as the phospho-cAMP response element-binding protein (p-CREB) ratio, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95), and also to a reduction in neuroinflammatory gene expression. Collectively, these results support the neuroprotectant role of chronic low-dose co-treatment strategy with sEH and AChE inhibitors in AD mouse models, opening new avenues for effective AD treatment.

Neuroprotective Effects of Resveratrol by Modifying Cholesterol Metabolism and Aβ Processing in SAMP8 Mice

Cholesterol metabolism seems dysregulated and linked to amyloid-β (Aβ) formation in neurodegeneration, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly known. Resveratrol (RSV) is a polyphenol with antioxidant activity and neuroprotective properties. Here, we analyzed the effect of age and RSV supplementation on cholesterol metabolism in the brain and blood serum, and its potential link to Aβ processing, in SAMP8 mice—an animal model of aging and Alzheimer’s disease. In the brain, our results revealed an age-related increase in ApoE and unesterified cholesterol in the plasma membrane whereas LDL receptor, HMG-CoA reductase, HMG-CoA-C1 synthase, and ABCA1 transporter remained unaltered. Furthermore, BACE-1 and APP gene expression was decreased. This dysregulation could be involved in the amyloidogenic processing pathway of APP towards Aβ formation. In turn, RSV exhibited an age-dependent effect. While levels of unesterified cholesterol in the plasma membrane were not affected by RSV, several participants in cholesterol uptake, release, and de novo synthesis differed, depending on age. Thus, RSV supplementation exhibited a different neuroprotective effect acting on Aβ processing or cholesterol metabolism in the brain at earlier or later ages, respectively. In blood serum, HDL lipoprotein and free cholesterol were increased by age, whereas VLDL and LDL lipoproteins remained unaltered. Again, the protective effect of RSV by decreasing the LDL or increasing the HDL levels also seems to depend on the intervention’s moment. In conclusion, age is a prominent factor for cholesterol metabolism dysregulation in the brain of SAMP8 mice and influences the protective effects of RSV through cholesterol metabolism and Aβ processing.

Buckwheat Flour and Its Starch Prevent Age-Related Cognitive Decline by Increasing Hippocampal BDNF Production in Senescence-Accelerated Mouse Prone 8 Mice

Buckwheat is an important pseudo-cereal crop worldwide. This study investigated whether long-term administration of buckwheat can suppress age-related cognitive decline in senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) mice. For 26 weeks, 18-week-old male SAMP8 mice were fed a standard diet containing 5% (w/w) buckwheat, Tartary buckwheat, wheat, or rice flour. In the Barnes maze and passive avoidance tests, mice fed buckwheat whole flour (BWF) showed improved cognitive performance compared to those fed a control diet, while no improvement was noticed in case of the other diets. Analysis of the gut microbiota showed that BWF and buckwheat outer flour administration increased the abundance of Lactococcus and Ruminiclostridium, respectively, at the genus level. The expression levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), postsynaptic Arc and PSD95, and the mature neuronal marker NeuN in the hippocampus were increased after BWF administration, which was induced by the activation of the ERK/CREB signaling pathway and histone H3 acetylation. A similar increase in cognitive performance-related hippocampal BDNF expression in SAMP8 mice was observed after the oral administration of starch prepared from BWF. Therefore, the long-term administration of BWF suppresses cognitive decline by increasing hippocampal BDNF production in SAMP8 mice.

miR-23b-3p rescues cognition in Alzheimer's disease by reducing tau phosphorylation and apoptosis via GSK-3β signaling pathways

