Prognostic and predictive significance of immune cells infiltrating cutaneous melanoma

Lactate secreted by glycolytic conjunctival melanoma cells attracts and polarizes macrophages to drive angiogenesis in zebrafish xenografts

Conjunctival melanoma (CoM) is a rare but potentially lethal cancer of the eye, with limited therapeutic option for metastases. A better understanding how primary CoM disseminate to form metastases is urgently needed in order to develop novel therapies. Previous studies indicated that primary CoM tumors express Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) and may recruit pro-tumorigenic M2-like macrophages. However, due to a lack of proper models, the expected role of angiogenesis in the metastatic dissemination of CoM is still unknown. We show that cells derived from two CoM cell lines induce a strong angiogenic response when xenografted in zebrafish larvae. CoM cells are highly glycolytic and secrete lactate, which recruits and polarizes human and zebrafish macrophages towards a M2-like phenotype. These macrophages elevate the levels of proangiogenic factors such as VEGF, TGF-β, and IL-10 in the tumor microenvironment to induce an angiogenic response towards the engrafted CoM cells in vivo. Chemical ablation of zebrafish macrophages or inhibition of glycolysis in CoM cells terminates this response, suggesting that attraction of lactate-dependent macrophages into engrafted CoM cells drives angiogenesis and serves as a possible dissemination mechanism for glycolytic CoM cells.

B cell responses and antibody-based therapeutic perspectives in human cancers

BACKGROUND

Immuno-oncology has been focused on T cell-centric approaches until the field recently started appreciating the importance of tumor-reactive antibody production by tumor-infiltrating plasma B cells, and the necessity of developing novel therapeutic antibodies for the treatment of different cancers.

RECENT FINDINGS

B lymphocytes often infiltrate solid tumors and the extent of B cell infiltration normally correlates with stronger T cell responses while generating humoral responses against malignant progression by producing tumor antigens-reactive antibodies that bind and coat the tumor cells and promote cytotoxic effector mechanisms, reiterating the fact that the adaptive immune system works by coordinated humoral and cellular immune responses. Isotypes, magnitude, and the effector functions of antibodies produced by the B cells within the tumor environment differ among cancer types. Interestingly, apart from binding with specific tumor antigens, antibodies produced by tumor-infiltrating B cells could bind to some non-specific receptors, peculiarly expressed by cancer cells. Antibody-based immunotherapies have revolutionized the modalities of cancer treatment across the world but are still limited against hematological malignancies and a few types of solid tumor cancers with a restricted number of targets, which necessitates the expansion of the field to have newer effective targeted antibody therapeutics.

CONCLUSION

Here, we discuss about recent understanding of the protective spontaneous antitumor humoral responses in human cancers, with an emphasis on the advancement and future perspectives of antibody-based immunotherapies in cancer.

Single-cell analysis of the cellular landscape of vulvar melanoma provides new insight for immunotherapy administration

BACKGROUND

Vulvar and vaginal melanoma (VuM & VaM) is a rare gynecologic malignancy with high mortality but low effectiveness to checkpoint immunotherapy compared to cutaneous melanoma. This article aims to elucidate the role of the disordered immune microenvironment in cancer progression in VuM.

METHODS

At first, this article applied single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) to the VuM obtained from a 68-year-old female patient, and constructed a single-cell atlas of VuM consist of 12,243 single cells. Then this article explores the genomic complexity and core signal channel in VuM microenvironment.

RESULTS

This article provides new insights about the pathogenesis of VuM based on single-cell resolution data. It was found that the activation of CD8+ T cell contributed to induce tumor angiogenesis and immune escape, and the activation of the antigen-presenting molecular function participated in melanoma metastasis.

CONCLUSION

This article provided new insights into underlining VuM molecular regulation and potential signaling involved in immunotherapy, which would benefit the clinical practice and administration.

Impaired activation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells via toll-like receptor 7/9 and STING is mediated by melanoma-derived immunosuppressive cytokines and metabolic drift

Introduction

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) infiltrate a large set of human cancers. Interferon alpha (IFN-α) produced by pDCs induces growth arrest and apoptosis in tumor cells and modulates innate and adaptive immune cells involved in anti-cancer immunity. Moreover, effector molecules exert tumor cell killing. However, the activation state and clinical relevance of pDCs infiltration in cancer is still largely controversial. In Primary Cutaneous Melanoma (PCM), pDCs density decreases over disease progression and collapses in metastatic melanoma (MM). Moreover, the residual circulating pDC compartment is defective in IFN-α production.

Methods

The activation of tumor-associated pDCs was evaluated by in silico and microscopic analysis. The expression of human myxovirus resistant protein 1 (MxA), as surrogate of IFN-α production, and proximity ligation assay (PLA) to test dsDNA-cGAS activation were performed on human melanoma biopsies. Moreover, IFN-α and CXCL10 production by in vitro stimulated (i.e. with R848, CpG-A, ADU-S100) pDCs exposed to melanoma cell lines supernatants (SN-mel) was tested by intracellular flow cytometry and ELISA. We also performed a bulk RNA-sequencing on SN-mel-exposed pDCs, resting or stimulated with R848. Glycolytic rate assay was performed on SN-mel-exposed pDCs using the Seahorse XFe24 Extracellular Flux Analyzer.

Results

Based on a set of microscopic, functional and in silico analyses, we demonstrated that the melanoma milieu directly impairs IFN-α and CXCL10 production by pDCs via TLR-7/9 and cGAS-STING signaling pathways. Melanoma-derived immunosuppressive cytokines and a metabolic drift represent relevant mechanisms enforcing pDC-mediated melanoma escape.

Discussion

These findings propose a new window of intervention for novel immunotherapy approaches to amplify the antitumor innate immune response in cutaneous melanoma (CM).

FANCI serve as a prognostic biomarker correlated with immune infiltrates in skin cutaneous melanoma

Background

As a member of tumor, Skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) poses a serious threat to people's health because of its strong malignancy. Unfortunately, effective treatment methods for SKCM remain lacking. FANCI plays a vital role in the occurrence and metastasis of various tumor types. However, its regulatory role in SKCM is unclear. The purpose of this study was to explore the association of FANCI with SKCM.

Methods

This study investigated the expression of FANCI in GSE46517, GSE15605, and GSE114445 from the Gene Expression Omnibus database and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA)-SKCM datasets using the package "limma" or "DESeq2" in R environment and also investigated the prognostic significance of FANCI by utilizing the GEPIA database. Additionally, our research made use of real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and immunohistochemical (IHC) staining to verify FANCI expression between SKCM and normal tissues and developed the knockdown of FANCI in A375 and A875 cells to further analyze the function of FANCI. Finally, this study analyzed the correlation of FANCI and tumor-infiltrating immune cells by CIBERSORT, ESTIMATE, and ssGSEA algorithms.

Results

The FANCI level was increasing in SKCM tissues from GSE46517, GSE15605, GSE114445, and TCGA-SKCM. However, high FANCI expression correlated with poor overall survival. The RT-qPCR and IHC confirmed the accuracy of bioinformatics. Knocking down FANCI suppresses A375 and A875 cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. FANCI could be involved in the immunological milieu of SKCM by regulating immune responses and infiltrating numerous immune cells, particularly neutrophils, CD8+ T cells, and B cells. Furthermore, patients with SKCM who have a high FANCI expression level are reported to exhibit immunosuppression, whereas those with a low FANCI expression level are more likely to experience positive outcomes from immunotherapy.

Conclusions

The increased FANCI expression in SKCM can be a prognostic biomarker. Knockdown FANCI can reduce the occurrence and progression of SKCM. The FANCI expression provides a foundation for predicting the immune status and treatment of SKCM.

Modelling 3D Tumour Microenvironment In Vivo: A Tool to Predict Cancer Fate

Recently, many studies demonstrated the fundamental role of the tumour microenvironment (TME) in cancer progression. Here, we describe a method to visualize in 3D the behaviour of tumours in zebrafish embryos. We highlight two major actors of the TME, macrophages and vessels. This valuable tool is transposable to Patient-Derived Xenograft imaging in order to predict the fate of malignant tumours according to the dynamics of their TME.

HtrA3: a promising prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Objective

The dysregulation of the human high-temperature requirement A (HtrA) family of serine proteases is associated with many malignancies. However, there are few reports on HtrAs in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). The aim of this study was to investigate the expression, prognostic value, and biological functions of HtrAs in HNSCC.

