Xylem-phloem hydraulic coupling explains multiple osmoregulatory responses to salt stress

Thriving in a salty future: morpho-anatomical, physiological and molecular adaptations to salt stress in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and other crops

BACKGROUND

With soil salinity levels rising at an alarming rate, accelerated by climate change and human interventions, there is a growing need for crop varieties that can grow on saline soils. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is a cool-season perennial leguminous crop, commonly grown as forage, biofuel feedstock and soil conditioner. It demonstrates significant potential for agricultural circularity and sustainability, for example by fixing nitrogen, sequestering carbon and improving soil structures. Although alfalfa is traditionally regarded as a moderately salt-tolerant species, modern alfalfa varieties display specific salt-tolerance mechanisms, which could be used to pave its role as a leading crop able to grow on saline soils.

SCOPE

Alfalfa's salt tolerance underlies a large variety of cascading biochemical and physiological mechanisms. These are partly enabled by its complex genome structure and out-crossing nature, but which entail impediments for molecular and genetic studies. This review first summarizes the general effects of salinity on plants and the broad-ranging mechanisms for dealing with salt-induced osmotic stress, ion toxicity and secondary stress. Second, we address the defensive and adaptive strategies that have been described for alfalfa, such as the plasticity of alfalfa's root system, hormonal crosstalk for maintaining ion homeostasis, spatiotemporal specialized metabolite profiles and the protection of alfalfa-rhizobia associations. Finally, bottlenecks for research of the physiological and molecular salt-stress responses as well as biotechnology-driven improvements of salt tolerance are identified and discussed.

CONCLUSION

Understanding morpho-anatomical, physiological and molecular responses to salinity is essential for the improvement of alfalfa and other crops in saline land reclamation. This review identifies potential breeding targets for enhancing the stability of alfalfa performance and general crop robustness for rising salt levels as well as to promote alfalfa applications in saline land management.

Stronger increases but greater variability in global mangrove productivity compared to that of adjacent terrestrial forests

Mangrove forests are a highly productive ecosystem with important potential to offset anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Mangroves are expected to respond differently to climate change compared to terrestrial forests owing to their location in the tidal environment and unique ecophysiological characteristics, but the magnitude of difference remains uncertain at the global scale. Here we use satellite observations to examine mean trends and interannual variability in the productivity of global mangrove forests and nearby terrestrial evergreen broadleaf forests from 2001 to 2020. Although both types of ecosystem experienced significant recent increases in productivity, mangroves exhibited a stronger increasing trend and greater interannual variability in productivity than evergreen broadleaf forests on three-quarters of their co-occurring coasts. The difference in productivity trends is attributed to the stronger CO2 fertilization effect on mangrove photosynthesis, while the discrepancy in interannual variability is attributed to the higher sensitivities to variations in precipitation and sea level. Our results indicate that mangroves will have a faster increase in productivity than terrestrial forests in a CO2-rich future but may suffer more from deficits in water availability, highlighting a key difference between terrestrial and tidal ecosystems in their responses to climate change.

Modeling the mechanisms of conifer mortality under seawater exposure

Relative sea level rise (SLR) increasingly impacts coastal ecosystems through the formation of ghost forests. To predict the future of coastal ecosystems under SLR and changing climate, it is important to understand the physiological mechanisms underlying coastal tree mortality and to integrate this knowledge into dynamic vegetation models. We incorporate the physiological effect of salinity and hypoxia in a dynamic vegetation model in the Earth system land model, and used the model to investigate the mechanisms of mortality of conifer forests on the west and east coast sites of USA, where trees experience different form of sea water exposure. Simulations suggest similar physiological mechanisms can result in different mortality patterns. At the east coast site that experienced severe increases in seawater exposure, trees loose photosynthetic capacity and roots rapidly, and both storage carbon and hydraulic conductance decrease significantly within a year. Over time, further consumption of storage carbon that leads to carbon starvation dominates mortality. At the west coast site that gradually exposed to seawater through SLR, hydraulic failure dominates mortality because root loss impacts on conductance are greater than the degree of storage carbon depletion. Measurements and modeling focused on understanding the physiological mechanisms of mortality is critical to reducing predictive uncertainty.

Tamarix hispida NAC Transcription Factor ThNAC4 Confers Salt and Drought Stress Tolerance to Transgenic Tamarix and Arabidopsis

Salt and drought are considered two major abiotic stresses that have a significant impact on plants. Plant NAC (NAM, ATAF1/2, and CUC2) transcription factors (TFs) have been shown to play vital roles in plant development and responses to various abiotic stresses. ThNAC4, a NAC gene from Tamarix hispida involved in salt and osmotic stress tolerance, was identified and characterized in this study. According to a phylogenetic study, ThNAC4 is a member of NAC subfamily II. Subcellular localization analysis showed that ThNAC4 is located in the nucleus, and transcriptional activation experiments demonstrated that ThNAC4 is a transcriptional activator. Transgenic Arabidopsis plants overexpressing ThNAC4 exhibited improved salt and osmotic tolerance, as demonstrated by improved physiological traits. ThNAC4-overexpressing and ThNAC4-silenced T. hispida plants were generated using the transient transformation method and selected for gain- and loss-of-function analysis. The results showed that overexpression of ThNAC4 in transgenic Tamarix and Arabidopsis plants increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, POD, and GST) and osmoprotectant (proline and trehalose) contents under stress conditions. These findings suggest that ThNAC4 plays an important physiological role in plant abiotic stress tolerance by increasing ROS scavenging ability and improving osmotic potential.