Dysregulated microRNA (miRNA) expression in the brain can contribute to cognitive dysfunction and aberrant tau hyperphosphorylation in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Several studies have reported a role for microRNA-23b-3p (miR-23b-3p) in various neurologic disorders; however, its involvement in cognition-related functions remains unclear. In the present study, we investigated the potential therapeutic effects and mechanisms of miR-23b-3p in AD. miRNA profiles in the cortex of amyloid precursor protein (APP)/presenilin 1 (PS1) double transgenic mice (APP/PS1 mice) demonstrated that miR-23b-3p was reduced. This decrease was verified in APPswe cells, SAMP8 mouse brains, and plasma from AD patients. Furthermore, glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), a major tau kinase implicated in tau pathology, was identified as a target of miR-23b-3p. Functional in vivo studies demonstrated that intracerebroventricular delivery of miR-23b-3p in APP/PS1 mice ameliorated cognitive deficits, histopathological changes, and tau phosphorylation immunoreactivity at several sites by inhibiting GSK-3β expression and activation. Similarly, the upregulation of miR-23b-3p in APPswe cells inhibited GSK-3β-mediated tau hyperphosphorylation, Aβ_1-42 generation, and neuronal apoptosis, resulting in the suppression of the GSK-3β/p-tau and Bax/caspase-3 pathways. Collectively, our findings strongly support the hypothesis that miR-23b-3p plays a neuroprotective role in AD, thereby identifying miR-23b-3p as a promising therapeutic target for AD.

Activation of the TREK-1 Potassium Channel Improved Cognitive Deficits in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease by Modulating Glutamate Metabolism

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by cognitive dysfunction. The glutamate (Glu) metabolic pathway may be a major contributor to the memory dysfunction associated with AD. The TWIK-related potassium channel-1 (TREK-1) protects against brain ischemia, but any specific role for the channel in AD remains unknown. In this study, we used SAMP8 mice as an AD model and age-matched SAMR1 mice as controls. We explored the trends of changes in TREK-1 channel activity and the levels of AD-related molecules in the brains of SAMP8 mice. We found that the expression level of TREK-1 increased before 3 months of age and then began to decline. The levels of Tau and Glu increased with age whereas the acetylcholine level decreased with age. α-Linolenic acid (ALA), an activator of the TREK-1 channel, significantly increased the TREK-1 level, and improved the learning and memory deficits of SAMP8 mice aged 6 months. The mechanism in play may involve the Glu metabolic pathway. After activation of the TREK-1 channel, damaged neurons and astrocytes were rescued, the levels of Glu and the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor were downregulated, and the level of glutamate transporter-1 was upregulated. These findings suggest that TREK-1 plays a crucial role in the pathological progression of AD; activation of the TREK-1 channel improved cognitive deficits in SAMP8 mice via a mechanism that involved Glu metabolism. The TREK-1 potassium channel may thus be a valuable therapeutic target in AD patients.

Translation of Cellular Senescence to Novel Therapeutics: Insights From Alternative Tools and Models

Increasing chronological age is the greatest risk factor for human diseases. Cellular senescence (CS), which is characterized by permanent cell-cycle arrest, has recently emerged as a fundamental mechanism in developing aging-related pathologies. During the aging process, senescent cell accumulation results in senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) which plays an essential role in tissue dysfunction. Although discovered very recently, senotherapeutic drugs have been already involved in clinical studies. This review gives a summary of the molecular mechanisms of CS and its role particularly in the development of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) as the leading cause of death. In addition, it addresses alternative research tools including the nonhuman and human models as well as computational techniques for the discovery of novel therapies. Finally, senotherapeutic approaches that are mainly classified as senolytics and senomorphics are discussed.

Candesartan Effectively Preserves Cognition in Senescence Accelerated Mouse Prone 8 (SAMP8) mice

Background:

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has become a worldwide crisis with no effective therapeutic options. The medications currently available for AD are only palliative; their effect is temporary, and they are associated with unfavorable side effects. Even the newest medication aducanumab, granted accelerated FDA approval in 2021, failed to show cognitive benefits in clinical trials and continued approval requires verification in subsequent clinical trials. There is an urgent need for safe and effective therapies to preserve cognition and effectively manage AD. Generally, a new drug product takes several years for FDA approval and exceeds 2.5 billion dollars in research and development, with most new drug products never even reaching the market. This has led to a recent shift for repurposing/repositioning existing FDA-approved medications, to new therapeutic indications.

Objective:

To investigate the effects of long-term treatment with candesartan, an FDA-approved angiotensin-II type-1 receptor blocker (ARB), on the development of cognitive impairment associated with premature aging.

