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Montoya-Arroyo A, Brand V, Kröpfl A, Vetter W, Frank J. Metabolism of 11'-α- and 11'-γ-Tocomonoenols in HepG2 Cells Favors the γ-Congener and Results Predominantly in Carboxymethylbutyl-Hydroxychromans. Mol Nutr Food Res 2024; 68:e2300657. [PMID: 38698718 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.202300657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
SCOPE Tocomonoenols (T1) are little-known vitamin E derivatives naturally occurring in foods. Limited knowledge exists regarding the cellular uptake and metabolism of α-tocomonoenol (αT1) and none about that of γ-tocomonoenol (γT1). METHODS AND RESULTS The study investigates the cytotoxicity, uptake, and metabolism of αT1 and γT1 in HepG2 cells compared to the α- and γ-tocopherols (T) and -tocotrienols (T3). None of the studied tocochromanols are cytotoxic up to 100 µmol L-1. The uptake of the γ-congeners is significantly higher than that of the corresponding α-forms, whereas no significant differences are observed based on the degree of saturation of the sidechain. Carboxymethylbutyl-hydroxychromans (CMBHC) are the predominant short-chain metabolites of all tocochromanols and conversion is higher for γT1 than αT1 as well as for the γ-congeners of T and T3. The rate of metabolism increases with the number of double bonds in the sidechain. The rate of metabolic conversion of the T1 is more similar to tocopherols than to that of the tocotrienols. CONCLUSION This is the first evidence that both αT1 and γT1 follow the same sidechain degradation pathway and exert similar rates of metabolism than tocopherols. Therefore, investigation into the biological activities of tocomonoenols is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Montoya-Arroyo
- Department of Food Biofunctionality (140b), Institute of Nutritional Sciences, University of Hohenheim, Garbenstrasse 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Viola Brand
- Department of Food Biofunctionality (140b), Institute of Nutritional Sciences, University of Hohenheim, Garbenstrasse 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Alexander Kröpfl
- Department of Food Chemistry (170b), Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hohenheim, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Walter Vetter
- Department of Food Chemistry (170b), Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hohenheim, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Jan Frank
- Department of Food Biofunctionality (140b), Institute of Nutritional Sciences, University of Hohenheim, Garbenstrasse 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
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2
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Montoya‐Arroyo A, Muñoz‐González A, Lehnert K, Frick K, Schmid‐Staiger U, Vetter W, Frank J. Monodopsis subterranea is a source of α-tocomonoenol, and its concentration, in contrast to α-tocopherol, is not affected by nitrogen depletion. Food Sci Nutr 2024; 12:1869-1879. [PMID: 38455160 PMCID: PMC10916641 DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.3880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 11/12/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
α-Tomonoenols (αT1) are tocochromanols structurally related to tocopherols (T) and tocotrienols (T3), the bioactive members of the vitamin E family. However, limited evidence exists regarding the sources and biosynthesis of tocomonoenols. Nitrogen depletion increases the content of α-tocopherol (αT), the main vitamin E congener, in microalgae, but little is known regarding its effect on other tocochromanols, such as tocomonoenols and tocotrienols. We therefore quantified the concentrations of T, T1, and T3, in freeze-dried biomass from nitrogen-sufficient, and nitrogen-depleted Monodopsis subterranea (Eustigmatophyceae). The identities of isomers of αT1 were confirmed by LC-MS and GC-MS. αT was the predominant tocochromanol (82% of total tocochromanols). αT1 was present in higher quantities than the sum of all T3 (6% vs. 1% of total tocochromanols). 11'-αT1 was the main αT1 isomer. Nitrogen depletion increased αT, but not αT1 or T3 in M. subterranea. In conclusion, nitrogen depletion increased the content of αT, the biologically most active form of vitamin E, in M. subterranea without affecting αT1 and T3 and could potentially be used as a strategy to enhance its nutritional value but not to increase αT1 content, indicating that αT1 accumulation is independent of that of αT in microalgae.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alejandra Muñoz‐González
- Institute of Nutritional Sciences (140b)University of HohenheimStuttgartGermany
- School of Food TechnologyUniversity of Costa RicaSan PedroCosta Rica
| | - Katja Lehnert
- Institute of Food Chemistry (170b)University of HohenheimStuttgartGermany
| | - Konstantin Frick
- Institute of Interfacial Process Engineering and Plasma TechnologyUniversity of StuttgartStuttgartGermany
| | - Ulrike Schmid‐Staiger
- Innovation Field Functional IngredientsFraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology IGBStuttgartGermany
| | - Walter Vetter
- Institute of Food Chemistry (170b)University of HohenheimStuttgartGermany
| | - Jan Frank
- Institute of Nutritional Sciences (140b)University of HohenheimStuttgartGermany
