Inositol tetrakisphosphate liberates stored Ca2+ in Xenopus oocytes and facilitates responses to inositol trisphosphate

Endogenous transport systems in the Xenopus laevis oocyte plasma membrane

Oocytes of the South African clawed frog Xenopus laevis are widely used as a heterologous expression system for the characterization of transport systems such as passive and active membrane transporters, receptors and a whole plethora of other membrane proteins originally derived from animal or plant tissues. The large size of the oocytes and the high degree of expression of exogenous mRNA or cDNA makes them an optimal tool, when compared with other expression systems such as yeast, Escherichia coli or eukaryotic cell lines, for the expression and functional characterization of membrane proteins. This easy to handle expression system is becoming increasingly attractive for pharmacological research. Commercially available automated systems that microinject mRNA into the oocytes and perform electrophysiological measurements fully automatically allow for a mass screening of new computer designed drugs to target membrane transport proteins. Yet, the oocytes possess a large variety of endogenous membrane transporters and it is absolutely mandatory to distinguish the endogenous transporters from the heterologous, expressed transport systems. Here, we review briefly the endogenous membrane transport systems of the oocytes.

Endoplasmic reticulum is a key organella in bradykinin-triggered ATP release from cultured smooth muscle cells

ATP has broad functions as an autocrine/paracrine molecule. The mode of ATP release and its intracellular source, however, are little understood. Here we show that bradykinin via B(2)-receptor stimulation induces the extracellular release of ATP via the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate [Ins(1,4,5)P(3)]-signaling pathway in cultured taenia coli smooth muscle cells. It was found that bradykinin also increased the production of Ins(1,4,5)P(3) and 2-APB-inhibitable [Ca(2+)](i). The evoked release of ATP was suppressed by the Ca(2+)-channel blockers, nifedipine, and verapamil. Moreover, the extracellular release of ATP was elicited by photoliberation of Ins(1,4,5)P(3). Bradykinin caused a quick and transient accumulation of intracellular ATP from cells treated with 1% perchloric acid solution (PCA), but not with the cell lysis buffer. Peak accumulation was prevented by 2-APB and thapsigargin, but not by nifedipine or verapamil, inhibitors of extracellular release of ATP. These findings suggest that bradykinin elicits the extracellular release of ATP that is mediated by the Ins(1,4,5)P(3)-induced Ca(2+) signaling and, finally, leads to a Ca(2+)-dependent export of ATP from the cells. Furthermore, the bradykinin-induced transient accumulation of ATP in the cells treated with PCA may imply a possible release of ATP from the endoplasmic reticulum.

Simulations of inositol phosphate metabolism and its interaction with InsP(3)-mediated calcium release

Inositol phosphates function as second messengers for a variety of extracellular signals. Ins(1,4,5)P(3) generated by phospholipase C-mediated hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate, triggers numerous cellular processes by regulating calcium release from internal stores. The Ins(1,4,5)P(3) signal is coupled to a complex metabolic cascade involving a series of phosphatases and kinases. These enzymes generate a range of inositol phosphate derivatives, many of which have signaling roles of their own. We have integrated published biochemical data to build a mass action model for InsP(3) metabolism. The model includes most inositol phosphates that are currently known to interact with each other. We have used this model to study the effects of a G-protein coupled receptor stimulus that activates phospholipase C on the inositol phosphates. We have also monitored how the metabolic cascade interacts with Ins(1,4,5)P(3)-mediated calcium release. We find temporal dynamics of most inositol phosphates to be strongly influenced by the elaborate networking. We also show that Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4) plays a key role in InsP(3) dynamics and allows for paired pulse facilitation of calcium release. Calcium oscillations produce oscillatory responses in parts of the metabolic network and are in turn temporally modulated by the metabolism of InsP(3).

Neuronal Ca2+ -activated Cl- channels--homing in on an elusive channel species

Ca2+ -activated Cl- channels control electrical excitability in various peripheral and central populations of neurons. Ca2+ influx through voltage-gated or ligand-operated channels, as well as Ca2+ release from intracellular stores, have been shown to induce substantial Cl- conductances that determine the response to synaptic input, spike rate, and the receptor current of various kinds of neurons. In some neurons, Ca2+ -activated Cl- channels are localized in the dendritic membrane, and their contribution to signal processing depends on the local Cl- equilibrium potential which may differ considerably from those at the membranes of somata and axons. In olfactory sensory neurons, the channels are expressed in ciliary processes of dendritic endings where they serve to amplify the odor-induced receptor current. Recent biophysical studies of signal transduction in olfactory sensory neurons have yielded some insight into the functional properties of Ca2+ -activated Cl- channels expressed in the chemosensory membrane of these cells. Ion selectivity, channel conductance, and Ca2+ sensitivity have been investigated, and the role of the channels in the generation of receptor currents is well understood. However, further investigation of neuronal Ca2+ -activated Cl- channels will require information about the molecular structure of the channel protein, the regulation of channel activity by cellular signaling pathways, as well as the distribution of channels in different compartments of the neuron. To understand the physiological role of these channels it is also important to know the Cl- equilibrium potential in cells or in distinct cell compartments that express Ca2+ -activated Cl- channels. The state of knowledge about most of these aspects is considerably more advanced in non-neuronal cells, in particular in epithelia and smooth muscle. This review, therefore, collects results both from neuronal and from non-neuronal cells with the intent of facilitating research into Ca2+ -activated Cl- channels and their physiological functions in neurons.

Inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate enhances long-term potentiation by regulating Ca2+ entry in rat hippocampus

1. The effect of inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate (InsP4) on long-term potentiation (LTP) was investigated in the CA1 region of rat hippocampal slices. Intracellular application of InsP4 and EPSP recordings were carried out using the whole-cell configuration. 2. Induction of LTP in the presence of InsP4 (100 microM) resulted in a substantial enhancement of the LTP magnitude compared with control potentiation. Using an intrapipette perfusion system, it was established that application of InsP4 was required during induction of potentiation for this enhancement to occur. An enhancement of LTP was not observed if a non-metabolizable inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) analogue (2,3-dideoxy-1,4,5-trisphosphate, 100 microM) was applied intracellularly. 3. Current-voltage relations of NMDA receptor-mediated EPSCs were not altered by InsP4 application. The presence of InsP4 was slightly effective in relieving a D-(-)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (D-APV)-induced block of LTP. 4. The peak current amplitude of voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) was increased by InsP4. omega-Conotoxin GVIA inhibited the InsP4-induced LTP facilitation. 5. These data indicate that InsP4 can modify the extracellular Ca2+ entry through upregulation of VGCCs, which may in turn contribute to the observed enhancement of LTP induced by InsP4. 6. To investigate the possible involvement of intracellular Ca2+ release in the facilitatory effect of InsP4 on LTP, different inhibitors of the endoplasmic reticulum-dependent Ca2+ release were applied (heparin, ryanodine, cyclopiazonic acid). The results suggest that InsP4 activates postsynaptic InsP3-dependent Ca2+ release which normally does not contribute to the calcium-induced calcium release-dependent LTP.

Reversible Ca gradients between the subplasmalemma and cytosol differentially activate Ca-dependent Cl currents

Xenopus oocytes express several different Ca-activated Cl currents that have different waveforms and biophysical properties. We compared the stimulation of Ca-activated Cl currents measured by two-microelectrode voltage clamp with the Ca transients measured in the same cell by confocal microscopy and Ca-sensitive fluorophores. The purpose was to determine how the amplitude and/or spatio-temporal features of the Ca signal might explain how these different Cl currents were activated by Ca. Because Ca release from stores was voltage independent, whereas Ca influx depended upon the electrochemical driving force, we were able to separately assess the contribution of Ca from these two sources. We were surprised to find that Ca signals measured with a cytosolic Ca-sensitive dye, dextran-conjugated Ca-green-1, correlated poorly with Cl currents. This suggested that Cl channels located at the plasma membrane and the Ca-sensitive dye located in the bulk cytosol were sensing different [Ca]. This was true despite Ca measurement in a confocal slice very close to the plasma membrane. In contrast, a membrane-targeted Ca-sensitive dye (Ca-green-C18) reported a Ca signal that correlated much more closely with the Cl currents. We hypothesize that very local, transient, reversible Ca gradients develop between the subplasmalemmal space and the bulk cytosol. [Ca] is higher near the plasma membrane when Ca is provided by Ca influx, whereas the gradient is reversed when Ca is released from stores, because Ca efflux across the plasma membrane is faster than diffusion of Ca from the bulk cytosol to the subplasmalemmal space. Because dissipation of the gradients is accelerated by inhibition of Ca sequestration into the endoplasmic reticulum with thapsigargin, we conclude that [Ca] in the bulk cytosol declines slowly partly due to futile recycling of Ca through the endoplasmic reticulum.

Dynamics of calcium regulation of chloride currents in Xenopus oocytes

Ca-activated Cl currents are widely expressed in many cell types and play diverse and important physiological roles. The Xenopus oocyte is a good model system for studying the regulation of these currents. We previously showed that inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) injection into Xenopus oocytes rapidly elicits a noninactivating outward Cl current (ICl1-S) followed several minutes later by the development of slow inward (ICl2) and transient outward (ICl1-T) Cl currents. In this paper, we investigate whether these three currents are mediated by the same or different Cl channels. Outward Cl currents were more sensitive to Ca than inward Cl currents, as shown by injection of different amounts of Ca or by Ca influx through a heterologously expressed ligand-gated Ca channel, the ionotropic glutamate receptor iGluR3. These data could be explained by two channels with different Ca affinities or one channel with a higher Ca affinity at depolarized potentials. To distinguish between these possibilities, we determined the anion selectivity of the three currents. The anion selectivity sequences for the three currents were the same (I > Br > Cl), but ICl1-S had an I-to-Cl permeability ratio more than twofold smaller than the other two currents. The different anion selectivities and instantaneous current-voltage relationships were consistent with at least two different channels mediating these currents. However, after consideration of possible errors, the hypothesis that a single type of Cl channel underlies the complex waveforms of the three different macroscopic Ca-activated Cl currents in Xenopus oocytes remains a viable alternative.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor expression in Xenopus oocytes stimulates inositol trisphosphate-dependent intracellular Ca2+ mobilization

The signal transduction pathway of the cloned human glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor was studied in voltage-clamped Xenopus oocytes. Binding of GLP-1(7-36)amide was associated with cAMP production, increased [Ca2+]i and activation of Ca2+-dependent Cl- current. The effect of GLP-1(7-36)amide reflects intracellular Ca2+ mobilization and was suppressed by injection of the Ca2+ chelator BAPTA and the inositol trisphosphate receptor antagonist heparin. The responses were not mimicked by the adenylate cyclase activator forskolin and unaffected by the protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor Rp-cAMPS. We conclude that GLP-1 receptor expression in Xenopus oocytes evokes inositol trisphosphate-dependent intracellular Ca2+ mobilization independent of the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway.