Methods

The RNA-sequencing data and clinical data of HNSCC were downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. The GSE30784 and GSE31056 datasets from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database were used for further verification. This study explored the differential expression of HtrAs and assessed their potential impact on the prognosis of HNSCC patients using a survival module. Correlations between clinical characteristics and HtrA expression levels were then explored using a Wilcoxon rank sum test. A Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) were performed using "clusterProfile" in the R software. A Pearson/Spearman correlation test was applied to analyze the relationship between HtrAs and immune infiltration level/checkpoint genes. Validation of HtrA expression levels were carried out by RT-PCR and western blot in human squamous carcinoma cell lines (Fadu and Cal-27) and human non-tumorigenic bronchial epithelium cells (BEAS-2B). Finally, through cell transfection, CCK-8, Ki-67 immunofluorescence, and flow cytometry assays, the effect of HtrA3 knockdown on the malignant biological behavior of HNSCC cells was explored.

Results

The gene expression levels of HtrAs were significantly upregulated and associated with patient age, TNM stage, clinical stage, and TP53 mutation status in the TCGA-HNSCC cohort. High expressions of HtrA1/3 were associated with shorter overall survival, shorter progress-free interval, and lower disease-specific survival in HNSCC. A nomogram for HtrAs was constructed and validated. HtrA-related genes were significantly enriched in the immune response and cell apoptosis pathway. In addition, the expression of HtrAs showed significant correlations with B cells, M cells, DC cell infiltration, and immune infiltration checkpoint (CD276, TNFRSF14). Validation of HtrA expression was carried out by RT-PCR and western blot. Results of in vitro experiments indicated that HtrA3 gene knockdown inhibits the proliferation of FaDu and Cal-27 cells while concurrently promoting apoptosis.

Conclusions

HtrA3 shows significant potential as both a prognostic marker and a promising therapeutic target for HNSCC, highlighting its relevance and importance in future research and potential clinical applications.

Molecular characteristics and therapeutic implications of Toll-like receptor signaling pathway in melanoma

Melanoma is a malignant tumor of melanocytes and is often considered immunogenic cancer. Toll-like receptor-related genes are expressed differently in most types of cancer, depending on the immune microenvironment inside cancer, and the key function of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) for melanoma has not been fully elucidated. Based on multi-omics data from TCGA and GEO databases, we first performed pan-cancer analysis on TLR, including CNV, SNV, and mRNA changes in TLR-related genes in multiple human cancers, as well as patient prognosis characterization. Then, we divided melanoma patients into three subgroups (clusters 1, 2, and 3) according to the expression of the TLR pathway, and explored the correlation between TLR pathway and melanoma prognosis, immune infiltration, metabolic reprogramming, and oncogene expression characteristics. Finally, through univariate Cox regression analysis and LASSO algorithm, we selected six TLR-related genes to construct a survival prognostic model, divided melanoma patients into the training set, internal validation set 1, internal validation set 2, and external validation set for multiple validations, and discussed the correlation between model genes and clinical features of melanoma patients. In conclusion, we constructed a prognostic survival model based on TLR-related genes that precisely and independently demonstrated the potential to assess the prognosis and immune traits of melanoma patients, which is critical for patients' survival.

β2-adrenergic receptor expression in patients receiving bevacizumab therapy for metastatic melanoma

BACKGROUND

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was initially known as vascular permeability factor and identified as a driver of tumour angiogenesis. Recently, its role in supporting an immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment was demonstrated, and anti-VEGF treatment combined with immune checkpoint blockade is currently investigated. Further, beta-adrenergic signalling as a modifier of cancer hallmarks like immune response, angiogenesis and metastasis gained increased attention during past years.

METHODS

Focusing on the aspect of immunosuppression in upregulated beta-adrenergic signalling, we investigated predictive markers in patients with metastatic melanoma who received bevacizumab monotherapy, a specific VEGF-A binding antibody. We explored the expression of beta-2 adrenergic receptor (β2-AR), interleukin 6-receptor (IL6-R), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2) and VEGF-A by immunohistochemistry in melanoma to assess the correlation between these proteins in melanoma cells and response to treatment.

RESULTS

Strong β2-AR expression in metastases was associated with clinical benefit of bevacizumab. Furthermore, expression of the latter was positively linked to expression of VEGF-A and COX2. β2-AR expression in melanoma metastasis appears to distinguish a subgroup of patients that might benefit from anti-VEGF treatment.

CONCLUSION

Our results strengthen further exploration of anti-VEGF therapy in combination with immune checkpoint blockade in clinical studies and the investigation of β2-AR as predictive marker.

Theranostic chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells: Insight into recent trends and challenges in solid tumors

Cell therapy has reached significant milestones in various life-threatening diseases, including cancer. Cell therapy using fluorescent and radiolabeled chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell is a successful strategy for diagnosing or treating malignancies. Since cell therapy approaches have different results in cancers, the success of hematological cancers has yet to transfer to solid tumor therapy, leading to more casualties. Therefore, there are many areas for improvement in the cell therapy platform. Understanding the therapeutic barriers associated with solid cancers through cell tracking and molecular imaging may provide a platform for effectively delivering CAR-T cells into solid tumors. This review describes CAR-T cells' role in treating solid and non-solid tumors and recent advances. Furthermore, we discuss the main obstacles, mechanism of action, novel strategies and solutions to overcome the challenges from molecular imaging and cell tracking perspectives.

The Subtype Identity of Testicular Cancer Cells Determines Their Immunostimulatory Activity in a Coculture Model

Testicular germ cell cancer (TGCC) is subdivided into several subtypes. While seminomatous germ cell tumors (SGCT) are characterized by an intensive infiltration of immune cells which constitute a pro-inflammatory tumor micromilieu (TME), immune cells in non-seminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCT) are differently composed and less abundant. Previously, we have shown that the seminomatous cell line TCam-2 promotes T cell and monocyte activation in a coculture model, resulting in mutual interactions between both cell types. Here we set out to compare this feature of TCam-2 cells with the non-seminomatous cell line NTERA-2. Peripheral blood T cells or monocytes cocultured with NTERA-2 cells failed to secrete relevant amounts of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and significantly downregulated the expression of genes encoding activation markers and effector molecules. In contrast, immune cells cocultured with TCam-2 cells produced IL-2, IL-6 and TNFα, and strongly upregulated the expression of multiple pro-inflammatory genes. Furthermore, the expression of genes involved in proliferation, stemness and subtype specification remained unaltered in NTERA-2 cells during coculture with T cells or monocytes, indicating the absence of mutual interactions. Collectively, our findings uncover fundamental differences between SGCT and NSGCT in their capability to generate a pro-inflammatory TME, which possibly impacts the clinical features and prognosis of both TGCC subtypes.

Prognostic biomarker CCR6 and its correlation with immune infiltration in cutaneous melanoma

Background

Cutaneous melanoma (CM) is an aggressive type of skin cancer. Even after standard treatment, the recurrence and malignant progression of CM were almost inevitable. The overall survival (OS) of patients with CM varied widely, making it critical for prognostic prediction. Based on the correlation between CCR6 and melanoma incidence, we aimed to investigate the prognostic role of CCR6 and its relationship with immune infiltration in CM.

Methods

We obtained RNA sequencing data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) to analyze the CM expression. Functional enrichment analyses, immune infiltration analyses, immune checkpoint analyses, and clinicopathology analyses were performed. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses were used to identify independent prognostic factors. A nomogram model had been developed. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and log-rank test were used to estimate the relationship between OS and CCR6 expression.

Results

CCR6 was significantly upregulated in CM. Functional enrichment analyses revealed that CCR6 was correlated with immune response. Most immune cells and immune checkpoints were positively correlated with CCR6 expression. Kaplan-Meier analyses showed that high CCR6 expression was associated with a good outcome in CM and its subtypes. Cox regression showed that CCR6 was an independent prognostic factor in patients with CM (HR = 0.550, 95% CI = 0.332-0.912, p<0.05).

Conclusions

CCR6 is considered to be a new prognostic biomarker for patients with CM, and our study provides a potential therapeutic target for CM treatment.

Development and validation of ferroptosis-related lncRNA signature and immune-related gene signature for predicting the prognosis of cutaneous melanoma patients

Ferroptosis, a form of cell death caused by iron-dependent peroxidation of lipids, plays an important role in cancer. Recent studies have shown that long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are involved in the regulation of ferroptosis in tumor cells and are also closely related to tumor immunity. Immune cell infiltration in the tumor microenvironment affects the prognosis and clinical outcome of immunotherapy in melanoma patients, and immune cell classification may be able to accurately predict the prognosis of melanoma patients. However, the prognostic value of ferroptosis-related lncRNAs (FRLs) in melanoma has not been thoroughly explored, and it is difficult to define the immune characteristics of melanoma. We used The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), the Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) database, and the FerrDb database to identify FRLs. FRLs with prognostic value were evaluated in an experimental cohort utilizing univariate, LASSO (least absolute shrinkage and selection operator) and multivariate Cox regression, followed by in vitro assays evaluating the expression levels and the biological functions of three candidate FRLs. Kaplan-Meier (K-M) and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses were used to assess the validity of the risk model, and the drug sensitivity of FRLs was examined by drug sensitivity analysis. The differentially expressed genes between the high- and low-risk groups in the risk model were enriched in the immune pathway, and we further found immune gene signatures (IRGs) that could predict the prognosis of melanoma patients through a series of methods including single-sample Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (ssGSEA). Finally, two GEO cohorts were used to validate the predictive accuracy and reliability of these two signature models. Our findings suggest that FRLs and IRGs have the potential to predict the prognosis of patients with cutaneous melanoma.