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Pan P, Xing Y, Zhang D, Wang J, Liu C, Wu D, Wang X. A review on the identification of transgenic oilseeds and oils. J Food Sci 2023; 88:3189-3203. [PMID: 37458291 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.16705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Transgenic technology can increase the quantity and quality of vegetable oils worldwide. However, people are skeptical about the safety of transgenic oil-bearing crops and the oils they produce. In order to protect consumers' rights and avoid transgenic oils being adulterated or labeled as nontransgenic oils, the transgenic detection technology of oilseeds and oils needs careful consideration. This paper first summarized the current research status of transgenic technologies implemented at oil-bearing crops. Then, an inspection process was proposed to detect a large number of samples to be the subject rapidly, and various inspection strategies for transgenic oilseeds and oils were summarized according to the process sequence. The detection indicators included oil content, fatty acid, triglyceride, tocopherol, and nucleic acid. The detection technologies involved chromatography, spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, and polymerase chain reaction. It is hoped that this article can provide crucial technical reference and support for staff engaging in the supervision of transgenic food and for researchers developing fast and efficient monitoring methods in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengyuan Pan
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
- National Engineering Laboratory of Wheat and Corn Deep Processing, Changchun, China
| | - Yihang Xing
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
- National Engineering Laboratory of Wheat and Corn Deep Processing, Changchun, China
| | - Dingwen Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
- National Engineering Laboratory of Wheat and Corn Deep Processing, Changchun, China
| | - Ji Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
- National Engineering Laboratory of Wheat and Corn Deep Processing, Changchun, China
| | - Chunlei Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
- National Engineering Laboratory of Wheat and Corn Deep Processing, Changchun, China
| | - Dan Wu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
- National Engineering Laboratory of Wheat and Corn Deep Processing, Changchun, China
| | - Xiyan Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
- National Engineering Laboratory of Wheat and Corn Deep Processing, Changchun, China
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Niu Y, Zhang Q, Wang J, Li Y, Wang X, Bao Y. Vitamin E synthesis and response in plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:994058. [PMID: 36186013 PMCID: PMC9515888 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.994058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Vitamin E, also known as tocochromanol, is a lipid-soluble antioxidant that can only be produced by photosynthetic organisms in nature. Vitamin E is not only essential in human diets, but also required for plant environment adaptions. To synthesize vitamin E, specific prenyl groups needs to be incorporated with homogentisate as the first step of reaction. After decades of studies, an almost complete roadmap has been revealed for tocochromanol biosynthesis pathway. However, chlorophyll-derived prenyl precursors for synthesizing tocochromanols are still a mystery. In recent years, by employing forward genetic screening and genome-wide-association approaches, significant achievements were acquired in studying vitamin E. In this review, by summarizing the recent progresses in vitamin E, we provide to date the most updated whole view of vitamin E biosynthesis pathway. Also, we discussed about the role of vitamin E in plants stress response and its potential as signaling molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Niu
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, Joint Center for Single Cell Biology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qian Zhang
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, Joint Center for Single Cell Biology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiaojiao Wang
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, Joint Center for Single Cell Biology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanjie Li
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xinhua Wang
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Bao
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, Joint Center for Single Cell Biology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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5
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Chen G, Harwood JL, Lemieux MJ, Stone SJ, Weselake RJ. Acyl-CoA:diacylglycerol acyltransferase: Properties, physiological roles, metabolic engineering and intentional control. Prog Lipid Res 2022; 88:101181. [PMID: 35820474 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2022.101181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Acyl-CoA:diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT, EC 2.3.1.20) catalyzes the last reaction in the acyl-CoA-dependent biosynthesis of triacylglycerol (TAG). DGAT activity resides mainly in membrane-bound DGAT1 and DGAT2 in eukaryotes and bifunctional wax ester synthase-diacylglycerol acyltransferase (WSD) in bacteria, which are all membrane-bound proteins but exhibit no sequence homology to each other. Recent studies also identified other DGAT enzymes such as the soluble DGAT3 and diacylglycerol acetyltransferase (EaDAcT), as well as enzymes with DGAT activities including defective in cuticular ridges (DCR) and steryl and phytyl ester synthases (PESs). This review comprehensively discusses research advances on DGATs in prokaryotes and eukaryotes with a focus on their biochemical properties, physiological roles, and biotechnological and therapeutic applications. The review begins with a discussion of DGAT assay methods, followed by a systematic discussion of TAG biosynthesis and the properties and physiological role of DGATs. Thereafter, the review discusses the three-dimensional structure and insights into mechanism of action of human DGAT1, and the modeled DGAT1 from Brassica napus. The review then examines metabolic engineering strategies involving manipulation of DGAT, followed by a discussion of its therapeutic applications. DGAT in relation to improvement of livestock traits is also discussed along with DGATs in various other eukaryotic organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanqun Chen
- Department of Agricultural, Food, and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6H 2P5, Canada.