Processes and mechanisms of coastal woody-plant mortality

Observations of woody plant mortality in coastal ecosystems are globally widespread, but the overarching processes and underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. This knowledge deficiency, combined with rapidly changing water levels, storm surges, atmospheric CO₂ , and vapor pressure deficit, creates large predictive uncertainty regarding how coastal ecosystems will respond to global change. Here, we synthesize the literature on the mechanisms that underlie coastal woody-plant mortality, with the goal of producing a testable hypothesis framework. The key emergent mechanisms underlying mortality include hypoxic, osmotic, and ionic-driven reductions in whole-plant hydraulic conductance and photosynthesis that ultimately drive the coupled processes of hydraulic failure and carbon starvation. The relative importance of these processes in driving mortality, their order of progression, and their degree of coupling depends on the characteristics of the anomalous water exposure, on topographic effects, and on taxa-specific variation in traits and trait acclimation. Greater inundation exposure could accelerate mortality globally; however, the interaction of changing inundation exposure with elevated CO₂ , drought, and rising vapor pressure deficit could influence mortality likelihood. Models of coastal forests that incorporate the frequency and duration of inundation, the role of climatic drivers, and the processes of hydraulic failure and carbon starvation can yield improved estimates of inundation-induced woody-plant mortality.

Changes in carbon and nitrogen metabolism during seawater-induced mortality of Picea sitchensis trees

Increasing seawater exposure is causing mortality of coastal forests, yet the physiological response associated with seawater-induced tree mortality, particularly in non-halophytes, is poorly understood. We investigated the shifts in carbon and nitrogen (N) metabolism of mature Sitka-spruce trees that were dying after an ecosystem-scale manipulation of tidal seawater exposure. Soil porewater salinity and foliar ion concentrations increased after seawater exposure and were strongly correlated with the percentage of live foliated crown (PLFC; e.g., crown 'greenness', a measure of progression to death). Co-occurring with decreasing PLFC was decreasing photosynthetic capacity, N-investment into photosynthesis, N-resorption efficiency and non-structural carbohydrate (soluble sugars and starch) concentrations, with the starch reserves depleted to near zero when PLFC dropped below 5%. Combined with declining PLFC, these changes subsequently decreased total carbon gain and thus exacerbated the carbon starvation process. This study suggests that an impairment in carbon and N metabolism during the mortality process after seawater exposure is associated with the process of carbon starvation, and provides critical knowledge necessary to predict sea-level rise impacts on coastal forests.

Effect of CAX1a TILLING mutations on photosynthesis performance in salt-stressed Brassica rapa plants

Salinity is an important environmental factor that reduces plant productivity in many world regions. It affects negatively photosynthesis causing a growth reduction. Likewise, calcium (Ca²⁺) is crucial in plant stress response. Therefore, the modification of Ca²⁺ cation exchangers (CAX) transporters could be a potential strategy to increase plant tolerance to salinity. Using Targeting Induced Local Lesions in Genomes (TILLING), researchers generated three mutants of Brassica rapa CAX1a transporter: BraA.cax1a-7, BraA.cax1a-4, and BraA.cax1a-12. The aim of this study was to test the effect of those mutations on salt tolerance focusing on the response to the photosynthesis process. Thus, the three BraA.cax1a mutants and the parental line (R-o-18) were grown under salinity conditions, and parameters related to biomass, photosynthesis performance, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH, EC 1.1.1.49), and soluble carbohydrates were measured. BraA.cax1a-4 provided higher biomass and a better photosynthetic performance manifested by higher water use efficiency (WUE), Fv/Fm, electron fluxes, and Rubisco (EC 4.1.1.39) values. In addition, BraA.cax1a-4 presented increased osmotic protection through myo-inositol accumulation. On the other hand, BraA.cax1a-7 produced some negative effects on photosynthesis performance and lower G6PDH and Rubisco accumulations. Therefore, this study points out BraA.cax1a-4 as a useful mutation to improve photosynthetic performance in plants grown under saline conditions.