SMG7-AS1 as a prognostic biomarker and predictor of immunotherapy responses for skin cutaneous melanoma

Skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) is the most life-threatening skin cancer and lacks early detection and effective treatment strategies. Many long noncoding RNAs are associated with the development of tumors and may serve as potential immunotherapeutic targets. In this study, microarray analysis was performed to screen for differentially expressed lncRNAs between SKCM and normal tissues, and SMG7-AS1 was identified as an upregulated lncRNA in SKCM. Subsequently, bioinformatic analysis revealed that dysregulation of SMG7-AS1 influences metastasis and immune infiltration. qRT-PCR of clinical samples demonstrated that the expression of SMG7-AS1 was higher in melanoma tissues. Flow cytometry showed that SMG7-AS1 plays a vital role in the cell cycle. Additionally, SMG7-AS1 was found to be associated with immunotherapy responses. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to report that SMG7-AS1 is associated with SKCM and may serve as a prognostic biomarker and predictor of immunotherapy responses in SKCM.

Neglected no more: B cell-mediated anti-tumor immunity

Immuno-oncology has traditionally focused on the cellular arm of the adaptive immune response, while attributing tumor-promoting activity to humoral responses in tumor-bearing hosts. This view stems from mouse models that do not necessarily recapitulate the antibody response process consistently observed in most human cancers. In recent years, the field has reconsidered the coordinated action of T and B cell responses in the context of anti-tumor immunity, as in any other immune response. Thus, recent studies in human cancer identify B cell responses with better outcome, typically in association with superior T cell responses. An area of particular interest is tertiary lymphoid structures, where germinal centers produce isotype switched antibodies and B cells and T lymphocytes interact with other immune cell types. The presence of these lymphoid structures is associated with better immunotherapeutic responses and remain poorly understood. Here, we discuss recent discoveries on how coordination between humoral and cellular responses is required for effective immune pressure against malignant progression, providing a perspective on the role of tertiary lymphoid structures and interventions to elicit their formation in unresectable tumors.

Migratory Engineering of T Cells for Cancer Therapy

Adoptive cell therapy (ACT) and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy in particular represents an adaptive, yet versatile strategy for cancer treatment. Convincing results in the treatment of hematological malignancies have led to FDA approval for several CAR T cell therapies in defined refractory diseases. In contrast, the treatment of solid tumors with adoptively transferred T cells has not demonstrated convincing efficacy in clinical trials. One of the main reasons for ACT failure in solid tumors is poor trafficking or access of transferred T cells to the tumor site. Tumors employ a variety of mechanisms shielding themselves from immune cell infiltrates, often translating to only fractions of transferred T cells reaching the tumor site. To overcome this bottleneck, extensive efforts are being undertaken at engineering T cells to improve ACT access to solid tumors. In this review, we provide an overview of the immune cell infiltrate in human tumors and the mechanisms tumors employ toward immune exclusion. We will discuss ways in which T cells can be engineered to circumvent these barriers. We give an outlook on ongoing clinical trials targeting immune cell migration to improve ACT and its perspective in solid tumors.

CXCL2 acts as a prognostic biomarker and associated with immune infiltrates in stomach adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

STAD ranked 5th most common in the incidence of malignant tumors and 3rd most common in the death rate of cancer worldwide. CXC chemokines affect the biological progress of various tumors, resulting in therapeutic failure. The role of CXCL2 in STAD was still a mystery.

METHODS

The expression, prognostic value, and clinical function of CXCL2 were analyzed using several online bioinformatics tools and clinical tissues.

RESULTS

CXCL2 level was significantly upregulated in STAD tissues. Strong correlation was obtained between CXCL2 level and immune cells as well as immune biomarkers. High CXCL2 expression in STAD was correlated with a favorable prognosis. Further analysis revealed that CXCL2, pTNM stage and age were independent factors affecting the prognosis of STAD patients. A predictive nomogram indicated that the calibration plots for the 1-year, 3-year and 5-year OS rates were predicted relatively well compared with an ideal model in the entire cohort. Validation analysis revealed that CXCL2 expression was upregulated in STAD and high CXCL2 level had a better overall survival. CXCL2 was associated with resistance to numerous drugs or small molecules in STAD.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified CXCL2 as a novel therapeutic target and associated with immune infiltration in STAD.

Prognostic biomarkers of cutaneous melanoma

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Melanomas account for only approximately 4% of diagnosed skin cancers in the United States but are responsible for the majority of deaths caused by skin cancer. Both genetic factors and ultraviolet (UV) radiation exposure play a role in the development of melanoma. Although melanomas have a strong propensity to metastasize when diagnosed late, melanomas that are diagnosed and treated early pose a low mortality risk. In particular, the identification of patients with increased metastatic risk, who may benefit from early adjuvant therapies, is crucial, especially given the advent of new melanoma treatments. However, the accuracy of classic clinical and histological variables, including the Breslow thickness, presence of ulceration, and lymph node status, might not be sufficient to identify such individuals. Thus, there is a need for the development of additional prognostic melanoma biomarkers that can improve early attempts to stratify melanoma patients and reliably identify high-risk subgroups with the aim of providing effective personalized therapies.

METHODS

In our current work, we discuss and assess emerging primary melanoma tumor biomarkers and prognostic circulating biomarkers.

RESULTS

Several promising biomarkers show prognostic value (eg, exosomal MIA (ie, melanoma inhibitory activity), serum S100B, AMLo signatures, and mRNA signatures); however, the scarcity of reliable data precludes the use of these biomarkers in current clinical applications.

CONCLUSION

Further research is needed on several promising biomarkers for melanoma. Large-scale studies are warranted to facilitate the clinical translation of prognostic biomarker applications for melanoma in personalized medicine.

Immunomodulation and delivery of macrophages using nano-smooth drug-loaded magnetic microrobots for dual targeting cancer therapy

To realize the potential to use micro/nanorobots for targeted cancer therapy, it is important to improve their biocompatibility and targeting ability. Here, we report on drug-loaded magnetic microrobots capable of polarizing macrophages into the antitumor phenotype to target and inhibit cancer cells. In vitro tests demonstrated that the microrobots have good biocompatibility with normal cells and immune cells. Positively charged DOX was loaded onto the surface of microrobots via electrostatic interactions and exhibited pH-responsive release behavior. The nano-smooth surfaces of the microrobots activated M1 polarization of macrophages, thus activating their intrinsic targeting and antitumor abilities toward cancer cells. Through dual targeting from magnetic guidance and M1 macrophages, the microrobots were able to target and kill cancer cells in a 3D tumor spheroid culture assay. These findings demonstrate a way to improve the tumor-targeting and antitumor abilities of microrobots through the combined use of magnetic control, macrophages, and pH-responsive drug release.

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Drug-loaded achiral magnetic microrobots developed with scalability and mass fabrication

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Magnetic microrobot with nano-smooth surface can activate antitumor phenotype macrophage

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The magnetic targeting and targeted therapy of polarized macrophages were combined

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The magnetic microrobots exhibit enhanced tumor-targeting and antitumor capabilities

A Novel Necroptosis-Related Gene Signature in Skin Cutaneous Melanoma Prognosis and Tumor Microenvironment

Background: Necroptosis has been identified recently as a newly recognized programmed cell death that has an impact on tumor progression and prognosis, although the necroptosis-related gene (NRGs) potential prognostic value in skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) has not been identified. The aim of this study was to construct a prognostic model of SKCM through NRGs in order to help SKCM patients obtain precise clinical treatment strategies.

Methods: RNA sequencing data collected from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) were used to identify differentially expressed and prognostic NRGs in SKCM. Depending on 10 NRGs via the univariate Cox regression analysis usage and LASSO algorithm, the prognostic risk model had been built. It was further validated by the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. The prognostic model performance had been assessed using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. We evaluated the predictive power of the prognostic model for tumor microenvironment (TME) and immunotherapy response.