| | - John L Harwood
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK
| | - M Joanne Lemieux
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Membrane Protein Disease Research Group, Edmonton T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Scot J Stone
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5E5, Canada.
| | - Randall J Weselake
- Department of Agricultural, Food, and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6H 2P5, Canada
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Genome-wide association identifies a missing hydrolase for tocopherol synthesis in plants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2113488119. [PMID: 35639691 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2113488119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
SignificanceTocopherols (vitamin E) are plant-synthesized, lipid-soluble antioxidants whose dietary intake, primarily from seed oils, is essential for human health. Tocopherols contain a phytol-derived hydrophobic tail whose in vivo source has been elusive. The most significant genome-wide association signal for Arabidopsis seed tocopherols identified an uncharacterized, seed-specific esterase (VTE7) localized to the chloroplast envelope, where tocopherol synthesis occurs. VTE7 disruption and overexpression had large impacts on tissue tocopherol contents with metabolic phenotypes consistent with release of prenyl alcohols, including phytol, during chlorophyll synthesis, rather than from the bulk degradation of thylakoid chlorophylls as has long been assumed. Understanding the source of phytol for tocopherols will enable breeding and engineering plants for vitamin E biofortification and enhanced stress resilience.
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Hellmann H, Goyer A, Navarre DA. Antioxidants in Potatoes: A Functional View on One of the Major Food Crops Worldwide. Molecules 2021; 26:2446. [PMID: 33922183 PMCID: PMC8122721 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
With a growing world population, accelerating climate changes, and limited arable land, it is critical to focus on plant-based resources for sustainable food production. In addition, plants are a cornucopia for secondary metabolites, of which many have robust antioxidative capacities and are beneficial for human health. Potato is one of the major food crops worldwide, and is recognized by the United Nations as an excellent food source for an increasing world population. Potato tubers are rich in a plethora of antioxidants with an array of health-promoting effects. This review article provides a detailed overview about the biosynthesis, chemical and health-promoting properties of the most abundant antioxidants in potato tubers, including several vitamins, carotenoids and phenylpropanoids. The dietary contribution of diverse commercial and primitive cultivars are detailed and document that potato contributes much more than just complex carbohydrates to the diet. Finally, the review provides insights into the current and future potential of potato-based systems as tools and resources for healthy and sustainable food production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanjo Hellmann
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
| | - Aymeric Goyer
- Hermiston Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Hermiston, OR 97838, USA;
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8
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Bose D, Ngo AH, Nguyen VC, Nakamura Y. Non-specific phospholipases C2 and C6 redundantly function in pollen tube growth via triacylglycerol production in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 106:409-418. [PMID: 33506578 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Non-specific phospholipase Cs (NPCs) are responsible for membrane lipid remodeling that involves hydrolysis of the polar head group of membrane phospholipids. Arabidopsis NPC2 and NPC6 are essential in gametogenesis, but their underlying role in the lipid remodeling remains elusive. Here, we show that these NPCs are required for triacylglycerol (TAG) production in pollen tube growth. NPC2 and NPC6 are highly expressed in developing pollen tubes and are localized at the endoplasmic reticulum. Mutants of NPC2 and NPC6 showed reduced rate of pollen germination, length of pollen tube and amount of lipid droplets (LDs). Overexpression of NPC2 or NPC6 induced LD accumulation, which suggests that these NPCs are involved in LD production. Furthermore, mutants defective in the biosynthesis of TAG, a major component of LDs, showed defective pollen tube growth. These results suggest that NPC2 and NPC6 are essential in gametogenesis for a role in hydrolyzing phospholipids and producing TAG required for pollen tube growth. Thus, lipid remodeling from phospholipids to TAG during pollen tube growth represents an emerging role for the NPC family in plant developmental control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debayan Bose
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
- Molecular and Biological Agricultural Sciences Program, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica and National Chung Hsing University, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 402, Taiwan
| | - Anh H Ngo