Methods:

Candesartan was given at a dose of 1 mg/kg/d in an AD model of senescence-accelerated mouse prone-8 (SAMP8) and senescence-accelerated mouse resistant (SAMR1) mice. Oral treatment with candesartan or vehicle was started, in 2-month-old mice and administered continuously for 4-months.

Results:

Low-dose candesartan prevented the development of cognitive impairment, otherwise associated with accelerated aging, in SAMP8 mice, by reducing inflammation and nitro-oxidative stress. Candesartan did not affect the cognitive function of control SAMR1 mice.

Conclusion:

Early ARB treatment might be beneficial in preventing age-related cognitive deficits in AD-prone individuals.

Inhibition of caspase-1 ameliorates tauopathy and rescues cognitive impairment in SAMP8 mice

The inflammasome assembles leading to increased cleavage and activity of caspase-1 and downstream IL-1β release, which plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Previous studies have shown that caspase-1-mediated neuroinflammation occurs early in AD process. However, the detailed role of caspase-1 in aging-related AD-like neuropathology is still unclear so far. In this study, by using SAMP8 mice, an animal model of accelerated aging, we detected the levels of caspase-1 in brains of 3-, 7-, and 11-month-old mice and observed that caspase-1 was activated during aging process. More importantly, we provided the evidence that VX-765, a selective inhibitor of caspase-1, significantly rescued spatial learning and memory impairments and reduced tau hyperphosphorylation in brains of SAMP8 mice at early stages of the disease. This amelioration might be attributed to IL-1β-induced hypoactivation of tau kinases. Our results imply that caspase-1 may represent as a potential therapeutic target for neurodegenerative tauopathies.

AAV-mediated expression of secreted and transmembrane αKlotho isoforms rescues relevant aging hallmarks in senescent SAMP8 mice

Senescence represents a stage in life associated with elevated incidence of morbidity and increased risk of mortality due to the accumulation of molecular alterations and tissue dysfunction, promoting a decrease in the organism's protective systems. Thus, aging presents molecular and biological hallmarks, which include chronic inflammation, epigenetic alterations, neuronal dysfunction, and worsening of physical status. In this context, we explored the AAV9-mediated expression of the two main isoforms of the aging-protective factor Klotho (KL) as a strategy to prevent these general age-related features using the senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) model. Both secreted and transmembrane KL isoforms improved cognitive performance, physical state parameters, and different molecular variables associated with aging. Epigenetic landscape was recovered for the analyzed global markers DNA methylation (5-mC), hydroxymethylation (5-hmC), and restoration occurred in the acetylation levels of H3 and H4. Gene expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators in central nervous system such as TNF-α and IL-10, respectively, had improved levels, which were comparable to the senescence-accelerated-mouse resistant 1 (SAMR1) healthy control. Additionally, this improvement in neuroinflammation was supported by changes in the histological markers Iba1, GFAP, and SA β-gal. Furthermore, bone tissue structural variables, especially altered during senescence, recovered in SAMP8 mice to SAMR1 control values after treatment with both KL isoforms. This work presents evidence of the beneficial pleiotropic role of Klotho as an anti-aging therapy as well as new specific functions of the KL isoforms for the epigenetic regulation and aged bone structure alteration in an aging mouse model.

Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO) drives insulin resistance and cognitive deficiencies in a senescence accelerated mouse model

It has been established that ageing is the major risk factor for cognitive deficiency and it is becoming increasingly evident that insulin resistance is another factor. Biological plausibility for a link between insulin resistance and dementia is relevant for understanding disease etiology, and to form bases for prevention efforts to decrease disease burden. In the present study, peripheral and central insulin resistance was found in SAMP8 mice (aging mouse model) accompanied by cognitive deficiencies. Furthermore, a marked peripheral inflammatory state was observed in SAMP8 mice, followed by neuroinflammation that could be due to a higher cytokine leaking into the brain across an aging-disrupted blood brain barrier. Moreover, aging-induced gut dysbiosis produces higher TMAO that could also contribute to the peripheral and central inflammatory tone as well as to the cognitive deficiencies observed in SAMP8 mice. All those alterations were reversed by DMB, a treatment that decreases TMAO levels. Data obtained from this project suggest that microbial dysbiosis and increased TMAO secretion could be a key link between aging, insulin resistance and dementia. Thus, pharmacological intervention that leads to decreased TMAO levels, such as DMB, could open a new avenue for the future treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Classification of the Senescence-Accelerated Mouse (SAM) Strains With Its Behaviour Using Deep Learning