Results: We constructed a prognostic model based on 10 NRGs (FASLG, TLR3, ZBP1, TNFRSF1B, USP22, PLK1, GATA3, EGFR, TARDBP, and TNFRSF21) and classified patients into two high- and low-risk groups based on risk scores. The risk score was considered a predictive factor in the two risk groups regarding the Cox regression analysis. A predictive nomogram had been built for providing a more beneficial prognostic indicator for the clinic. Functional enrichment analysis showed significant enrichment of immune-related signaling pathways, a higher degree of immune cell infiltration in the low-risk group than in the high-risk group, a negative correlation between risk scores and most immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), anticancer immunity steps, and a more sensitive response to immunotherapy in the low-risk group.

Conclusions: This risk score signature could be applied to assess the prognosis and classify low- and high-risk SKCM patients and help make the immunotherapeutic strategy decision.

Single-cell RNA sequencing reveals localized tumour ablation and intratumoural immunostimulant delivery potentiate T cell mediated tumour killing

Background

Metastatic breast cancer poses great challenge in cancer treatment. N‐dihydrogalactochitosan (GC) is a novel immunoadjuvant that stimulates systemic immune responses when administered intratumourally following local tumour ablation. A combination of photothermal therapy (PTT) and GC, referred to as localized ablative immunotherapy (LAIT), extended animal survival and generates an activated B cell phenotype in MMTV‐PyMT mouse mammary tumour microenvironment (TME). However, how T cell populations respond to LAIT remains to be elucidated.

Methods

Using depletion antibodies, we studied the contributions of CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cells to the therapeutic effect of LAIT. Using single‐cell RNA‐sequencing (scRNAseq), we analysed tumour‐infiltrating T cell heterogeneity and dissected their transcriptomes upon treatments of PTT, GC, and LAIT (PTT+GC).

Results

Loss of CD8⁺ T cells after LAIT abrogated the therapeutic benefits of LAIT. Ten days after treatment, proportions of CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cells in untreated TME were 19.2% and 23.0%, respectively. Upon LAIT, both proportions were increased to 25.5% and 36.2%, respectively. In particular, LAIT increased the proportions of naïve and memory cells from a resting state to an activated state. LAIT consistently induced the expression of co‐stimulatory molecules, type I IFN responsive genes, and a series of antitumor cytokines, Ifng, Tnf, Il1, and Il17 in CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cells. LAIT also induced immune checkpoints Pdcd1, Ctla4, and Lag3 expression, consistent with T cell activation. Relevant to clinical translation, LAIT also upregulated genes in CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cells that positively correlated with extended survival of breast cancer patients.

Conclusions

Overall, our results reveal that LAIT prompts immunological remodelling of T cells by inducing broad proinflammatory responses and inhibiting suppressive signalling to drive antitumour immunity.

Tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte: features and prognosis of lymphocytes infiltration on colorectal cancer

Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) are vital elements of the tumor microenvironment (TME), and the anti-tumor activity of TILs on colorectal cancer (CRC) has been a topic of concern. However, the characteristics and prognosis of the various types of lymphocyte infiltration in CRC have not been fully explained. Our study aimed to identify distinct features and prognosis of TILs. We integrated multiple-cohort databases to illustrate the features, proportions, and prognosis of TILs on CRC. We found that macrophages were significantly enriched in CRC. When we used the scRNA-seq database to further evaluate the proportion of TILs, we noticed markedly higher numbers of CD4 + T cell, B cell, and CD8 + T cell in four Gene Expression Omnibus Series (GSE) CRC cohorts. Interestingly, we found that the infiltrating level of TIL subgroups from highest to lowest is always dendritic cells, CD8 + T cells, CD4 + T cells, neutrophils, B cells, and macrophages; the proportion of infiltration is largely constant regardless of mutations in specific genes or somatic copy number variation (sCNV). In addition, the data corroborated that CD4+ TILs and CD8+ TILs have certain application values in the prognosis of CRCs, and age negatively related to CD8+ TILs and B plasma infiltration. Finally, patients with CRC who are older than 70 years have a better response to immune-checkpoint blockade.

Melanoma-specific antigen-associated antitumor antibody reactivity as an immune-related biomarker for targeted immunotherapies

Background:

Immunotherapies, including cancer vaccines and immune checkpoint inhibitors have transformed the management of many cancers. However, a large number of patients show resistance to these immunotherapies and current research has provided limited findings for predicting response to precision immunotherapy treatments.

Methods:

Here, we applied the next generation phage display mimotope variation analysis (MVA) to profile antibody response and dissect the role of humoral immunity in targeted cancer therapies, namely anti-tumor dendritic cell vaccine (MelCancerVac^®) and immunotherapy with anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibodies (pembrolizumab).

Results:

Analysis of the antibody immune response led to the characterization of epitopes that were linked to melanoma-associated and cancer-testis antigens (CTA) whose antibody response was induced upon MelCancerVac® treatments of lung cancer. Several of these epitopes aligned to antigens with strong immune response in patients with unresectable metastatic melanoma receiving anti-PD-1 therapy.

Conclusions:

This study provides insights into the differences and similarities in tumor-specific immunogenicity related to targeted immune treatments. The antibody epitopes as biomarkers reflect melanoma-associated features of immune response, and also provide insights into the molecular pathways contributing to the pathogenesis of cancer. Concluding, antibody epitope response can be useful in predicting anti-cancer immunity elicited by immunotherapy.

Immunotherapy treatments, which utilize the patient’s own immune system to fight cancer, have become a standard treatment of cancer. However, for many patients’ immunotherapy does not work. During the immune response the body produces proteins called antibodies. This study characterized the antibodies produced following treatment with two different types of immunotherapies that treat skin cancer, to gain insights into how the immune system responds in different individuals. Our results demonstrate that multiple proteins that are present in patients with skin cancer are specifically targeted by the immune system during skin cancer specific immunotherapy. Our results should help further anti-cancer drug development.

Rähni et al profile antibody response in patients with varied response to cancer immunotherapies. They identify antibody epitope responses that predict anti-cancer immunity elicited by immunotherapy.

Molecular Pathology of Skin Melanoma: Epidemiology, Differential Diagnostics, Prognosis and Therapy Prediction

Similar to other malignancies, TCGA network efforts identified the detailed genomic picture of skin melanoma, laying down the basis of molecular classification. On the other hand, genome-wide association studies discovered the genetic background of the hereditary melanomas and the susceptibility genes. These genetic studies helped to fine-tune the differential diagnostics of malignant melanocytic lesions, using either FISH tests or the myPath gene expression signature. Although the original genomic studies on skin melanoma were mostly based on primary tumors, data started to accumulate on the genetic diversity of the progressing disease. The prognostication of skin melanoma is still based on staging but can be completed with gene expression analysis (DecisionDx). Meanwhile, this genetic knowledge base of skin melanoma did not turn to the expected wide array of target therapies, except the BRAF inhibitors. The major breakthrough of melanoma therapy was the introduction of immune checkpoint inhibitors, which showed outstanding efficacy in skin melanoma, probably due to their high immunogenicity. Unfortunately, beyond BRAF, KIT mutations and tumor mutation burden, no clinically validated predictive markers exist in melanoma, although several promising biomarkers have been described, such as the expression of immune-related genes or mutations in the IFN-signaling pathway. After the initial success of either target or immunotherapies, sooner or later, relapses occur in the majority of patients, due to various induced genetic alterations, the diagnosis of which could be developed to novel predictive genetic markers.

Prognostic Characteristics and Immune Effects of N6-Methyladenosine and 5-Methylcytosine-Related Regulatory Factors in Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma

In recent years, methylation modification regulators have been found to have essential roles in various tumor mechanisms. However, the relationships between N⁶-methyladenosine (m6A) and 5-methylcytosine (m5C) regulators and clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) remain unknown. This study investigated these relationships using the data from The Cancer Genome Atlas database. We calculated risk scores using a Lasso regression analysis and divided the patient samples into two risk groups (tumor vs. normal tissues). Furthermore, we used univariate and multivariate Cox analyses to determine independent prognostic indicators and explore correlations between the regulatory factors and immune infiltrating cell characteristics. Finally, quantitative reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and The Human Protein Atlas were used to verify signature-related gene expression in clinical samples. We identified expression differences in 35 regulatory factors between the tumor and normal tissue groups. Next, we constructed a five-gene risk score signature (NOP2 nucleolar protein [NOP2], methyltransferase 14, N6-adenosine-methyltransferase subunit [METTL14], NOP2/Sun RNA methyltransferase 5 [NSUN5], heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A2/B1 [HNRNPA2B1], and zinc finger CCCH-type containing 13 [ZC3H13]) using the screening criteria (p < 0.01), and then divided the cases into high- and low-risk groups based on their median risk score. We also screened for independent prognostic factors related to age, tumor grade, and risk score. Furthermore, we constructed a Norman diagram prognostic model by combining two clinicopathological characteristics, which demonstrated good prediction efficiency with prognostic markers. Then, we used a single-sample gene set enrichment analysis and the cell-type identification by estimating relative subsets of RNA transcripts (CIBERSORT) method to evaluate the tumor microenvironment of the regulatory factor prognostic characteristics. Moreover, we evaluated five risk subgroups with different genetic signatures for personalized prognoses. Finally, we analyzed the immunotherapy and immune infiltration response and demonstrated that the high-risk group was more sensitive to immunotherapy than the low-risk group. The PCR results showed that NSUN5 and HNRNPA2B1 expression was higher in tumor tissues than in normal tissues. In conclusion, we identified five m6A and m5C regulatory factors that might be promising biomarkers for future research.