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Van C Nguyen
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
- Molecular and Biological Agricultural Sciences Program, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica and National Chung Hsing University, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 402, Taiwan
| | - Yuki Nakamura
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
- Molecular and Biological Agricultural Sciences Program, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica and National Chung Hsing University, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
- Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 402, Taiwan
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9
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Nowicka B, Trela-Makowej A, Latowski D, Strzalka K, Szymańska R. Antioxidant and Signaling Role of Plastid-Derived Isoprenoid Quinones and Chromanols. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:2950. [PMID: 33799456 PMCID: PMC7999835 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22062950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant prenyllipids, especially isoprenoid chromanols and quinols, are very efficient low-molecular-weight lipophilic antioxidants, protecting membranes and storage lipids from reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS are byproducts of aerobic metabolism that can damage cell components, they are also known to play a role in signaling. Plants are particularly prone to oxidative damage because oxygenic photosynthesis results in O2 formation in their green tissues. In addition, the photosynthetic electron transfer chain is an important source of ROS. Therefore, chloroplasts are the main site of ROS generation in plant cells during the light reactions of photosynthesis, and plastidic antioxidants are crucial to prevent oxidative stress, which occurs when plants are exposed to various types of stress factors, both biotic and abiotic. The increase in antioxidant content during stress acclimation is a common phenomenon. In the present review, we describe the mechanisms of ROS (singlet oxygen, superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical) production in chloroplasts in general and during exposure to abiotic stress factors, such as high light, low temperature, drought and salinity. We highlight the dual role of their presence: negative (i.e., lipid peroxidation, pigment and protein oxidation) and positive (i.e., contribution in redox-based physiological processes). Then we provide a summary of current knowledge concerning plastidic prenyllipid antioxidants belonging to isoprenoid chromanols and quinols, as well as their structure, occurrence, biosynthesis and function both in ROS detoxification and signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrycze Nowicka
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland; (B.N.); (D.L.); (K.S.)
| | - Agnieszka Trela-Makowej
- Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Science and Technology, Reymonta 19, 30-059 Krakow, Poland;
| | - Dariusz Latowski
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland; (B.N.); (D.L.); (K.S.)
| | - Kazimierz Strzalka
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland; (B.N.); (D.L.); (K.S.)
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7A, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Renata Szymańska
- Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Science and Technology, Reymonta 19, 30-059 Krakow, Poland;
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Jiang L, Strobbe S, Van Der Straeten D, Zhang C. Regulation of plant vitamin metabolism: backbone of biofortification for the alleviation of hidden hunger. MOLECULAR PLANT 2021; 14:40-60. [PMID: 33545049 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2020.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
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11
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Li Y, Yang C, Ahmad H, Maher M, Fang C, Luo J. Benefiting others and self: Production of vitamins in plants. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 63:210-227. [PMID: 33289302 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.13047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Vitamins maintain growth and development in humans, animals, and plants. Because plants serve as essential producers of vitamins, increasing the vitamin contents in plants has become a goal of crop breeding worldwide. Here, we begin with a summary of the functions of vitamins. We then review the achievements to date in elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying how vitamins are synthesized, transported, and regulated in plants. We also stress the exploration of variation in vitamins by the use of forward genetic approaches, such as quantitative trait locus mapping and genome-wide association studies. Overall, we conclude that exploring the diversity of vitamins could provide new insights into plant metabolism and crop breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yufei Li
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Center of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Chenkun Yang