Metabolism of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate by the oocytes of Xenopus laevis

The pathway and kinetics of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) metabolism were measured in Xenopus laevis oocytes and cytoplasmic extracts of oocytes. Degradation of microinjected IP3 in intact oocytes was similar to that in the extracts containing comparable concentrations of IP3 ([IP3]). The rate and route of metabolism of IP3 depended on the [IP3] and the intracellular free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]). At low [IP3] (100 nM) and high [Ca2+] (>/=1 microM), IP3 was metabolized predominantly by inositol 1,4, 5-trisphosphate 3-kinase (3-kinase) with a half-life of 60 s. As the [IP3] was increased, inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase (5-phosphatase) degraded progressively more IP3. At a [IP3] of 8 microM or greater, the dephosphorylation of IP3 was the dominant mode of IP3 removal irrespective of the [Ca2+]. At low [IP3] and low [Ca2+] (both </=400 nM), the activities of the 5-phosphatase and 3-kinase were comparable. The calculated range of action of IP3 in the oocyte was approximately 300 micron suggesting that IP3 acts as a global messenger in oocytes. In contrast to IP3, inositol 1,3,4, 5-tetrakisphosphate (IP4) was metabolized very slowly. The half-life of IP4 (100 nM) was 30 min and independent of the [Ca2+]. IP4 may act to sustain Ca2+ signals initiated by IP3. The half-life of both IP3 and IP4 in Xenopus oocytes was an order of magnitude or greater than that in small mammalian cells.

Rapid kinetic measurements of 45Ca2+ mobilization reveal that Ins(2,4,5)P3 is a partial agonist at hepatic InsP3 receptors

Ins(2,4,5)P3, a metabolically stable analogue of Ins(1,4,5)P3, is widely used in analyses of Ca2+ signalling pathways, but its utility depends upon it faithfully mimicking the effects of the natural messenger, Ins(1,4,5)P3, at InsP3 receptors. To compare the kinetics of InsP3-evoked 45Ca2+ mobilization, Ins(1,4,5)P3- and Ins(2,4,5)P3-stimulated 45Ca2+ release from the intracellular stores of permeabilized rat hepatocytes was measured using rapid superfusion. Both Ins(1,4,5)P3 and Ins(2,4,5)P3 caused concentration-dependent increases in the rate of 45Ca2+ efflux, which accelerated towards a peak and then abruptly switched to a bi-exponentially decaying release rate. However, the peak rate of 45Ca2+ mobilization evoked by maximal concentrations of Ins(2,4,5)P3 was only 65+/-3% (n = 3) of that evoked by Ins(1,4,5)P3. Furthermore, Ins(2,4,5)P3 inhibited the peak rate of 45Ca2+ efflux evoked by Ins(1,4,5)P3. These results indicate that Ins(2,4,5)P3 is a partial agonist at hepatic Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptors. Additionally, responses to Ins(2,4,5)P3 were less positively cooperative [Hill coefficient (h) = 1.9+/-0.3] than were those to Ins(1,4,5)P3 (h = 3.0+/-0.2) and the kinetics of termination of 45Ca2+ mobilization were slower. The lesser efficacy of Ins(2,4,5)P3 may account for the lower cooperativity in the responses it evokes, the slower inactivation of InsP3 receptors and the characteristic patterns of Ca2+ spiking it evokes in intact cells.

The effect of PPADS as an antagonist of inositol (1,4,5)trisphosphate induced intracellular calcium mobilization

1. Brain capillary endothelial cells responded to uridine 5'-triphosphate (UTP) and adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) by activation of phospholipase C and by large changes in [Ca2+]i. These cells expressed mRNA sequences identical to the sequence of the P2Y2-purinoceptor of rat pituitaries. 2. Pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulphonic acid (PPADS) at 100 microM did not prevent UTP and ATP induced accumulations of total [3H]-inositol (poly)phosphates. It inhibited UTP and ATP induced intracellular Ca2+ mobilization (IC50 = 30 microM) by non competitive mechanism. 3. PPADS (100 microM) inhibited endothelin-1 induced accumulation of total [3H]-inositol (poly)phosphates by less than 20% and prevented most of endothelin-1 induced intracellular Ca2+ mobilization (IC50 = 30 microM). 4. PPADS (100 microM) had no action on ionomycin induced intracellular Ca2+ mobilization. 5. Microinjection of inositol (1,4,5)trisphosphate (InsP3) into Xenopus oocytes induced large Ca2+ activated Cl- currents that were prevented by heparin and by PPADS. 6. It is concluded that PPADS does not recognize rat P2Y2-purinoceptors and prevents UTP and ATP induced intracellular Ca2+ mobilization by a non-specific mechanism that could involve the inhibition of InsP3 channels.