A new risk model based on a 11-m6A-related lncRNA signature for predicting prognosis and monitoring immunotherapy for gastric cancer

Objective

N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) mRNA modification triggers malignant behaviors of tumor cells and thereby drives malignant progression in gastric cancer (GC). However, data regarding the prognostic values of m⁶A RNA methylation-related long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in GC are very limited in the literature. We aimed to investigate the prognostic potential of m⁶A-related lncRNAs in predicting prognosis and monitoring immunotherapy efficacy in GC patients.

Methods

Transcriptome and clinical data were obtained from GC biopsies from Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). M⁶A-related lncRNAs associated with GC were identified by constructing a co-expression network, and the gene pairs differentially expressed in GC were selected using univariate analysis. We constructed a risk model based on prognosis-related lncRNA pairs selected using the LASSO algorithm and quantified the best cutoff by comparing the area under the curve (AUC) for risk stratification. A risk model with the optimal discrimination between high- and low-risk GC patients was established. Its feasibility for overall survival prediction and discrimination of clinicopathological features, tumor-infiltrating immune cells, and biomarkers of immune checkpoint inhibitors between high- and low-risk groups were assessed.

Results

Finally, we identified 11 m⁶A-related lncRNA pairs associated with GC prognosis based on transcriptome analysis of 375 GC specimens and 32 normal tissues. A risk model was constructed with an AUC of 0.8790. We stratified GC patients into high- and low-risk groups at a cutoff of 1.442. As expected, patients in the low-risk group had longer overall survival versus the high-risk group. Infiltration of cancer-associated fibroblasts, endothelial cells, macrophages, particularly M2 macrophages, and monocytes was more severe in high-risk patients than low-risk individuals, who exhibited high CD4⁺ Th1 cell infiltration in GC. Altered expressions of immune-related genes were observed in both groups. PD-1 and LAG3 expressions were found higher in low-risk patients than high-risk patients. Immunotherapy, either single or combined use of PD-1 or CTLA4 inhibitors, had better efficacy in low-risk patients than high-risk patients.

Conclusion

The new risk model based on a 11-m⁶A-related lncRNA signature can serve as an independent predictor for GC prognosis prediction and may aid in the development of personalized immunotherapy strategies for patients.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-021-09062-2.

A Coculture Model Mimicking the Tumor Microenvironment Unveils Mutual Interactions between Immune Cell Subtypes and the Human Seminoma Cell Line TCam-2

Testicular germ cell cancer (TGCC) is the most common type of cancer in young men. Seminomas account for around half of them and are characterized by a pronounced infiltration of immune cells. So far, the impact of the tumor microenvironment (TME) on disease progression, especially the interaction of individual immune cell subtypes with the tumor cells, remains unclear. To address this question, we used an in vitro TME model involving the seminoma-derived cell line Tcam-2 and immune cell subsets purified from human peripheral blood. T cells and monocytes were strongly activated when individually cocultured with Tcam-2 cells as revealed by increased expression of activation markers and pro-inflammatory cytokines both on the mRNA and protein level. Importantly, the interaction between tumor and immune cells was mutual. Gene expression of pluripotency markers as well as markers of proliferation and cell cycle activity were upregulated in Tcam-2 cells in cocultures with T cells, whereas gene expression of SOX17, a marker for seminomas, was unaltered. Interestingly, the impact of monocytes on gene expression of Tcam-2 cells was less pronounced, indicating that the effects of individual immune cell subsets on tumor cells in the TME are highly specific. Collectively, our data indicate that seminoma cells induce immune cell activation and thereby generate a strong pro-inflammatory milieu, whereas T cells conversely increase the proliferation, metastatic potential, and stemness of tumor cells. Although the employed model does not fully mimic the physiological situation found in TGCC in vivo, it provides new insights potentially explaining the connection between inflammatory infiltrates in seminomas and their tendency to burn out and metastasize.

Controlling Cell Trafficking: Addressing Failures in CAR T and NK Cell Therapy of Solid Tumours

The precision guiding of endogenous or adoptively transferred lymphocytes to the solid tumour mass is obligatory for optimal anti-tumour effects and will improve patient safety. The recognition and elimination of the tumour is best achieved when anti-tumour lymphocytes are proximal to the malignant cells. For example, the regional secretion of soluble factors, cytotoxic granules, and cell-surface molecule interactions are required for the death of tumour cells and the suppression of neovasculature formation, tumour-associated suppressor, or stromal cells. The resistance of individual tumour cell clones to cellular therapy and the hostile environment of the solid tumours is a major challenge to adoptive cell therapy. We review the strategies that could be useful to overcoming insufficient immune cell migration to the tumour cell mass. We argue that existing 'competitive' approaches should now be revisited as complementary approaches to improve CAR T and NK cell therapy.

An Asian-specific variant in human IgG1 represses colorectal tumorigenesis by shaping the tumor microenvironment

Emerging studies have focused on ways to treat cancers by modulating T cell activation. However, whether B cell receptor signaling in the tumor microenvironment (TME) can be harnessed for immunotherapy is unclear. Here, we report that an Asia-specific variant of human IgG1 containing a Gly396 to Arg396 substitution (hIgG1-G396R) conferred improved survival of patients with colorectal cancer (CRC). Mice with knockin of the murine functional homolog mIgG2c-G400R recapitulated the alleviated tumorigenesis and progression in murine colon carcinoma models. Immune profiling of the TME revealed broad mobilizations of IgG1⁺ plasma cells, CD8⁺ T cells, CD103⁺ DCs, and active tertiary lymphoid structure formation, suggesting an effective antitumor microenvironment in hIgG1-G396R CRC patients. Mechanistically, this variant potentiated tumor-associated antigen–specific (TAA-specific) plasma cell differentiation and thus antibody production. These elevated TAA-specific IgG2c antibodies in turn efficiently boosted the antibody-dependent tumor cell phagocytosis and TAA presentation to effector CD8⁺ T cells. Notably, adoptive transfer of TAA-specific class-switched memory B cells harboring this variant exhibited therapeutic efficacy in murine tumor models, indicating their clinical potential. All these results prompted a prospective investigation of hIgG1-G396R in patients with CRC as a biomarker for clinical prognosis and demonstrated that manipulating the functionality of IgG1⁺ memory B cells in tumors could improve immunotherapy outcomes.

High expression of lncRNA HSD11B1-AS1 indicates favorable prognosis and is associated with immune infiltration in cutaneous melanoma

Cutaneous melanoma is an aggressive malignant cancer associated with poor prognosis. Identification of reliable biomarkers for predicting prognosis of melanoma contributes to improved clinical outcome and disease management. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) serve a crucial regulatory role of oncogenesis and tumor suppression in melanoma. Using data from The Cancer Genome Atlas database, novel lncRNA 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1-antisense RNA 1 (HSD11B1-AS1) was identified, which was significantly downregulated in malignant melanoma and its downregulation was significantly associated with poor clinicopathological characteristics, including advanced T and pathological stage, Clark level, Breslow depth and ulceration and worse prognosis. Multivariate analysis showed that HSD11B1-AS1, as well as N stage and Breslow depth, were independent prognostic factors in cutaneous melanoma, and nomograms suggested a good predictive value of 1-, 3- and 5-year overall survival, progression-free interval and disease-specific survival. In vitro experiments verified the decreased HSD11B1-AS1 expression in melanoma cell lines compared with human epidermal melanocytes. Moreover, cell experiments in vitro, including Cell Counting Kit-8, colony formation, wound healing and Transwell assay, suggested that overexpression of HSD11B1-AS1 significantly inhibited melanoma cell proliferation, migration and invasion. Functional enrichment showed significantly enriched pathways in IFN-γ and -α response, TNF-α signaling via NF-κB and IL-2/STAT-5 and IL-6/JAK/STAT-3 signaling. In addition, immune infiltration analysis demonstrated that HSD11B1-AS1 may function by accelerating immune response regulation and the immune cell infiltration of various immunocytes, especially T, T helper 1, activated dendritic and B cells. The present study revealed HSD11B1-AS1 as a potential therapeutic target and promising biomarker for diagnosis and prognosis of cutaneous melanoma.