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Center of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Hasan Ahmad
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Center of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Mohamed Maher
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Center of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Chuanying Fang
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China
| | - Jie Luo
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China
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12
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Chinchilla D, Bruisson S, Meyer S, Zühlke D, Hirschfeld C, Joller C, L'Haridon F, Mène-Saffrané L, Riedel K, Weisskopf L. A sulfur-containing volatile emitted by potato-associated bacteria confers protection against late blight through direct anti-oomycete activity. Sci Rep 2019; 9:18778. [PMID: 31889050 PMCID: PMC6937334 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-55218-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant diseases are a major cause for yield losses and new strategies to control them without harming the environment are urgently needed. Plant-associated bacteria contribute to their host’s health in diverse ways, among which the emission of disease-inhibiting volatile organic compounds (VOCs). We have previously reported that VOCs emitted by potato-associated bacteria caused strong in vitro growth inhibition of the late blight causing agent Phytophthora infestans. This work focuses on sulfur-containing VOCs (sVOCs) and demonstrates the high in planta protective potential of S-methyl methane thiosulfonate (MMTS), which fully prevented late blight disease in potato leaves and plantlets without phytotoxic effects, in contrast to other sVOCs. Short exposure times were sufficient to protect plants against infection. We further showed that MMTS’s protective activity was not mediated by the plant immune system but lied in its anti-oomycete activity. Using quantitative proteomics, we determined that different sVOCs caused specific proteome changes in P. infestans, indicating perturbations in sulfur metabolism, protein translation and redox balance. This work brings new perspectives for plant protection against the devastating Irish Famine pathogen, while opening new research avenues on the role of sVOCs in the interaction between plants and their microbiome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Chinchilla
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, CH-1700, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Sébastien Bruisson
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, CH-1700, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Silvan Meyer
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, CH-1700, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Daniela Zühlke
- Department of Microbial Physiology and Molecular Biology, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 8, D-17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Claudia Hirschfeld
- Department of Microbial Proteomics, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 8, D-17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Charlotte Joller
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, CH-1700, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Floriane L'Haridon
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, CH-1700, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Laurent Mène-Saffrané
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, CH-1700, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Katharina Riedel
- Department of Microbial Physiology and Molecular Biology, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 8, D-17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Laure Weisskopf
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, CH-1700, Fribourg, Switzerland.
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Angkawijaya AE, Nguyen VC, Nakamura Y. LYSOPHOSPHATIDIC ACID ACYLTRANSFERASES 4 and 5 are involved in glycerolipid metabolism and nitrogen starvation response in Arabidopsis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 224:336-351. [PMID: 31211859 DOI: 10.1111/nph.16000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Nitrogen (N) deficiency triggers an accumulation of a storage lipid triacylglycerol (TAG) in seed plants and algae. Whereas the metabolic pathway and regulatory mechanism to synthesize TAG from diacylglycerol are well known, enzymes involved in the supply of diacylglycerol remain elusive under N starvation. Lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase (LPAT) catalyzes an important step of the de novo phospholipid biosynthesis pathway and thus has a strong flux control in the biosynthesis of phospholipids and TAG. Five LPAT isoforms are known in Arabidopsis; however, the functions of LPAT4 and LPAT5 remain elusive. Here, we show that LPAT4 and LPAT5 are functional endoplasmic-reticulum-localized LPATs. Seedlings of the double knockout mutant lpat4-1 lpat5-1 showed reduced content of phospholipids and TAG under normal growth condition. Under N starvation, lpat4-1 lpat5-1 seedlings showed severer growth defect than the wild-type in shoot. The phenotype was similar to dgat1-4, which affects a major TAG biosynthesis pathway and showed similarly reduced TAG content as the lpat4-1 lpat5-1. We suggest that LPAT4 and LPAT5 may redundantly function in endoplasmic-reticulum-localized de novo glycerolipid biosynthesis for phospholipids and TAG, which is important for the N starvation response in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artik Elisa Angkawijaya
