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Bredendiek F, Parr MK. SFC-MS/MS for orthogonal separation of hydroxylated 17α-methyltestosterone isomers. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:717-725. [PMID: 38048816 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023]
Abstract
Because of their performance-enhancing effect, anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are often misused in sports. Nearly half of the adverse analytical findings (AAF) in 2022 doping controls are correlated to AAS misuse. Metabolites play a crucial role in the bioanalysis of endogenous and exogenous steroids. Therefore, one important field in antidoping research is the investigation on drug metabolizing and steroidogenic enzymes. The introduction of a hydroxy group is the most common reaction, which is catalyzed by cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes in phase-I metabolism. Analysis of AAS metabolites is commonly performed using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) systems. Laborious sample preparation and extended run times compared to liquid chromatography (tandem) mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods are usually correlated with this type of analysis. On the other hand, liquid chromatography (tandem) mass spectrometry (LC-MS[/MS]) methods have a lower separation efficiency than GC-MS methods. Both techniques lack selectivity for hydroxylated 17α-methyltestosterone metabolites. Therefore, as an orthogonal analytical approach, a supercritical fluid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method was developed to separate four hydroxy metabolites of 17α-methyltestosterone (2α-/2β-/4-/6β-hydroxy-17α-methyltestosterone). This project aimed to get a more in-depth look at the metabolization and analysis of 17α-methyltestosterone and its hydroxylated metabolites. The developed method revealed lower limits of quantitation between 0.6 and 6 ng/ml at an accuracy of 85-115% using a matrix matched calibration. An in vitro study with human liver microsomes shows 6β-hydroxy-17α-methyltestosterone as main metabolite (15.9%) as well as the metabolite 2β-hydroxy-17α-methyltestosterone (0.5%). The results show that the developed method is sensitive and robust. In addition, the method allows a previously missing discrimination of the hydroxylated metabolites in a short analysis time without prior, complex derivatizations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Bredendiek
- Institute of Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Core Facility BioSupraMol, Department of Biology, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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2
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Alizadeh-Ghodsi M, Owen KL, Townley SL, Zanker D, Rollin SP, Hanson AR, Shrestha R, Toubia J, Gargett T, Chernukhin I, Luu J, Cowley KJ, Clark A, Carroll JS, Simpson KJ, Winter JM, Lawrence MG, Butler LM, Risbridger GP, Thierry B, Taylor RA, Hickey TE, Parker BS, Tilley WD, Selth LA. Potent Stimulation of the Androgen Receptor Instigates a Viral Mimicry Response in Prostate Cancer. CANCER RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS 2022; 2:706-724. [PMID: 36923279 PMCID: PMC10010308 DOI: 10.1158/2767-9764.crc-21-0139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Inhibiting the androgen receptor (AR), a ligand-activated transcription factor, with androgen deprivation therapy is a standard-of-care treatment for metastatic prostate cancer. Paradoxically, activation of AR can also inhibit the growth of prostate cancer in some patients and experimental systems, but the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon are poorly understood. This study exploited a potent synthetic androgen, methyltestosterone (MeT), to investigate AR agonist-induced growth inhibition. MeT strongly inhibited growth of prostate cancer cells expressing AR, but not AR-negative models. Genes and pathways regulated by MeT were highly analogous to those regulated by DHT, although MeT induced a quantitatively greater androgenic response in prostate cancer cells. MeT potently downregulated DNA methyltransferases, leading to global DNA hypomethylation. These epigenomic changes were associated with dysregulation of transposable element expression, including upregulation of endogenous retrovirus (ERV) transcripts after sustained MeT treatment. Increased ERV expression led to accumulation of double-stranded RNA and a "viral mimicry" response characterized by activation of IFN signaling, upregulation of MHC class I molecules, and enhanced recognition of murine prostate cancer cells by CD8+ T cells. Positive associations between AR activity and ERVs/antiviral pathways were evident in patient transcriptomic data, supporting the clinical relevance of our findings. Collectively, our study reveals that the potent androgen MeT can increase the immunogenicity of prostate cancer cells via a viral mimicry response, a finding that has potential implications for the development of strategies to sensitize this cancer type to immunotherapies. Significance Our study demonstrates that potent androgen stimulation of prostate cancer cells can elicit a viral mimicry response, resulting in enhanced IFN signaling. This finding may have implications for the development of strategies to sensitize prostate cancer to immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammadreza Alizadeh-Ghodsi
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Freemasons Centre for Male Health and Wellbeing, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Katie L. Owen
- Cancer Evolution and Metastasis Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Scott L. Townley
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
- Freemasons Centre for Male Health and Wellbeing, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
| | - Damien Zanker