Microarray technology is a novel method to monitor the levels of expression of a huge number of genes simultaneously.this study aims at (1) identifying the most important genes in the molecular senescence of the hippocampus and retina, where both with accelerated neurological senescence (S10 and 8) models were obtainable. By using feature selection to reduce the size of high dimensional data. Hence, the process of gene selection is twofold; removing the irrelevant genes and selecting the informative genes, and (2) The determination of the study is to specify the association among these genes or pathways that would deliver insight into the mechanism for this phenotype which will be greater to the current imperfect state-of-the-art estimates. In this study, gene selection methods have been implemented, including Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The results are showed that CNN model achieve 0.98 accuracy based on a subset of genes from ANOVA method. Thus, Genes subset selected is achieved a better accuracy at classification and a little time of processing.

The Alzheimer's disease drug candidate J147 decreases blood plasma fatty acid levels via modulation of AMPK/ACC1 signaling in the liver

J147 is a novel drug candidate developed to treat neurological dysfunction. Numerous studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of J147 in cellular and animal models of disease which has led to the transitioning of the compound into human clinical trials. However, no biomarkers for its target engagement have been identified. Here, we determined if specific metabolites in the plasma could be indicative of J147's activity in vivo. Plasma lipidomics data from three independent rodent studies were assessed along with liver lipidomics data from one of the studies. J147 consistently reduced plasma free fatty acid (FFA) levels across the independent studies. Decreased FFA levels were also found in the livers of J147-treated mice that correlated well with those in the plasma. These changes in the liver were associated with activation of the AMP-activated protein kinase/acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 signaling pathway. A reduction in FFA levels by J147 was confirmed in HepG2 cells, where activation of the AMPK/ACC1 pathway was seen along with increases in acetyl-CoA and ATP levels which correlated with enhanced cellular bioenergetics. Our data show that J147 targets liver cells to activate the AMPK/ACC1 signaling pathway and preserve energy at the expense of inhibiting FFA synthesis.

Administration of miR-195 Inhibitor Enhances Memory Function Through Improving Synaptic Degradation and Mitochondrial Dysfunction of the Hippocampal Neurons in SAMP8 Mice

BACKGROUND

Mitochondrial dysfunction is an early feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and miR-195 is involved in mitochondrial disorder through targeting MFN-2 protein in hippocampal neurons of AD.

OBJECTIVE

To clarify if administration of miR-195 inhibitor could enhance the memory deficits through improving hippocampal neuron mitochondrial dysfunction in SAMP8 mice.

METHODS

The expression of miR-195 was detected by RT-qPCR in primary hippocampal neurons and HT-22 cells treated with Aβ 1-42. Morris water maze (MWM) was used to assess the learning and memory function in SAMP8 mice administrated with antagomir-195. Transmission electron microscopy was employed to determine the morphological changes of synapses and mitochondria of hippocampus in SAMP8 mice. Mitochondrial respiration was measured using a high-resolution oxygraph.

RESULTS

The expression of miR-195 were upregulated in the primary hippocampal neurons and HT-22 cells induced by Aβ 1-42. Inhibition of miR-195 ameliorated the mitochondrial dysfunction in HT-22 cells induced by Aβ 1-42, including mitochondrial morphologic damages, mitochondrial membrane potential, respiration function, and ATP production. Administration of antagomir-195 by the third ventricle injection markedly ameliorated the cognitive function, postsynaptic density thickness, length of synaptic active area, mitochondrial aspect ratio, and area in hippocampus of SAMP8 mice. Finally, antagomir-195 was able to promote an increase in the activity of respiratory chain complex CI and II in SAMP8 mice.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that miR-195 inhibitor ameliorated the cognitive impairment of AD mice by improving mitochondrial structure damages and dysfunction in the hippocampal neurons, which provide an experimental basis for further exploring the treatment strategy of AD.