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, 128 sec.2 Academia Road, Nankang, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Van Cam Nguyen
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, 128 sec.2 Academia Road, Nankang, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Yuki Nakamura
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, 128 sec.2 Academia Road, Nankang, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
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Tang T, Du C, Song H, Aziz U, Wang L, Zhao C, Zhang M. Genome-wide analysis reveals the evolution and structural features of WRINKLED1 in plants. Mol Genet Genomics 2019; 294:329-341. [PMID: 30446819 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-018-1512-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
WRINKLED1 (WRI1), an AP2/ERE transcription factor, is one of the most important regulators of oil accumulation. It has been extensively studied in angiosperms, but its evolution and overview features in plants remain unknown. In this study, WRI1s, as well as WRI1-likes in non-WRI1 species, were investigated in 64 genome-sequenced plants. Their origin, distribution, duplication, evolution, functional domains, motifs, properties, and cis-elements were analyzed. Results suggest that WRI1 and WRI1-like may originate from Chlorophyta, and WRI1-likes in angiosperms resemble phylogenetically and structurally WRI1s from Chlorophyta and non-vascular plants. WRI1 or WRI1-like may be essential to vascular plants but not to non-vascular plants. Two YRG elements and two RAYD elements, as well as their phosphorylation sites and the 14-3-3 binding motif, are relatively conserved from Chlorophyta to angiosperm. The predicted DNA-binding domains are slightly shorter than the combination of one YRG element and one RAYD element. WRI1 gradually evolves from alkalinity to acidity. More motifs were developed in N-terminuses and C-terminuses in vascular plants. A short acidic amino-acid-enriched domain in the C-terminal region is predicted to be the putative transactivation domain. The VYL exon appears randomly in different WRI1 transcripts and it is not important for the function of WRI1. In addition, more cis-elements developed during WRI1 evolution may suggest its more complicated regulation and physiological functions. These results will assist future function studies of WRI1 and evolution studies of fatty acid biosynthesis regulation in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Tang
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Chang Du
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Huan Song
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Usman Aziz
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Lili Wang
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Cuizhu Zhao
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
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15
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Gramegna G, Rosado D, Sánchez Carranza AP, Cruz AB, Simon-Moya M, Llorente B, Rodríguez-Concepcíon M, Freschi L, Rossi M. PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTOR 3 mediates light-dependent induction of tocopherol biosynthesis during tomato fruit ripening. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2019; 42:1328-1339. [PMID: 30362122 DOI: 10.1111/pce.13467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2018] [Revised: 10/14/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Tocopherols are important antioxidants exclusively produced in plastids that protect the photosynthetic apparatus from oxidative stress. These compounds with vitamin E activity are also essential dietary nutrients for humans. Although the tocopherol biosynthetic pathway has been elucidated, the mechanisms that regulate tocopherol production and accumulation remain elusive. Here, we investigated the regulatory mechanism underlying tocopherol biosynthesis during ripening in tomato fruits, which are an important source of vitamin E. Our results show that ripening under light conditions increases tocopherol fruit content in a phytochrome-dependent manner by the transcriptional regulation of biosynthetic genes. Moreover, we show that light-controlled expression of the GERANYLGERANYL DIPHOSPHATE REDUCTASE (SlGGDR) gene, responsible for the synthesis of the central tocopherol precursor phytyl diphosphate, is mediated by PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTOR 3 (SlPIF3). In the absence of light, SlPIF3 physically interacts with the promoter of SlGGDR, down-regulating its expression. By contrast, light activation of phytochromes prevents the interaction between SlPIF3 and the SlGGDR promoter, leading to transcriptional derepression and higher availability of the PDP precursor for tocopherol biosynthesis. The unraveled mechanism provides a new strategy to manipulate fruit metabolism towards improving tomato nutritional quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Gramegna