Key chemokines direct migration of immune cells in solid tumors

Immune cell infiltration into solid tumors, their movement within the tumor microenvironment (TME), and interaction with other immune cells are controlled by their directed migration towards gradients of chemokines. Dysregulated chemokine signaling in TME favors the growth of tumors, exclusion of effector immune cells, and abundance of immunosuppressive cells. Key chemokines directing the migration of immune cells into tumor tissue have been identified. In this review, we discuss well-studied chemokine receptors that regulate migration of effector and immunosuppressive immune cells in the context of cancer immunology. We discuss preclinical models that have described the role of respective chemokine receptors in immune cell migration into TME and review preclinical and clinical studies that target chemokine signaling as standalone or combination therapies.

Construction and validation of a novel pyroptosis-related signature to predict prognosis in patients with cutaneous melanoma

Skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) is one of the most malignant skin cancers and remains a health concern worldwide. Pyroptosis is a newly recognized form of programmed cell death and plays a vital role in cancer progression. We aim to construct a prognostic model for SKCM patients based on pyroptosis-related genes (PRGs). SKCM patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) were divided into training and validation cohorts. We used GSE65904 downloaded from GEO database as an external validation cohort. We performed Cox regression and the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression to identify prognostic genes and built a risk score. Patients were divided into high- and low-risk groups based on the risk score. Differently expressed genes (DEGs), immune cell infiltration and immune-related pathways activation were compared between the two groups. We established a model containing 4 PRGs, i.e., GSDMA, GSDMC, AIM2 and NOD2. The overall survival (OS) time was significantly different between the 2 groups. The risk score was an independent predictor for prognosis in both the uni- and multi-variable Cox regressions. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encylopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses showed that DEGs were enriched in immune-related pathways. Most types of immune cells were highly expressed in the low risk group. All immune pathways were significantly up-regulated in the low-risk group. In addition, low-risk patients had a better response to immune checkpoint inhibitors. Our novel pyroptosis-related gene signature could predict the prognosis of SKCM patients and their response to immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Comprehensive analysis identifies IFI16 as a novel signature associated with overall survival and immune infiltration of skin cutaneous melanoma

Background

Skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) is the most common skin tumor with high mortality. The unfavorable outcome of SKCM urges the discovery of prognostic biomarkers for accurate therapy. The present study aimed to explore novel prognosis-related signatures of SKCM and determine the significance of immune cell infiltration in this pathology.

Methods

Four gene expression profiles (GSE130244, GSE3189, GSE7553 and GSE46517) of SKCM and normal skin samples were retrieved from the GEO database. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were then screened, and the feature genes were identified by the LASSO regression and Boruta algorithm. Survival analysis was performed to filter the potential prognostic signature, and GEPIA was used for preliminary validation. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) was obtained to evaluate discriminatory ability. The Gene Set Variation Analysis (GSVA) was performed, and the composition of the immune cell infiltration in SKCM was estimated using CIBERSORT. At last, paraffin-embedded specimens of primary SKCM and normal skin tissues were collected, and the signature was validated by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and immunohistochemistry (IHC).

Results

Totally 823 DEGs and 16 feature genes were screened. IFI16 was identified as the signature associated with overall survival of SKCM with a great discriminatory ability (AUC > 0.9 for all datasets). GSVA noticed that IFI16 might be involved in apoptosis and ultraviolet response in SKCM, and immune cell infiltration of IFI16 was evaluated. At last, FISH and IHC both validated the differential expression of IFI16 in SKCM.

Conclusions

In conclusion, our comprehensive analysis identified IFI16 as a signature associated with overall survival and immune infiltration of SKCM, which may play a critical role in the occurrence and development of SKCM.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12935-021-02409-6.

Pan-Cancer Analyses Reveal Oncogenic and Immunological Role of Dickkopf-1 (DKK1)

WNT signaling pathway inhibitor Dickkopf-1 (DKK1) is related to cancer progression; however, its diagnostic and prognostic potential have not been investigated in a pan-cancer perspective. In this study, multiple bioinformatic analyses were conducted to evaluate therapeutic value of DKK1 in human cancers. The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and the Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project served as data resources. The Wilcoxon rank test was performed to evaluate the expression difference of DKK1 between cancer tissues and normal tissues. A Kaplan-Meier curve and Cox regression were used for prognosis evaluation. Single-sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) was used to evaluate the association of DKK1 expression with the immune cell infiltration. The potential function of DKK1 was explored by STRING and clusterProfiler. We found that the expression level of DKK1 is significantly different in different cancer types. Importantly, we demonstrated that DKK1 is an independent risk factor in ESCA, LUAD, MESO, and STAD. Further analysis revealed that DKK1 had a large effect on the immune cell infiltration and markers of certain immune cells, such as Th1 and Th2 cells. PPI network analysis and further pathway enrichment analysis indicated that DKK1 was mainly involved in the WNT signaling pathway. Our findings suggested that DKK1 might serve as a marker of prognosis for certain cancers by affecting the WNT signaling pathway and tumor immune microenvironment.

A risk model based on autophagy-related lncRNAs for predicting prognosis and efficacy of immunotherapy and chemotherapy in gastric cancer patients

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a class of non-protein-coding RNAs essential to the occurrence and development of gastric cancer (GC). We aimed to identify critical lncRNA pairs to construct a prognostic model and assess its performances in prognosis and efficacy prediction in GC patients receiving immunotherapy and chemotherapy. We searched transcriptome and clinical data of GC patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. Autophagy-related lncRNAs were identified using co-expression network analysis, and lncRNA pairs with prognostic value were selected using pairwise transcriptome analysis. The gene pairs were subjected to LASSO algorithm for identification of optimal gene pairs for risk model construction. Patients were classified into the low-risk and high-risk groups with the RiskScore as a cutoff. Finally, 9 optimal gene pairs were identified in the LASSO algorithm model for construction of a lncRNA prognostic risk model. For predictive performances, it successfully predicted a shorter survival of high-risk patients than that obtained in low-risk individuals (P < 0.001). It showed moderate AUC (area under the curve) values for 1-, 2-, and 3-year overall survival prediction of 0.713 and could serve as an independent predictor for GC prognosis. Compared to the low-risk group, high-risk patients had higher expressions of marker genes for immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and showed higher sensitivity to the chemotherapy agents, rapamycin, bexarotene, and bicalutamide. Our findings demonstrate a robust prognostic model based on nine autophagy-related lncRNA pairs for GC. It acts as an independent predictor for survival and efficacy prediction of immunotherapy and chemotherapy in GC patients.

The Role of TGF-β in Bone Metastases

Complications associated with advanced cancer are a major clinical challenge and, if associated with bone metastases, worsen the prognosis and compromise the survival of the patients. Breast and prostate cancer cells exhibit a high propensity to metastasize to bone. The bone microenvironment is unique, providing fertile soil for cancer cell propagation, while mineralized bone matrices store potent growth factors and cytokines. Biologically active transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), one of the most abundant growth factors, is released following tumor-induced osteoclastic bone resorption. TGF-β promotes tumor cell secretion of factors that accelerate bone loss and fuel tumor cells to colonize. Thus, TGF-β is critical for driving the feed-forward vicious cycle of tumor growth in bone. Further, TGF-β promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), increasing cell invasiveness, angiogenesis, and metastatic progression. Emerging evidence shows TGF-β suppresses immune responses, enabling opportunistic cancer cells to escape immune checkpoints and promote bone metastases. Blocking TGF-β signaling pathways could disrupt the vicious cycle, revert EMT, and enhance immune response. However, TGF-β’s dual role as both tumor suppressor and enhancer presents a significant challenge in developing therapeutics that target TGF-β signaling. This review presents TGF-β’s role in cancer progression and bone metastases, while highlighting current perspectives on the therapeutic potential of targeting TGF-β pathways.