- Cancer Evolution and Metastasis Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Samuel P.G. Rollin
- Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
- Freemasons Centre for Male Health and Wellbeing, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
| | - Adrienne R. Hanson
- Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
- Freemasons Centre for Male Health and Wellbeing, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
| | - Raj Shrestha
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Freemasons Centre for Male Health and Wellbeing, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
| | - John Toubia
- Centre for Cancer Biology, University of South Australia and SA Pathology, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- ACRF Cancer Genomics Facility, Centre for Cancer Biology, SA Pathology and University of South Australia, Frome Road, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Tessa Gargett
- Centre for Cancer Biology, University of South Australia and SA Pathology, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Igor Chernukhin
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Jennii Luu
- Victorian Centre for Functional Genomics, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Karla J. Cowley
- Victorian Centre for Functional Genomics, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ashlee Clark
- Monash Partners Comprehensive Cancer Consortium, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute Cancer Program, Prostate Cancer Research Group, Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jason S. Carroll
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Kaylene J. Simpson
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Victorian Centre for Functional Genomics, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jean M. Winter
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Mitchell G. Lawrence
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Monash Partners Comprehensive Cancer Consortium, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute Cancer Program, Prostate Cancer Research Group, Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Cabrini Institute, Malvern, Victoria, Australia
- Melbourne Urological Research Alliance (MURAL), Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute Cancer Program, Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Lisa M. Butler
- South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Gail P. Risbridger
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Monash Partners Comprehensive Cancer Consortium, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute Cancer Program, Prostate Cancer Research Group, Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Cabrini Institute, Malvern, Victoria, Australia
- Melbourne Urological Research Alliance (MURAL), Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute Cancer Program, Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Benjamin Thierry
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio and Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Frome Road, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
| | - Renea A. Taylor
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Cabrini Institute, Malvern, Victoria, Australia
- Melbourne Urological Research Alliance (MURAL), Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute Cancer Program, Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Monash Partners Comprehensive Cancer Consortium, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute Cancer Program, Prostate Cancer Research Group, Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Theresa E. Hickey
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Belinda S. Parker
- Cancer Evolution and Metastasis Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Wayne D. Tilley
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Freemasons Centre for Male Health and Wellbeing, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Luke A. Selth
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
- Freemasons Centre for Male Health and Wellbeing, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
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Medaka embryos as a model for metabolism of anabolic steroids. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:1963-1974. [PMID: 35352155 PMCID: PMC9151555 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03284-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In anti-doping science, the knowledge of drug metabolism is a prerequisite to identify analytical targets for the detection of misused prohibited substances. As the most obvious way to study xenobiotic metabolism, the administration to human volunteers, faces ethical concerns, there is a need for model systems. In the present study, we investigated whether Oryzias latipes (medaka) embryos might be an alternative, non-animal test model to study human-like metabolism. In the present study, we exposed medaka embryos at the morula stage to the anabolic steroid metandienone (10 µM or 50 µM) for a period of 2 or 8 days. According to the fish embryo toxicity test (OECD test), we assessed the developmental status of the embryos. We further investigated metandienone metabolites by high-performance liquid chromatography- and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Medaka embryos produced three mono-hydroxylated and one reduced metabolite known from human biotransformation. Developmental malformations were observed for the exposition to 50 µM metandienone, while a significant elevation of the heart beat was also present in those individuals exposed to the lower dose for 8 days. The present study demonstrates that the medaka embryo represents a promising model to study human-like metabolism. Moreover, the judgement of developmental parameters of the fish embryos enables for the simultaneous assessment of toxicity.