- Departamento de Botânica, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Daniele Rosado
- Departamento de Botânica, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Sánchez Carranza
- Departamento de Botânica, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Aline Bertinatto Cruz
- Departamento de Botânica, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Miguel Simon-Moya
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics, CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Campus UAB Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Briardo Llorente
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics, CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Campus UAB Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Macquarie University, 2109, New South Wales, Australia
- CSIRO Synthetic Biology Future Science Platform, 3004, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Manuel Rodríguez-Concepcíon
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics, CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Campus UAB Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Luciano Freschi
- Departamento de Botânica, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Magdalena Rossi
- Departamento de Botânica, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-900, SP, Brazil
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Lou H, Ding M, Wu J, Zhang F, Chen W, Yang Y, Suo J, Yu W, Xu C, Song L. Full-Length Transcriptome Analysis of the Genes Involved in Tocopherol Biosynthesis in Torreya grandis. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:1877-1888. [PMID: 30735036 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b06138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The seeds of Torreya grandis (Cephalotaxaceae) are rich in tocopherols, which are essential components of the human diet as a result of their function in scavenging reactive oxygen and free radicals. Different T. grandis cultivars (10 cultivars selected in this study were researched, and their information is shown in Table S1 of the Supporting Information) vary enormously in their tocopherol contents (0.28-11.98 mg/100 g). However, little is known about the molecular basis and regulatory mechanisms of tocopherol biosynthesis in T. grandis kernels. Here, we applied single-molecule real-time (SMRT) sequencing to T. grandis (X08 cultivar) for the first time and obtained a total of 97 211 full-length transcripts. We proposed the biosynthetic pathway of tocopherol and identified eight full-length transcripts encoding enzymes potentially involved in tocopherol biosynthesis in T. grandis. The results of the correlation analysis between the tocopherol content and gene expression level in the 10 selected cultivars and different kernel developmental stages of the X08 cultivar suggested that homogentisate phytyltransferase coding gene ( TgVTE2b) and γ-tocopherol methyltransferase coding gene ( TgVTE4) may be key players in tocopherol accumulation in the kernels of T. grandis. Subcellular localization assays showed that both TgVTE2b and TgVTE4 were localized to the chloroplast. We also identified candidate regulatory genes similar to WRI1 and DGAT1 in Arabidopsis that may be involved in the regulation of tocopherol biosynthesis. Our findings provide valuable genetic information for T. grandis using full-length transcriptomic analysis, elucidating the candidate genes and key regulatory genes involved in tocopherol biosynthesis. This information will be critical for further molecular-assisted screening and breeding of T. grandis genotypes with high tocopherol contents.
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Abstract
Phytol, the prenyl side chain of chlorophyll, is derived from geranylgeraniol by reduction of three double bonds. Recent results demonstrated that the conversion of geranylgeraniol to phytol is linked to chlorophyll synthesis, which is catalyzed by protein complexes associated with the thylakoid membranes. One of these complexes contains light harvesting chlorophyll binding like proteins (LIL3), enzymes of chlorophyll synthesis (protoporphyrinogen oxidoreductase, POR; chlorophyll synthase, CHLG) and geranylgeranyl reductase (GGR). Phytol is not only employed for the synthesis of chlorophyll, but also for tocopherol (vitamin E), phylloquinol (vitamin K) and fatty acid phytyl ester production. Previously, it was believed that phytol is derived from reduction of geranylgeranyl-diphosphate originating from the 4-methylerythritol-5-phosphate (MEP) pathway. The identification and characterization of two kinases, VTE5 and VTE6, involved in phytol and phytyl-phosphate phosphorylation, respectively, indicated that most phytol employed for tocopherol synthesis is derived from reduction of geranylgeranylated chlorophyll to (phytol-) chlorophyll. After hydrolysis from chlorophyll, free phytol is phosphorylated by the two kinases, and phytyl-diphosphate employed for the synthesis of tocopherol and phylloquinol. The reason why some chloroplast lipids, i.e. chlorophyll, tocopherol and phylloquinol, are derived from phytol, while others, i.e. carotenoids and tocotrienols (in some plant species) are synthesized from geranylgeraniol, remains unclear.