Synergistic effects of inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate on inositol 2,4,5-triphosphate-stimulated Ca2+ release do not involve direct interaction of inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate with inositol triphosphate-binding sites

We have previously found that for permeabilized L1210 cells, low micromolar concentrations of Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 added prior to Ins(2,4,5)P3 enhance the effects of suboptimal concentrations of Ins(2,4,5)P3 in causing Ca2+ release from InsP3-sensitive Ca2+ stores [Cullen, Irvine and Dawson (1990) Biochem J. 271, 549-553]. If this was due either to some conversion of added Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 into Ins(1,4,5)P3 by the 3-phosphatase, or to Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 acting as a weak (or partial) agonist on the InsP3 receptor it would be expected that,in the presence of thimerosal to sensitize the InsP3 receptor, the dose-response curve to Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 would be left-shifted by the same extent as that of Ins(1,4,5)P3. This was found not to be the case; the dose-response curve to Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 was not shifted at all by thimerosal. Furthermore, L-Ins(1,3,4,5)P4, which can displace radiolabelled D-Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 but not D-Ins(1,4,5)P3 from their respective high-affinity binding sites, mimicked the effects of D-Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 in enhancing the slow phase of Ins(2,4,5)P3-stimulated Ca2+ release. Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 caused an increase in magnitude of the slow phase of InsP3-stimulated Ca2+ release leaving the magnitude of the fast phase unaltered, in contrast to increasing Ins(2,4,5)P3 concentrations which increased the size of both phases. In addition, Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 decreased the rate constant for the slow phase of Ca2+ release. These findings point strongly to the conclusion that InsP4 is not working directly via the InsP3 receptor but indirectly via an InsP4 receptor.

Modulation of GABAA receptor function by G protein-coupled 5-HT2C receptors

Two classical neurotransmitters, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and GABA, coexist in neurons of the medulla oblongata, and activation of 5-HT receptors modulates GABAA receptor function in neurons of the ventral tegmental area, substantia nigra and cerebellum. We now report that activation of 5-HT2C receptors produces a long-lasting (20-90 min) inhibition of GABAA receptors in Xenopus oocytes coexpressing both types of receptors 5-HT2C receptors caused a approximately 60% decrease in the GABAA receptor Emax without affecting the EC50 or Hill coefficient. Intracellular microinjection of 500 microM BAPTA blocked, whereas microinjection of inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate mimicked the inhibitory action of 5-HT2C receptors. The inhibition was independent of the GABAA receptors subunit composition; receptors containing alpha 2 beta 1, alpha 1 beta 1 gamma 2L, and alpha 2 beta 1 gamma 2S were inhibited to the same extent by 5-HT2C receptor activation. Moreover, GABAA receptors composed of wild-type alpha 2 plus mutant beta 1(S409A) subunits were inhibited to the same extent as wild-type receptors. The nonspecific protein kinase inhibitor, staurosporine, and the inhibitor of serine/threonine protein phosphatases, calyculin A, did not block the inhibitory effects of 5-HT2C receptors. The results with these inhibitors, taken together with those obtained with GABAA receptors with different subunit compositions, suggest that protein kinases or serine/threonine phosphatases are not involved in this GABAA receptor modulatory process. Thus, we propose that 5-HT2C receptors inhibit GABAA receptors by a Ca(2+)-dependent, but phosphorylation independent, mechanism and that 5-HT and GABA may act as cotransmitters to regulate neuronal activity. Furthermore, disruption of the cross-talk between these receptors may play a role in the anti-anxiety actions of 5-HT2 receptor antagonists.

The role of inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate in internal Ca2+ mobilization following histamine H1 receptor stimulation in DDT1 MF-2 cells

Receptor-activated formation of inositol phosphates results in mobilization of intracellular stored Ca2+ in a variety of cells, including vas deferens derived DDT1 MF-2 cells. Stimulation of the histamine H1 receptor on these cells caused a pronounced formation of inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate (Ins(1,3,4,5)P4) with respect to that of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins(1,4,5)P3). In this study, the role of inositol phosphates, in particular Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 on the internal Ca(2+)-releasing process was investigated in permeabilized and histamine-stimulated intact DDT1 MF-2 cells. In permeabilized cells. Ins(1,4,5)P3 induced a concentration-dependent release of intracellular stored Ca2+. Addition of Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 did not cause Ca2+ mobilization, but its presence enhanced the amount of Ca2+ released by Ins(1,4,5)P3, thereby increasing the total Ca(2+)-releasing capacity. The effect of both inositol phosphates was inhibited by heparin, known to block Ins(1,4,5)P3-sensitive receptors. Thus, the additional amount of Ca2+ released by Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 is mediated, either via Ins(1,4,5)P3-sensitive Ca2+ channels, or via different heparin-sensitive Ca2+ channels activated by both Ins(1,4,5)P3 and Ins(1,3,4,5)P4. Histamine H1 receptor stimulation in intact cells induced a Ca(2+)-dependent K+ current, representing Ca2+ release from internal stores if receptor-activated Ca2+ entry from the extracellular space was prevented under Ca(2+)-free conditions or in the presence of La3+. This transmembrane current was abolished in the presence of intracellularly applied heparin. Depletion of Ins(1,4,5)P3-sensitive Ca2+ stores by internal application of Ins(1,4,5)P3 reduced the histamine evoked K+ current to some extent if the contribution of external Ca2+ was excluded.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Overexpression of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate 3-kinase in Xenopus oocytes inhibits agonist-evoked capacitative calcium entry

Ins(1,4,5)P3 3-kinase is a key enzyme in the regulation of Ins(1,4,5)P3. Overexpression of Ins(1,4,5)P3 3-kinase inhibited agonist-evoked and Ins(1,3,4,5)P4-evoked Ca2+ entry in Xenopus oocytes, but did not inhibit Ca2+ entry evoked by thapsigargin or non-metabolizable Ins(1,4,5)P3 analogues. The data suggest that Ins(1,4,5)P3 alone plays the crucial role in the activation of capacitative Ca2+ entry by emptying intracellular stores.

Inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate-gated channels interact with inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-gated channels in olfactory receptor neurons

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate [InsP3(1,4,5)] is a major second messenger regulating Ca2+ signaling in excitable and nonexcitable cells. InsP3(1,4,5) is extensively metabolized through a network of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation steps to products with potential second messenger function. Inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate [InsP4(1,3,4,5)], the direct metabolite of InsP3(1,4,5), has also been associated with Ca2+ signaling, but whether InsP4(1,3,4,5) acts in combination with InsP3(1,4,5) or whether it regulates Ca2+ signaling directly and independently is unclear, particularly in neurons. We report that olfactory receptor neurons in the lobster (Panulirus argus) express an InsP4(1,3,4,5) receptor in the plasma membrane that is a functional channel. The channel differs in conductance, kinetics, and voltage sensitivity from two plasma membrane InsP3(1,4,5)-gated channels previously reported in these neurons. In close spatial proximity, the InsP4(1,3,4,5)-and InsP3(1,4,5)-gated channels interact reciprocally to alter the channels' open probabilities in what may be a novel mechanism for regulating Ca2+ entry in neurons.

Calcium mobilization by inositol phosphates and other intracellular messengers

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate [Ins(1,4,5)P(3)] is now widely recognized as a messenger controlling the release of calcium from intracellular stores. In oocytes, and also probably in excitable cells, another potential calcium-mobilizing messenger is cyclic ADP ribose, although there is as yet little evidence that its levels are regulated by hormones or other extracellular mediators. In addition to signaling intracellular calcium release, [Ins(1,4,5)P(3)] also regulates calcium entry across the plasma membrane, but not in a direct manner. Rather, the depletion of intracellular stores by the calcium-mobilizing action of [Ins (1,4,5)P(3)] initiates a process of retrograde signaling whereby the depleted stores generate or release a diffusible messenger that is believed to act on the plasma membrane. A phosphorylated metabolite of [Ins(1,4,5)P(3)], inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate [Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4)], has been proposed to modulate this process, but the literature is not consistent on this point. A recently proposed candidate for the retrograde messenger is an activity extracted from Jurkat cells termed CIF (calcium influx factor), which has many properties consistent with such a messenger. There is also evidence that a GTP-dependent process, possibly involving a small G protein, is involved in signaling calcium entry and may be involved in either the formation or action of the diffusible messenger for calcium entry.

Relation between intracellular Ca2+ signals and Ca(2+)-activated Cl- current in Xenopus oocytes

Activation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) signalling in Xenopus oocytes causes intracellular Ca2+ mobilization and thereby activates a Ca(2+)-dependent Cl- membrane conductance. Measurements of cytosolic Ca2+ levels using fluorescent indicators, however, revealed little correspondence with Cl- currents. Intracellular photorelease of InsP3 from a caged precursor evoked transient currents that peaked while the Ca(2+)-fluorescence signal was rising, and subsequently declined within a few seconds, even though the Ca2+ signal remained elevated much longer. Also, Cl- currents evoked by agonist activation showed transient spikes while a wave of Ca2+ liberation swept across the cell, but then decreased when the Ca2+ signal attained a maximal level. Thus, the Cl- current corresponded better to the rate of rise of intracellular free Ca2+, rather than to its steady state level. Experiments using paired flashes to photolyse caged InsP3 and caged Ca2+ indicated that this relationship did not arise through desensitization or inactivation of the Cl- conductance. Furthermore, fluorescence measurements made at different depths into the cell using a confocal microscope revealed no evidence that a rapid decline of local Ca2+ levels near the plasma membrane was responsible for the decay of Ca(2+)-activated Cl- current. Instead, Cl- channels may show an adaptive or incremental response to Ca2+, which is likely to be important for the encoding and transmission of information by Ca2+ spikes.

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors in Xenopus laevis oocytes: localization and modulation by Ca2+

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (InsP3R) in Xenopus laevis oocytes were localized and their regulation by Ca2+ was investigated. Antibodies raised against the C-terminal region of the mouse cerebellar InsP3R (cAb) cross-reacted with a 255 kD protein in Western blots of Xenopus microsomal membranes. Immunolocalization of this protein in cryosections of oocytes revealed diffuse staining of the cytoplasm, intense staining of the sub-plasma membrane region of the animal hemisphere, and punctate staining in association with the germinal vesicle. In the presence of 40 microM free Ca2+, isolated oocyte membranes exhibited a high affinity binding site for Ins 1,4,5-P3 (KD = 5nM) and a binding capacity of 450 fmol/mg protein. The specific binding capacity of oocyte membranes for [3H]-Ins 1,4,5-P3 increased as the level of free Ca2+ present in binding assays was raised from < 0.1 nM to 4.0 microM, with an apparent EC50 of 60 nM. Increasing the concentration of free Ba2+ failed to facilitate [3H]-Ins1,4,5-P3 binding. Other inositol phosphates competed for Ins1,4,5-P3 binding sites with approximate IC50 values of: Ins1,3,4,5-P4 = 79 nM, Ins2,4,5-P3 = 455 nM and L-Ins1,4,5-P3 = 20 microM. In addition, 150 micrograms/ml (approximately 12 microM) heparin displaced 50% of bound [3H]-Ins1,4,5-P3, whereas caffeine (10 mM) had little effect. Functional reconstitution of solubilized InsP3Rs into lipid bilayers revealed that Ca2+ was a necessary co-agonist for activation of the InsP3R. When InsP3 (5 microM) and Ca2+ (5 microM) were applied together, conductance steps were observed. InsP3 or Ca2+ alone had little effect. These results suggest that the subcellular organization of InsP3Rs and the facilitation of InsP3 binding and channel opening by Ca2+ contribute to the Ins1,4,5-P3-mediated Ca2+ spikes, waves, and oscillations observed in Xenopus oocytes.