Principles of brain aging: Status and challenges of modeling human molecular changes in mice

Due to the extension of human life expectancy, the prevalence of cognitive impairment is rising in the older portion of society. Developing new strategies to delay or attenuate cognitive decline is vital. For this purpose, it is imperative to understand the cellular and molecular events at the basis of brain aging. While several organs are directly accessible to molecular analysis through biopsies, the brain constitutes a notable exception. Most of the molecular studies are performed on postmortem tissues, where cell death and tissue damage have already occurred. Hence, the study of the molecular aspects of cognitive decline largely relies on animal models and in particular on small mammals such as mice. What have we learned from these models? Do these animals recapitulate the changes observed in humans? What should we expect from future mouse studies? In this review we answer these questions by summarizing the state of the research that has addressed cognitive decline in mice from several perspectives, including genetic manipulation and omics strategies. We conclude that, while extremely valuable, mouse models have limitations that can be addressed by the optimal design of future studies and by ensuring that results are cross-validated in the human context.

Folic acid alleviates age-related cognitive decline and inhibits apoptosis of neurocytes in senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8: deoxythymidine triphosphate biosynthesis as a potential mechanism

Disturbed deoxythymidine triphosphate biosynthesis due to the inhibition of thymidylate synthase (TS) can lead to uracil accumulation in DNA, eventually, lead to neurocytes apoptosis and cognitive decline. Folic acid supplementation delayed cognitive decline and neurodegeneration in senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8). Whether folic acid, one of nutrition factor, the effect on the expression of TS is unknown. The study aimed to determine if folic acid supplementation could alleviate age-related cognitive decline and apoptosis of neurocytes by increasing TS expression in SAMP8 mice. According to folic acid concentration in diet, four-month-old male SAMP8 mice were randomly divided into three different diet groups by baseline body weight in equal numbers. Moreover, to evaluate the role of TS, a TS inhibitor was injected intraperitoneal. Cognitive test, apoptosis rates of neurocytes, expression of TS, relative uracil level in telomere, and telomere length in brain tissue were detected. The results showed that folic acid supplementation decreased deoxyuridine monophosphate accumulation, uracil misincorporation in telomere, alleviated telomere length shorting, increased expression of TS, then decreased apoptosis rates of neurocytes, and alleviated cognitive performance in SAMP8 mice. Moreover, at the same concentration of folic acid, TS inhibitor raltitrexed increased deoxyuridine monophosphate accumulation, uracil misincorporation in telomere, and exacerbated telomere length shorting, decreased expression of TS, then increased apoptosis rates of neurocytes, and decreased cognitive performance in SAMP8 mice. In conclusion, folic acid supplementation alleviated age-related cognitive decline and inhibited apoptosis of neurocytes by increasing TS expression in SAMP8 mice.

Alzheimer's disease: a tale of two diseases?

Sporadic late-onset Alzheimer's disease (SLOAD) and familial early-onset Alzheimer's disease (FEOAD) associated with dominant mutations in APP, PSEN1 and PSEN2, are thought to represent a spectrum of the same disorder based on near identical behavioral and histopathological features. Hence, FEOAD transgenic mouse models have been used in past decades as a surrogate to study SLOAD pathogenic mechanisms and as the gold standard to validate drugs used in clinical trials. Unfortunately, such research has yielded little output in terms of therapeutics targeting the disease's development and progression. In this short review, we interrogate the widely accepted view of one, dimorphic disease through the prism of the Bmi1+/- mouse model and the distinct chromatin signatures observed between SLOAD and FEOAD brains.