Coupling Relationship of Leaf Economic and Hydraulic Traits of Alhagisparsifolia Shap. in a Hyper-Arid Desert Ecosystem

In this study, Alhagisparsifolia Shap. was used to test the hypothesis that leaf economic and hydraulic traits are coupled in plants in a hyper-arid region. Five economic traits and six hydraulic traits were examined to explore the relationship. Results showed that the stomatal density (SD) on both surfaces was coupled with maximum stomatal conductance to water vapor (g_wmax) and leaf tissue density (TD). SD on adaxial surface (SD_aba) was significantly positively related to vein density (VD) but negatively related to leaf thickness (LT) and stomatal length on adaxial surface (SL_ada). Nitrogen concentration based on mass (N_mass) was significantly negatively correlated with leaf mass per area (LMA), LT, and VD, whereas nitrogen concentration based on area (N_area) was significantly positively related to LMA and TD. Mean annual precipitation (MAP) contributed the most to the changes in LT and stomatal length (SL). Soil salt contributed the most to TD, SD, and g_wmax. Soli nutrients influenced the most of LMA and VD. Mean annual temperature contributed the most to N_mass and N_area. In conclusion, the economics of leaves coupled with their hydraulic traits provides an economical and efficient strategy to adapt to the harsh environment in hyper-arid regions.

The Widened Pipe Model of plant hydraulic evolution

Shaping global water and carbon cycles, plants lift water from roots to leaves through xylem conduits. The importance of xylem water conduction makes it crucial to understand how natural selection deploys conduit diameters within and across plants. Wider conduits transport more water but are likely more vulnerable to conduction-blocking gas embolisms and cost more for a plant to build, a tension necessarily shaping xylem conduit diameters along plant stems. We build on this expectation to present the Widened Pipe Model (WPM) of plant hydraulic evolution, testing it against a global dataset. The WPM predicts that xylem conduits should be narrowest at the stem tips, widening quickly before plateauing toward the stem base. This universal profile emerges from Pareto modeling of a trade-off between just two competing vectors of natural selection: one favoring rapid widening of conduits tip to base, minimizing hydraulic resistance, and another favoring slow widening of conduits, minimizing carbon cost and embolism risk. Our data spanning terrestrial plant orders, life forms, habitats, and sizes conform closely to WPM predictions. The WPM highlights carbon economy as a powerful vector of natural selection shaping plant function. It further implies that factors that cause resistance in plant conductive systems, such as conduit pit membrane resistance, should scale in exact harmony with tip-to-base conduit widening. Furthermore, the WPM implies that alterations in the environments of individual plants should lead to changes in plant height, for example, shedding terminal branches and resprouting at lower height under drier climates, thus achieving narrower and potentially more embolism-resistant conduits.

River basin salinization as a form of aridity

Soil-salinization affects, to a different extent, more than one-third of terrestrial river basins (estimate based on the Food and Agriculture Organization Harmonized World Soil Database, 2012). Among these, many are endorheic and ephemeral systems already encompassing different degrees of aridity, land degradation, and vulnerability to climate change. The primary effect of salinization is to limit plant water uptake and evapotranspiration, thereby reducing available soil moisture and impairing soil fertility. In this, salinization resembles aridity and-similarly to aridity-may impose significant controls on hydrological partitioning and the strength of land-vegetation-atmosphere interactions at the catchment scale. However, the long-term impacts of salinization on the terrestrial water balance are still largely unquantified. Here, we introduce a modified Budyko's framework explicitly accounting for catchment-scale salinization and species-specific plant salt tolerance. The proposed framework is used to interpret the water-budget data of 237 Australian catchments-29% of which are already severely salt-affected-from the Australian Water Availability Project (AWAP). Our results provide theoretical and experimental evidence that salinization does influence the hydrological partitioning of salt-affected watersheds, imposing significant constraints on water availability and enhancing aridity. The same approach can be applied to estimate salinization level and vegetation salt tolerance at the basin scale, which would be difficult to assess through classical observational techniques. We also demonstrate that plant salt tolerance has a preeminent role in regulating the feedback of vegetation on the soil water budget of salt-affected basins.

Maximizing leaf carbon gain in varying saline conditions: An optimization model with dynamic mesophyll conductance

While the adverse effects of elevated salinity levels on leaf gas exchange in many crops are not in dispute, representing such effects on leaf photosynthetic rates (A) continues to draw research attention. Here, an optimization model for stomatal conductance (g_c ) that maximizes A while accounting for mesophyll conductance (g_m ) was used to interpret new leaf gas exchange measurements collected for five irrigation water salinity levels. A function between chloroplastic CO₂ concentration (c_c ) and intercellular CO₂ concentration (c_i ) modified by salinity stress to estimate g_m was proposed. Results showed that with increased salinity, the estimated g_m and maximum photosynthetic capacity were both reduced, whereas the marginal water use efficiency λ increased linearly. Adjustments of g_m , λ and photosynthetic capacity were shown to be consistent with a large corpus of drought-stress experiments. The inferred model parameters were then used to evaluate the combined effects of elevated salinity and atmospheric CO₂ concentration (c_a ) on leaf gas exchange. For a given salinity level, increasing c_a increased A linearly, but these increases were accompanied by mild reductions in g_c and transpiration. The c_a level needed to ameliorate A reductions due to increased salinity is also discussed using the aforementioned model calculations.