Myo-inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate can independently mobilise intracellular calcium, via the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor: studies with myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-3-phosphorothioate and myo-inositol hexakisphosphate

Myo-inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate [Ins(1,3,4,5)P4] acts as a full agonist for Ca2+ release in saponin-permeabilised SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. Studies were conducted in the presence of myo-inositol hexakisphosphate (InsP6, 10 microM), to inhibit the Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4)-3-phosphatase catalysed back conversion of Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 to Ins(1,4,5)P3. HPLC analysis confirmed that Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 releases the entire content of Ins(1,4,5)P3-sensitive intracellular Ca2+ stores, independent of 3-phosphatase activity. Further we utilised racemic myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-3-phosphorothioate [DL-Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4)-3S], a novel intrinsically Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4)-3-phosphatase resistant Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 analogue. DL-Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4)-3S specifically displaced [3H]Ins(1,4,5)P3 from bovine adrenal cortex Ins(1,4,5)P3 binding sites (IC50 = 889 nM, compared to Ins(1,4,5)P3, IC50 = 4.4 nM and Ins(1,3,4,5)P4, IC50 = 152 nM). DL-Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4)-3S was a full agonist for Ca2+ release (EC50 = 4.7 microM), being 90- and 2-fold less potent than Ins(1,4,5)P3 and Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 (with InsP6), respectively. DL-Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4)-3S will be an important tool for identification of potentially exclusive Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 second messenger functions, since its resistance to 3-phosphatase action precludes the inconvenient artefact of steady state Ins(1,4,5)P3 generation.

Stereoselectivity of Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 recognition sites: implications for the mechanism of the Ins(1,3,4,5)P4-induced Ca2+ mobilization

Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 was able to mobilize the entire Ins(1,4,5)P3-sensitive intracellular Ca2+ store in saponin-permeabilized SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells in a concentration-dependent manner, yielding an EC50 value of 2.05 +/- 0.45 microM, compared with 0.14 +/- 0.03 microM for Ins(1,4,5)P3. However, L-Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 [= D-Ins(1,3,5,6)P4] failed to cause mobilization of intracellular Ca2+ at concentrations up to 100 microM. Binding studies using pig cerebellar membranes as a source of both Ins(1,4,5)P3/Ins(1,3,4,5)P4-specific binding sites have revealed a marked contrast in their stereospecificity requirements. Ins(1,4,5)P3-receptors from pig cerebella exhibited stringent stereospecificity, L-Ins(1,4,5)P3 and L-Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 were > 1000-fold weaker, whereas Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 (IC50 762 +/- 15 nM) was only about 40-fold weaker than D-Ins(1,4,5)P3 (IC50 20.7 +/- 9.7 nM) at displacing specific [3H]Ins(1,4,5)P3 binding from an apparently homogeneous Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptor population. In contrast, the Ins(1,3,4,5)P4-binding site exhibited poor stereoselectivity. Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 produced a biphasic displacement of specific [32P]Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 binding, with two-site analysis revealing KD values for high- and low-affinity sites of 2.1 +/- 0.5 nM and 918 +/- 161 nM respectively. L-Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 also produced a biphasic displacement of specific [32P]Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 binding which was less than 10-fold weaker than with D-Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 (IC50 values for the high- and low-affinity sites of 17.2 +/- 3.7 nM and 3010 +/- 542 nM respectively). Therefore, although L-Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 appears to be a high-affinity Ins(1,3,4,5)P4-binding-site ligand in pig cerebellum, it is a very weak agonist at the Ca(2+)-mobilizing receptors of permeabilized SH-SY5Y cells. We suggest that the ability of D-Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 to access intracellular Ca2+ stores may derive from specific interaction with the Ins(1,4,5)P3- and not the Ins(1,3,4,5)P4-receptor population.

Calcium mobilization is required for nuclear vesicle fusion in vitro: implications for membrane traffic and IP3 receptor function

We studied the fusion of nuclear vesicles bound to chromatin in Xenopus egg extracts. Fusion was inhibited by 5 mM BAPTA, a Ca2+ buffer that suppresses cytosolic [Ca2+] gradients. The BAPTA-inhibited step in fusion was biochemically distinct from, and occurred later than, the GTP gamma S-sensitive step mediated by the monomeric GTPase, ADP-ribosylation factor. Exogenous inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3), which triggers Ca2+ release from lumenal stores via IP3 receptors, stimulated fusion in the presence of BAPTA. This rescue was specific, because inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate had no effect. Heparin, a potent antagonist of IP3 receptors, independently blocked fusion in an IP3-reversible manner. We suggest that phosphoinositide signaling may regulate nuclear vesicle fusion.