Combined Neuroprotective Strategies Blocked Neurodegeneration and Improved Brain Function in Senescence-Accelerated Mice

Increase in the quality of life, combined with drug strategies, has been studied as possibilities for improving memory and delaying the onset of neurodegenerative diseases. A previous study published by the group of the authors has shown that microdose lithium and enriched environment can improve memory in both mice and humans. To elucidate this relationship better, this study aimed to evaluate whether the chronic combination of these two strategies could increase healthy aging in Senescence Accelerated Mouse-Prone 8 (SAMP8). Animals were submitted to either one or both of these strategies until the age of 10 months when they were anesthetized and killed and their hippocampus was extracted. The untreated SAMP-8 group exhibited worse memory and reduced neuronal density with greater neurodegeneration and increased amyloid-β plaque density compared with the control group. Moreover, significant alterations in proteins related to long-term potentiation, such as, synaptophysin and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), were observed in this group. The strategies used in the study maintained long-term memory, reduced anxiety, and increased neuroprotection. Both strategies were efficient in reducing neurodegeneration and increasing parameters related to memory maintenance. In many experiments, the combination of the two strategies was more effective in improving healthy aging. This study sheds light on the combination of strategies that choose to improve the quality of life and drugs with low side effects. Moreover, it opens perspectives for a new field of study for healthy aging.

High-Fat and Resveratrol Supplemented Diets Modulate Adenosine Receptors in the Cerebral Cortex of C57BL/6J and SAMP8 Mice

Neurodegenerative disorders are devastating diseases in which aging is a major risk factor. High-fat diet (HFD) seems to contribute to cognition deterioration, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Moreover, resveratrol (RSV) has been reported to counteract the loss of cognition associated with age. Our study aimed to investigate whether the adenosinergic system and plasma membrane cholesterol are modulated by HFD and RSV in the cerebral cortex of C57BL/6J and SAMP8 mice. Results show that HFD induced increased A₁R and A_2AR densities in C57BL/6J, whereas this remained unchanged in SAMP8. Higher activity of 5′-Nucleotidase was found as a common effect induced by HFD in both mice strains. Furthermore, the effect of HFD and RSV on A_2BR density was different depending on the mouse strain. RSV did not clearly counteract the HFD-induced effects on the adenosinergic system. Besides, no changes in free-cholesterol levels were detected in the plasma membrane of cerebral cortex in both strains. Taken together, our data suggest a different modulation of adenosine receptors depending on the mouse strain, not related to changes in plasma membrane cholesterol content.

Cornel Iridoid Glycoside Ameliorated Alzheimer's Disease-Like Pathologies and Necroptosis through RIPK1/MLKL Pathway in Young and Aged SAMP8 Mice

BACKGROUND

Aging is an important risk factor for sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative diseases. Senescence-accelerated mouse-prone 8 (SAMP8) is used as an animal model for brain aging and sporadic AD research studies. The aim of the current study was to investigate the pharmacological effects of cornel iridoid glycoside (CIG), an active ingredient of Cornus officinalis, on AD-type pathological changes in young and aged SAMP8 mice.

METHODS

Locomotor activity test was used to detect the aging process of SAMP8 mice. Nissl staining and immunohistochemical staining were applied to detect neurons and myelin basic protein-labelled myelin sheath. Western blotting was used to detect the expression levels of related proteins of synapse, APP processing, and necroptosis.

RESULTS

The results showed that SAMP8 mice at the age of 6 and 14 months exhibited lower locomotor activity, age-related neuronal loss, demyelination, synaptic damage, and APP amyloidogenic processing. In addition, the increased levels of receptor-interacting protein kinase-1 (RIPK1), mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL), and p-MLKL indicating necroptosis were found in the brain of SAMP8 mice. Intragastric administration of CIG for 2 months improved locomotor activity; alleviated neuronal loss and demyelination; increased the expression of synaptophysin, postsynaptic density protein 95, and AMPA receptor subunit 1; elevated the levels of soluble APPα fragment and disintegrin and metalloproteinase 10 (ADAM10); and decreased the levels of RIPK1, p-MLKL, and MLKL in the brain of young and aged SAMP8 mice.

CONCLUSION

This study denoted that CIG might be a potential drug for aging-related neurodegenerative diseases such as AD.