Protein Signatures of NK Cell-Mediated Melanoma Killing Predict Response to Immunotherapies

Despite impressive advances in melanoma-directed immunotherapies, resistance is common and many patients still succumb to metastatic disease. In this context, harnessing natural killer (NK) cells, which have thus far been sidelined in the development of melanoma immunotherapy, could provide therapeutic benefits for cancer treatment. To identify molecular determinants of NK cell-mediated melanoma killing (NKmK), we quantified NK-cell cytotoxicity against a panel of genetically diverse melanoma cell lines and observed highly heterogeneous susceptibility. Melanoma protein microarrays revealed a correlation between NKmK and the abundance and activity of a subset of proteins, including several metabolic factors. Oxidative phoshorylation, measured by oxygen consumption rate, negatively correlated with melanoma cell sensitivity toward NKmK, and proteins involved in mitochondrial metabolism and epithelial-mesenchymal transition were confirmed to regulate NKmK. Two- and three-dimensional killing assays and melanoma xenografts established that the PI₃K/AKT/mTOR signaling axis controls NKmK via regulation of NK cell-relevant surface proteins. A "protein-killing-signature" based on the protein analysis predicted NKmK of additional melanoma cell lines and the response of patients with melanoma to anti-PD-1 checkpoint therapy. Collectively, these findings identify novel NK cell-related prognostic biomarkers and may contribute to improved and personalized melanoma-directed immunotherapies. SIGNIFICANCE: NK-cell cytotoxicity assays and protein microarrays reveal novel biomarkers of NK cell-mediated melanoma killing and enable development of signatures to predict melanoma patient responsiveness to immunotherapies.

Immunophenotypic Differences in Tumor-Infiltrating Lymphocytes and Neovascularization Between Primary Cutaneous Melanoma With and Without Metastasis: An Immunohistochemical Study of 80 Cases

ABSTRACT

The prognostic implications of the immunophenotype of the tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) in primary cutaneous melanoma are well known. In recent years, the study of this immunophenotype has also resulted in immunotherapeutic consequences. The aims of this study were to characterize the subpopulations of TILs in primary cutaneous melanoma, in cases with and without metastasis, as well as the neovascularization associated with the primary neoplasm, and its influence on the development of metastasis. To this end, the immunophenotype of TILs and the neovascularization of 80 patients with primary cutaneous melanoma (40 each with metastatic and non-metastatic melanoma) were analyzed by immunohistochemistry for CD3, CD4, CD8, FOXP3, PD-1, CD31, and D2-40 antibodies. We found that higher frequencies of TILs with brisk pattern, and CD4+, CD8+, and CD20+ cells in TILs, and a lower frequency of CD31+ vessels were histopathological features associated with better prognosis in primary cutaneous melanoma. Our results support the notion that the immunohistochemical study of TILs and neovascularization in primary cutaneous melanoma may be helpful tools for identifying patients at increased risk of metastasis development.

Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) in feline melanocytic tumors: A preliminary investigation

The presence and the role of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) in different types of tumors, but particularly in melanoma, has become more and more investigated during the last decade, both in human and veterinary medicine. Melanocytic tumors are quite rare in cats, with diffuse iris melanoma being the most commonly diagnosed in this species. The aim of this study was to characterize the lymphocytic infiltration in feline melanocytic tumors and to analyze their association with the histological features of malignancy recognized in these tumors, as well as with the expression of the most commonly used immunohistochemical markers. Thirty-eight feline melanocytic tumors were retrospectively selected; histological and immunohistochemical characterization of the tumors (histologic criteria of malignancy; S100, Melan A, and PNL2 expression) and of TILs (presence/absence, density, distribution, and grade; CD3, CD20 expression) were performed and associations between them tested. Results showed that TILs grade increased with cellular pleomorphism (P < 0.05) and, within the group of cutaneous melanocytic tumors, also with the mitotic count (P < 0.05). On the other hand, TILs grade was inversely associated with the percentage of neoplastic cells positive for Melan A (P < 0.05) and PNL2 (P < 0.05). Both CD3⁺ and CD20⁺ lymphocytes increased significantly with TILs grade and in association with mitotic count, when stratified in low/high quantity. This preliminary study suggests that TILs in feline melanoma may be associated with histologic features of malignancy and loss of melanocytic-specific markers, such as Melan A and PNL2. Further studies, with a larger cohort and follow-up information, are recommended.

Endostatin inhibits the proliferation and migration of B16 cells by inducing macrophage polarity to M1‑type

Malignant melanoma is a common skin tumor that easily metastasizes and has a poor prognosis. Endostatin is an endogenous vascular endothelial inhibitor that mainly suppresses tumor growth by inhibiting the proliferation of vascular endothelial cells and by reducing the formation of tumor microvessels, however the immunological function of endostatin remains unclear. Previously, we have found that an over‑expression endostatin (pEndostatin) plasmid induced RAW264.7 cells' polarity to M1‑type macrophage. To elucidate the effect of M1‑type macrophages induced by endostatin on melanoma B16 cells, the present study transfected RAW264.7 cells with pEndostatin plasmid and co‑cultured them with B16 cells. Compared with the control group, the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)‑2, MMP‑9 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen in B16 cells was inhibited by M1‑type macrophages, but cleaved Caspase‑3 and cleaved Caspase‑8 were significantly upregulated and the ratio of Bax/Bcl‑2 was increased. These results indicated that M1 macrophages induced by pEndostatin plasmid inhibited the proliferation and migration of B16 cells and promoted their apoptosis. These findings suggest that the inhibitory effect of endostatin on melanoma is not limited to directly inhibiting tumor microvessel formation, but it may also be related to regulating changes in macrophage polarity.

Proteomic Implications of Tumoral Infiltrating Lymphocytes in Melanoma: PD-L1, CD4 and CD8 - Short Review

Melanoma is a tumor developed by malignancy of melanocytes, being one of the most lethal cancers. Usually, it is associated with exposure to ultraviolet radiations, being most common in the skin, but can also be located extracutaneously as in the digestive tract, leptomeninges or uvea. Histopathologically it presents a phase of radial growth and a vertical one, often accompanied by an intra and peritumoral inflammatory infiltrate. Immunohistochemically, the confirmation of the diagnosis of melanoma should be accompanied by the assessment of proteomic markers of lymphocytic infiltrate such as PD-L1, CD4 and CD8. Those have a role in evaluating the prognosis and a possible prediction of the immunotherapeutic response.

Prognostic signature and immune efficacy of m1 A-, m5 C- and m6 A-related regulators in cutaneous melanoma

Cutaneous melanoma (CM) is an aggressive cancer; given that initial and specific signs are lacking, diagnosis is often late and the prognosis is poor. RNA modification has been widely studied in tumour progression. Nevertheless, little progress has been made in the signature of N1 -methyladenosine (m1 A), 5-methylcytosine (m5 C), N6 -methyladenosine (m6 A)-related regulators and the tumour microenvironment (TME) cell infiltration in CM. Our study identified the characteristics of m1 A-, m5 C- and m6 A-related regulators based on 468 CM samples from the public database. Using univariate, multivariate and LASSO Cox regression analysis, a risk model of regulators was established and validated by a nomogram on independent prognostic factors. The gene set variation analysis (GSVA) and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) clarified the involved functional pathways. A combined single-sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) and CIBERSORT approach revealed TME of regulator-related prognostic signature. The nine-gene signature stratified the patients into distinct risk subgroups for personalized prognostic assessment. Additionally, functional enrichment, immune infiltration and immunotherapy response analysis indicated that the high-risk group was correlated with T-cell suppression, while the low-risk group was more sensitive to immunotherapy. The findings presented here contribute to our understanding of the TME molecular heterogeneity in CM. Nine m1 A-, m5 C- and m6 A-related regulators may also be promising biomarkers for future research.

CCL20/TNF/VEGFA Cytokine Secretory Phenotype of Tumor-Associated Macrophages Is a Negative Prognostic Factor in Cutaneous Melanoma

Simple Summary

Cutaneous melanoma is characterized by its heterogeneous metastatic behavior and robust biomarkers are still needed to identify those patients with increased risk for distant metastasis, to guide new adjuvant treatments. We aimed to assess the prognostic role of different features of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) using multicolor immunofluorescence microscopy and single-cell analysis. Rather than the number, size, or location of TAM, quantitative assessment of CCL20, TNF, and VEGFA cytokine content was associated with strong prognostic significance in primary melanoma. This novel TAM cytokine signature serves as a readout of TAM prometastatic activation and provides independent information to traditional TNM melanoma staging. In addition, we show that this particular cytokine profile is coregulated by p53 and NF-κB, suggesting that therapies targeting both pathways may modulate the prometastatic deviation of TAMs in melanoma.