Control of inositol polyphosphate-mediated calcium mobilization by arachidonic acid in pancreatic acinar cells of rats

1. The patch-clamp technique of whole-cell current recording was applied to single, enzymatically isolated, rat pancreatic acinar cells to investigate the current responses evoked by internal perfusion of inositol polyphosphates (InsPx). The InsPx were included in the solution filling the recording pipette and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins(1,4,5)P3; 10 microM) evoked transient current responses generally of less than 1 min duration, inositol 2,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins(2,4,5)P3; 10 microM) evoked smaller current transients while inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate (InsP4; 10 microM) evoked no detectable current response. However, in the presence (in external bathing solution) of the phospholipase A2 inhibitor 4-bromophenacyl bromide (4-BPB; 8 microM) all three of the InsPx now evoked prolonged current responses lasting for several minutes. The current responses to all three InsPx were abolished by inclusion of the Ca2+ chelator EGTA (5 mM) in the internal, pipette-filling solution indicating that the responses are calcium dependent and reflect the effect of the InsPx in increasing intracellular Ca2+. Inositol 1,3,4,5,6-pentophosphate (InsP5) induced no current response when tested up to 20 microM in the presence or absence of 4-BPB. 2. The potentiating effect of 4-BPB on the InsPx-induced current responses was not mimicked by application of arachidonic acid (AA) oxidation inhibitors; indomethacin (20 microM), nordihydroguaiaretic acid (20 microM) or proadifen (SKF525A, 100 microM). The effects of 4-BPB were countered however, by the inclusion of 2 microM AA in the external solution. The results suggest that the 4-BPB potentiates the response by inhibiting the activity of phospholipase A2, thereby reducing the formation of AA. 3. In the presence of 4-BPB (8 microM) the InsPx-evoked responses were dose dependent with an increase in both the amplitude and speed of onset with increasing concentrations. In the presence of 4-BPB InsP4 was as efficient as Ins(1,4,5)P3 both in terms of speed of onset and amplitude of responses; the efficacy and dissociation constant (Kd) for both of these InsPx were the same at 1 microM and 45 nM respectively. Ins(2,4,5)P3 was always less effective, with an efficacy and Kd of 10 microM and 750 nM respectively. 4. If 4-BPB was applied after the current responses evoked by the InsPx were over, or if guanosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) (GTP gamma S) was included in the recording pipette then the phospholipase inhibitor gave rise to an additional, prolonged, current response.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Confocal microfluorimetry of Ca2+ signals evoked in Xenopus oocytes by photoreleased inositol trisphosphate

1. The subcellular characteristics of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3)-induced Ca2+ liberation were studied in Xenopus oocytes by the use of confocal microfluorimetry to monitor Ca2+ signals from minutely localized region of the cell in response to photorelease of InsP3 from a caged precursor. 2. Photorelease of increasing amounts of InsP3 by progressively longer light flashes evoked transient Ca2+ responses that appeared abruptly at a certain threshold duration, and then grew steeply over a narrow range of flash durations to reach a maximum. Further lengthening of flash duration gave no increase in size of the Ca2+ signals, but their rate of rise continued to increase and their duration became longer. Simultaneous measurements of Ca(2+)-activated Cl- currents showed a slightly higher threshold than the Ca2+ signal, and a more graded dependence upon flash duration. 3. The threshold flash durations required to evoke Ca2+ and membrane current signals grew by more than 100-fold as the area of the oocyte exposed to photolysis light was reduced from a square of 140 microns to 5 microns. 4. Ca2+ signals evoked by photoreleased InsP3 began following a dose-dependent latency that was as long as several seconds with low intensity light, but shortened to about 50 ms at maximum intensity. The extrapolated minimum latency with infinite photorelease of InsP3 was about 30 ms. 5. InsP3-evoked membrane currents began 30 ms or longer after the corresponding Ca2+ signals, whereas currents evoked by photorelease of Ca2+ from a caged precursor began within 5 ms of the onset of the light flash. 6. No differences in duration of InsP3-evoked Ca2+ signals were apparent when the confocal measuring spot was positioned close to the plasma membrane or about 10 microns more deeply into the oocyte. At both locations the Ca2+ signals were more prolonged than the associated membrane current signals. 7. Ca2+ signals to a test light flash were suppressed for about 2 s following a conditioning suprathreshold flash, but recovered almost completely after 6 s. The associated membrane current signals were facilitated at short intervals, suppressed at intervals between 0.5 and 3 s, and subsequently recovered more slowly than the Ca2+ signals. 8. Photorelease of InsP3 during 30 s exposures of low intensity evoked trains of repetitive Ca2+ spikes. The overall amplitudes of these responses changed little with increasing in frequency, and became smaller and superimposed on a more sustained elevation of Ca2+.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Calcium signaling at fertilization

Calcium is well established as a second messenger in a diverse array of cell activities. Changes in intracellular Ca2+ activities range from localized releases to complex oscillations, which may encode specific cellular signals. The full variety of calcium responses is observed during the fertilization of different animal oocytes and eggs. Current research has focused on the cellular mechanisms that generate these Ca(2+)-activity changes.