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Wang H, Xu S, Fan Y, Liu N, Zhan W, Liu H, Xiao Y, Li K, Pan Q, Li W, Deng M, Liu J, Jin M, Yang X, Li J, Li Q, Yan J. Beyond pathways: genetic dissection of tocopherol content in maize kernels by combining linkage and association analyses. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2018; 16:1464-1475. [PMID: 29356296 PMCID: PMC6041443 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.12889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 01/02/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2018] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Although tocopherols play an important role in plants and animals, the genetic architecture of tocopherol content in maize kernels has remained largely unknown. In this study, linkage and association analyses were conducted to examine the genetic architecture of tocopherol content in maize kernels. Forty-one unique quantitative trait loci (QTLs) were identified by linkage mapping in six populations of recombinant inbred lines (RILs). In addition, 32 significant loci were detected via genome-wide association study (GWAS), 18 of which colocalized with the QTLs identified by linkage mapping. Fine mapping of a major QTL validated the accuracy of GWAS and QTL mapping results and suggested a role for nontocopherol pathway genes in the modulation of natural tocopherol variation. We provided genome-wide evidence that genes involved in fatty acid metabolism, chlorophyll metabolism and chloroplast function may affect natural variation in tocopherols. These findings were confirmed through mutant analysis of a particular gene from the fatty acid pathway. In addition, the favourable alleles for many of the significant SNPs/QTLs represented rare alleles in natural populations. Together, our results revealed many novel genes that are potentially involved in the variation of tocopherol content in maize kernels. Pyramiding of the favourable alleles of the newly elucidated genes and the well-known tocopherol pathway genes would greatly improve tocopherol content in maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Shutu Xu
- National Maize Improvement Center of ChinaMOA Key Lab of Maize BiologyBeijing Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Yaming Fan
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Nannan Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Wei Zhan
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Haijun Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Yingjie Xiao
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Kun Li
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Qingchun Pan
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Wenqiang Li
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Min Deng
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Jie Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Min Jin
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Xiaohong Yang
- National Maize Improvement Center of ChinaMOA Key Lab of Maize BiologyBeijing Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Jiansheng Li
- National Maize Improvement Center of ChinaMOA Key Lab of Maize BiologyBeijing Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Qing Li
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Jianbing Yan
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
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Mène-Saffrané L. Vitamin E Biosynthesis and Its Regulation in Plants. Antioxidants (Basel) 2017; 7:E2. [PMID: 29295607 PMCID: PMC5789312 DOI: 10.3390/antiox7010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2017] [Revised: 12/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin E is one of the 13 vitamins that are essential to animals that do not produce them. To date, six natural organic compounds belonging to the chemical family of tocochromanols-four tocopherols and two tocotrienols-have been demonstrated as exhibiting vitamin E activity in animals. Edible plant-derived products, notably seed oils, are the main sources of vitamin E in the human diet. Although this vitamin is readily available, independent nutritional surveys have shown that human populations do not consume enough vitamin E, and suffer from mild to severe deficiency. Tocochromanols are mostly produced by plants, algae, and some cyanobacteria. Tocochromanol metabolism has been mainly studied in higher plants that produce tocopherols, tocotrienols, plastochromanol-8, and tocomonoenols. In contrast to the tocochromanol biosynthetic pathways that are well characterized, our understanding of the physiological and molecular mechanisms regulating tocochromanol biosynthesis is in its infancy. Although it is known that tocochromanol biosynthesis is strongly conditioned by the availability in homogentisate and polyprenyl pyrophosphate, its polar and lipophilic biosynthetic precursors, respectively, the mechanisms regulating their biosyntheses are barely known. This review summarizes our current knowledge of tocochromanol biosynthesis in plants, and highlights future challenges regarding the understanding of its regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Mène-Saffrané
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée, 10, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
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Pellaud S, Mène-Saffrané L. Metabolic Origins and Transport of Vitamin E Biosynthetic Precursors. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 8:1959. [PMID: 29184568 PMCID: PMC5694494 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.01959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Tocochromanols are organic compounds mostly produced by photosynthetic organisms that exhibit vitamin E activity in animals. They result from the condensation of homogentisate with four different polyprenyl side chains derived all from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. The core tocochromanol biosynthesis has been investigated in several photosynthetic organisms and is now well-characterized. In contrast, our current knowledge of the biosynthesis and transport of tocochromanol biosynthetic precursors is much more limited. While tocochromanol synthesis occurs in plastids, converging genetic data in Arabidopsis and soybean demonstrate that the synthesis of the polar precursor homogentisate is located in the cytoplasm. These data implies that tocochromanol synthesis involves several plastidic membrane transporter(s) that remain to be identified. In addition, the metabolic origin of the lipophilic isoprenoid precursor is not fully elucidated. While some genetic data exclusively attribute the synthesis of the prenyl component of tocochromanols to the plastidic methyl erythritol phosphate pathway, multiple lines of evidence provided by feeding experiments and metabolic engineering studies indicate that it might partially originate from the cytoplasmic mevalonate pathway. Although this question is still open, these data demonstrate the existence of membrane transporter(s) capable of importing cytosolic polyprenyl pyrophosphate such as farnesyl pyrophosphate into plastids. Since the availability of both homogentisate and polyprenyl pyrophosphates are currently accepted as major mechanisms controlling the type and amount of tocochromanols produced in plant tissues, we summarized our current knowledge and research gaps concerning the biosynthesis, metabolic origins and transport of tocochromanol biosynthetic precursors in plant cells.
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