Abstract

TAMs constitute a large fraction of infiltrating immune cells in melanoma tissues, but their significance for clinical outcomes remains unclear. We explored diverse TAM parameters in clinically relevant primary cutaneous melanoma samples, including density, location, size, and polarization marker expression; in addition, because cytokine production is a hallmark of macrophages function, we measured CCL20, TNF, and VEGFA intracellular cytokines by single-cell multiparametric confocal microscopy. The Kaplan–Meier method was used to analyze correlation with melanoma-specific disease-free survival and overall survival. No significant correlations with clinical parameters were observed for TAM density, morphology, or location. Significantly, higher contents of the intracellular cytokines CCL20, TNF, and VEGFA were quantified in TAMs infiltrating metastasizing compared to non-metastasizing skin primary melanomas (p < 0.001). To mechanistically explore cytokine up-regulation, we performed in vitro studies with melanoma-conditioned macrophages, using RNA-seq to explore involved pathways and specific inhibitors. We show that p53 and NF-κB coregulate CCL20, TNF, and VEGFA in melanoma-conditioned macrophages. These results delineate a clinically relevant pro-oncogenic cytokine profile of TAMs with prognostic significance in primary melanomas and point to the combined therapeutic targeting of NF-kB/p53 pathways to control the deviation of TAMs in melanoma.

Identification of Potential Prognostic Biomarkers Associated With Cancerometastasis in Skin Cutaneous Melanoma

Skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) is a highly aggressive tumor. The mortality and drug resistance among it are high. Thus, exploring predictive biomarkers for prognosis has become a priority. We aimed to find immune cell-based biomarkers for survival prediction. Here 321 genes were differentially expressed in immune-related groups after ESTIMATE analysis and differential analysis. Two hundred nineteen of them were associated with the metastasis of SKCM via weighted gene co-expression network analysis. Twenty-six genes in this module were hub genes. Twelve of the 26 genes were related to overall survival in SKCM patients. After a multivariable Cox regression analysis, we obtained six of these genes (PLA2G2D, IKZF3, MS4A1, ZC3H12D, FCRL3, and P2RY10) that were independent prognostic signatures, and a survival model of them performed excellent predictive efficacy. The results revealed several essential genes that may act as significant prognostic factors of SKCM, which could deepen our understanding of the metastatic mechanisms and improve cancer treatment.

Construction and Comprehensive Prognostic Analysis of a lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA Regulatory Network and Tumor Immune Cell Infiltration in Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a malignant tumor with high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Recent studies have shown that long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) play an important role in almost all human tumors, including CRC. Competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) regulatory networks have become hot topics in cancer research. Tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TICs) have also been reported to be closely related to the survival and prognosis of CRC patients. In this study, we used the lncRNA–miRNA–mRNA regulatory network combined with tumor immune cell infiltration to predict the survival and prognosis of 598 CRC patients. First, we downloaded the lncRNA, mRNA, and miRNA transcriptome data of CRC patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and identified differentially expressed genes through “limma” package of R software. The ceRNA regulatory network was established by using the “GDCRNATools” R package. Then, univariate Cox analysis and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator analysis were performed to identify the optimal prognostic network nodes, including SRPX, UST, H19, SNHG7, hsa-miR-29b-3p, and TTYH3. Next, we analyzed the differences in 22 types of TICs between 58 normal subjects and 206 CRC patients and included memory CD4 T cells, dendritic cells and neutrophils in the construction of a prognostic model. Finally, we identified the relationship between the ceRNA prognostic model and the infiltrating immune cell prognostic model. In conclusion, we constructed two prognostic models that provide insights on the prognosis and treatment strategy of CRC.

HER2-antigen-specific humoral immune response in breast cancer lymphocytes transplanted in hu-PBL hIL-4 NOG mice

The status of humoral immunity of cancer patients is not clear compared to cellular immunity because the ability of specific antibody production is difficult to analyze in vitro. We previously developed a humanized mouse model to evaluate antigen-specific antibody production by transplanting human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) into NOG-hIL-4-Tg mice (hu-PBL hIL-4 NOG). In this study, these mice were transplanted with PBMCs derived from breast cancer patients (BC) and immunized with a human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) peptide, CH401MAP, to analyze humoral immunity of BCs. The hu-PBL hIL-4 NOG mice recapitulated immune environment of BCs as the ratio of CD8+/CD4+T cells was lower and that of PD-1 + T cells was higher compared to healthy donors (HDs). Diverse clusters were detected in BC-mouse (BC-M) plasma components involving immunoglobulins and complements unlike HD-M, and there was a significant diversity in CH401MAP-specific IgG titers in BC-M. The number of B cell clones producing high CH401MAP-specific IgG was not increased by immunization in BC-M unlike HD-M. These results demonstrated that the humoral immunity of BCs appeared as diverse phenotypes different from HDs in hu-PBL hIL-4 NOG mice, which may provide important information for the study of personalized medicine.

Spatiotemporal Analysis of B Cell- and Antibody Secreting Cell-Subsets in Human Melanoma Reveals Metastasis-, Tumor Stage-, and Age-Associated Dynamics

Background: The role of tumor-associated B cells in human cancer is only starting to emerge. B cells typically undergo a series of developmental changes in phenotype and function, however, data on the composition of the B cell population in human melanoma are largely absent including changes during tumor progression and their potential clinical significance.

Methods: In this study, we compared the number and distribution of six major B cell and antibody secreting cell subpopulations outside tertiary lymphoid structures in whole tumor sections of 154 human cutaneous melanoma samples (53 primary tumors without subsequent metastasis, 44 primary tumors with metastasis, 57 metastatic samples) obtained by seven color multiplex immunohistochemistry and automated tissue imaging and analysis.

Results: In primary melanomas, we observed the highest numbers for plasmablast-like, memory-like, and activated B cell subtypes. These cells showed a patchy, predominant paratumoral distribution at the invasive tumor-stroma margin. Plasma cell-like cells were hardly detected, germinal center- and transitional/regulatory-like B cells not at all. Of the major clinicopathologic prognostic factors for primary melanomas, metastasis was associated with decreased memory-like B cell numbers and a higher age associated with higher plasmablast-like cell numbers. When we compared the composition of B cell subpopulations in primary melanomas and metastatic samples, we found a significantly higher proportion of plasma cell-like cells at distant metastatic sites and a higher proportion of memory-like B cells at locoregional than distant metastatic sites. Both cell types were detected mainly in the para- and intratumoral stroma.

Conclusion: These data provide a first comprehensive and comparative spatiotemporal analysis of major B cell and antibody secreting cell subpopulations in human melanoma and describe metastasis-, tumor stage-, and age-associated dynamics, an important premise for B cell-related biomarker and therapy studies.

Immune Checkpoints in Pediatric Solid Tumors: Targetable Pathways for Advanced Therapeutic Purposes

The tumor microenvironment (TME) represents a complex network between tumor cells and a variety of components including immune, stromal and vascular endothelial cells as well as the extracellular matrix. A wide panel of signals and interactions here take place, resulting in a bi-directional modulation of cellular functions. Many stimuli, on one hand, induce tumor growth and the spread of metastatic cells and, on the other hand, contribute to the establishment of an immunosuppressive environment. The latter feature is achieved by soothing immune effector cells, mainly cytotoxic T lymphocytes and B and NK cells, and/or through expansion of regulatory cell populations, including regulatory T and B cells, tumor-associated macrophages and myeloid-derived suppressor cells. In this context, immune checkpoints (IC) are key players in the control of T cell activation and anti-cancer activities, leading to the inhibition of tumor cell lysis and of pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Thus, these pathways represent promising targets for the development of effective and innovative therapies both in adults and children. Here, we address the role of different cell populations homing the TME and of well-known and recently characterized IC in the context of pediatric solid tumors. We also discuss preclinical and clinical data available using IC inhibitors alone, in combination with each other or administered with standard therapies.

Melanoma of the Nail Apparatus: An Analysis of Patients' Survival and Associated Factors

BACKGROUND

There are no proper management guidelines for nail apparatus melanoma (NAM).

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to describe the clinical features, the presence of locoregional and distant metastases and disease-free and overall survival of NAM treated at our institution.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort review of patients with single, primary localized histopathologically confirmed NAM was performed. Collected data consisted of patients' characteristics and tumor features. In addition, local recurrence, locoregional metastases, distant metastases, disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) were used as the main outcomes in our analysis.

RESULTS

Thirty patients with NAM were included. The overall survival (OS) in our patients at 5 and 10 years was 85.6 and 73.4%, respectively. DFS was significantly higher in patients with primary tumor location in the hand and without tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (p value = 0.01 and 0.04, respectively). The patients with in situ melanoma or Breslow thickness <1 mm had a significantly higher chance of DFS and OS (90.0 and 94.1% at 5 years, respectively) than those with thicker NAM (58.3 and 55.6% at 5 years, respectively). A total of 53.3% of 30 patients underwent primary excision and covering with a full-thickness skin graft, while 13.3% of our 30 patients underwent digit amputation. The patients who underwent excision and covering with a full-thickness skin graft showed a complete overall survival (100% at 5 years).

CONCLUSION

Primary tumor location in the hand and lower tumor thickness might be correlated with better patients' survival. The study results suggest that total amputation might not be necessary in all NAM cases.