Metabolism of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate in the taste organ of the channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus

1. The metabolism of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate was studied in the taste organ (barbel) of the channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. 2. Homogenates of epithelial barbel scrapings were incubated with [3H]-1,4,5-IP3, whose dephosphorylation or phosphorylation was assayed under first-order conditions by measuring the production of either [3H]-1,4-IP2 (representing the activity of IP3-5-phosphatase) or [3H]-1,3,4,5-IP4 (representing the activity of IP3-3-kinase). 3. Both enzymes were predominantly cytosolic, magnesium-dependent and maximally active at pH 6.4. For IP3-phosphatase, Km = 6 microM and Vmax = 10.5 nmol/min/mg. For IP3-kinase, Km = 0.23 microM and Vmax = 0.05 nmol/min/mg. 4. Neither enzyme was significantly affected by the presence of taste stimuli (amino acids), GTP gamma S, cAMP or phorbol esters. 5. In the presence of physiological levels of free calcium (0.05-12 microM) IP3-phosphatase was moderately activated whereas IP3-kinase was moderately inhibited. 6. IP3-phosphatase was moderately activated by Mn2+, unaffected by LiCl, and strongly inhibited by 2,3-diphosphoglycerate, Na-pyrophosphate, CdCl2, HgCl2, CuCl2, FeCl3 and ZnSO4 7. IP3-kinase was strongly activated by 2,3-diphosphoglycerate, Na-pyrophosphate, CdCl2, HgCl2, FeCl3 and LiCl and inhibited by ZnSO4 and Mn2+. 8. IP3-kinase was significantly activated in a calcium-dependent manner by exogenously-added phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin, and to a lesser extent by diacylglycerol. IP3-phosphatase was unaffected by exogenously-added lipids. 9. IP3-phosphatase may participate in taste transduction since calculations based on the first-order rate constant (6.9 sec-1) indicate that it is capable of dephosphorylating basal levels of IP3 with a half-life of 0.1 sec.

InsP3 and Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 act in synergy to stimulate influx of extracellular Ca2+ in Xenopus oocytes

To investigate the role of D-myo-inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate [Ins(1,3,4,5)P4] in the regulation of Ca2+ influx, we injected inositol phosphates into Xenopus oocytes and measured Ca(2+)-gated Cl- current to assay intracellular free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i). To assess Ca2+ influx, we removed extracellular Ca2+ or added the inorganic Ca2+ channel blocker Mn2+ to the extracellular bath and measured the resulting change in Cl- current. Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 did not cause Ca2+ influx when injected alone or when preceded by an injection of Ca2+. In contrast, Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 stimulated Ca2+ influx when injected after the poorly metabolized inositol trisphosphate (InsP3) analogues D-myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphorothioate [Ins(1,4,5)P3S3] or D-myo-inositol 2,4,5-trisphosphate [Ins(2,4,5)P3]. These results indicate that Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 is not sufficient to stimulate Ca2+ influx but acts in synergy with InsP3s to cause Ca2+ influx. We also studied the effect of Ca2+ influx on the immediate metabolism of D-myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate [Ins(1,4,5)P3] in single oocytes. Ca2+ influx shunted the metabolism of Ins(1,4,5)P3 toward the formation of Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 and away from D-myo-inositol 1,4-bisphosphate [Ins(1,4)P2]. These results suggest that there is a positive feedback regulatory mechanism in which Ca2+ influx stimulates Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 production and Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 stimulates further Ca2+ influx.

Inositol tetrakisphosphate as a second messenger: confusions, contradictions, and a potential resolution

The second messenger function of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) is now well-defined--it mobilizes Ca2+ from intracellular stores so that cystolic Ca2+ increases. However, the function of inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate (InsP4) has proved much more difficult to fathom, as it has been reported to exert a wide variety of effects in a collection of experimental systems. In this review, a proposed molecular mechanism for InsP4's actions is discussed; it is suggested that InsP4 is the second messenger that controls Ca2+ entry into cells, and that it does so by binding to a receptor which itself interacts, directly or indirectly, with the receptor for InsP3. It is proposed that this is InsP4's true physiological function, but the mechanism by which it exerts this function has led to confusing data concerning its action, and also to some misconceptions about how inositol phosphates control Ca2+ entry.

Structure and function of inositol trisphosphate receptors

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins(1,4,5)P3) is a soluble intracellular messenger formed rapidly after activation of a variety of cell-surface receptors that stimulate phosphoinositidase C activity. The initial response to Ins(1,4,5)P3 is a rapid Ca2+ efflux from nonmitochondrial intracellular stores which are probably specialized subcompartments of the endoplasmic reticulum, although their exact identities remain unknown. This initial response is followed by more complex Ca2+ signals: regenerative Ca2+ waves propagate across the cell, repetitive Ca2+ spikes occur, and stimulated Ca2+ entry across the plasma membrane contributes to the sustained Ca2+ signal. The mechanisms underlying these complex Ca2+ signals are unknown, although Ins(1,4,5)P3 is clearly involved. The intracellular receptor that mediates Ins(1,4,5)P3-stimulated Ca2+ mobilization has been purified and functionally reconstituted, and its amino acid sequence deduced from its cDNA sequence. These studies demonstrate that the Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptor has an integral Ca2+ channel separated from the Ins(1,4,5)P3 binding site by a long stretch of residues some of which form binding sites for allosteric regulators, and some of which are substrates for phosphorylation. In this review, we discuss the ligand recognition characteristics of Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptors, and their functional properties in their native environment and after purification, and we relate these properties to what is known of the structure of the receptor. In addition to regulation by Ins(1,4,5)P3, the Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptor is subject to many additional regulatory influences which include Ca2+, adenine nucleotides, pH and phosphorylation by protein kinases. Many of the functional and structural characteristics of the Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptor show striking similarities to another intracellular Ca2+ channel, the ryanodine receptor. These properties of the Ins(1,4,5)P3 are discussed, and their possible roles in contributing to the complex Ca2+ signals evoked by extracellular stimuli are considered.