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Loke S, de la Torre X, Iannone M, La Piana G, Schlörer N, Botrè F, Bureik M, Parr MK. Controlled administration of dehydrochloromethyltestosterone in humans: Urinary excretion and long-term detection of metabolites for anti-doping purpose. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2021; 214:105978. [PMID: 34418529 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Dehydrochloromethyltestosterone (DHCMT) is an anabolic-androgenic steroid that was developed by Jenapharm in the 1960s and was marketed as Oral Turinabol®. It is prohibited in sports at all times; nevertheless, there are several findings by anti-doping laboratories every year. New long-term metabolites have been proposed in 2011/12, which resulted in adverse analytical findings in retests of the Olympic games of 2008 and 2012. However, no controlled administration trial monitoring these long-term metabolites was reported until now. In this study, DHCMT (5 mg, p.o.) was administered to five healthy male volunteers and their urine samples were collected for a total of 60 days. The unconjugated and the glucuronidated fraction were analyzed separately by gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The formation of the described long-term metabolites was verified, and their excretion monitored in detail. Due to interindividual differences there were several varieties in the excretion profiles among the volunteers. The metabolite M3, which has a fully reduced A-ring and modified D-ring structure, was identified by comparison with reference material as 4α-chloro-17β-hydroxymethyl-17α-methyl-18-nor-5α-androstan-13-en-3α-ol. It was found to be suitable as long-term marker for the intake of DHCMT in four of the volunteers. In one of the volunteers, it was detectable for 45 days after single oral dose administration. However, in two of the volunteers M5 (already published as long-term metabolite in the 1990s) showed longer detection windows. In one volunteer M3 was undetectable but another metabolite, M2, was found as the longest detectable metabolite. The last sample clearly identified as positive was collected between 9.9 and 44.9 days. Furthermore, the metabolite epiM4 (partially reduced A-ring and a modified D-ring structure which is epimerized in position 17 compared to M3) was identified in the urine of all volunteers with the help of chemically synthesized reference as 4-chloro-17α-hydroxymethyl-17β-methyl-18-nor-androsta-4,13-dien-3β-ol. It may serve as additional confirmatory metabolite. It is highly recommended to screen for all known metabolites in both fractions, glucuronidated and unconjugated, to improve identification of cheating athletes. This study also offers some deeper insights into the metabolism of DHCMT and of 17α-methyl steroids in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Loke
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Königin-Luise-Straße 2+4, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
| | | | - Michele Iannone
- Laboratorio Antidoping FMSI, Largo Giulio Onesti 1, Rome, 00197, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe La Piana
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Königin-Luise-Straße 2+4, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Nils Schlörer
- Universität zu Köln, NMR facility, Department of Chemistry, Greinstraße 4, 50939, Cologne, Germany.
| | - Francesco Botrè
- Laboratorio Antidoping FMSI, Largo Giulio Onesti 1, Rome, 00197, Italy; REDs - Research and Expertise in antiDoping Sciences, ISSUL - Institute des Sciences du Sport, Université de Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Matthias Bureik
- Tianjin University, School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, 92 Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, China.
| | - Maria Kristina Parr
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Königin-Luise-Straße 2+4, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
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Abstract
The areas of application of modern bioanalytical chromatography–mass spectrometry are so extensive that any attempt to systematize them becomes subjective. It would be more correct to say that there is no such area of biology and medicine where chromatography–mass spectrometry would not find application. This article focuses on the areas of application of this technique that are either relatively new or insufficiently covered in recent reviews. State-of-the-art bioanalytical techniques have become multitargeted in terms of analytes and standardized in terms of matrices. The ability to detect trace concentrations of analytes in the presence of a huge number of biomatrix macrocomponents using chromatography–mass spectrometry is especially important for bioanalytical chemistry. In the target-oriented determination of persistent organic pollutants by chromatography–mass spectrometry, the main problem is the expansion of the list of analytes, including isomers. In the detection of exposures to unstable toxicants, the fragmented adducts of xenobiotics with biomolecules become target biomarkers along with hydrolytic metabolites. The exposome reflects the general exposure of a human being to total xenobiotics and the metabolic status reflects the physiological state of the body. Chromatography–mass spectrometry is a key technique in metabolomics. Metabolomics is currently used to solve the problems of clinical diagnostics and anti-doping control. Biological sample preparation procedures for instrumental analysis are being simplified and developed toward increasing versatility. Proteomic technologies with the use of various versions of mass spectrometry have found application in the development of new methods for diagnosing coronavirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. I. Savelieva
- Research Institute of Hygiene, Occupational Pathology, and Human Ecology, Federal Medical Biological Agency, 188663 pos. Kuz’molovskii, Vsevolozhskii region, Leningrad oblast Russia
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6
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Juvonen RO, Rauhamäki S, Kortet S, Niinivehmas S, Troberg J, Petsalo A, Huuskonen J, Raunio H, Finel M, Pentikäinen OT. Molecular Docking-Based Design and Development of a Highly Selective Probe Substrate for UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A10. Mol Pharm 2018; 15:923-933. [PMID: 29421866 PMCID: PMC6150735 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.7b00871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Intestinal and hepatic glucuronidation by the UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) greatly affect the bioavailability of phenolic compounds. UGT1A10 catalyzes glucuronidation reactions in the intestine, but not in the liver. Here, our aim was to develop selective, fluorescent substrates to easily elucidate UGT1A10 function. To this end, homology models were constructed and used to design new substrates, and subsequently, six novel C3-substituted (4-fluorophenyl, 4-hydroxyphenyl, 4-methoxyphenyl, 4-(dimethylamino)phenyl, 4-methylphenyl, or triazole) 7-hydroxycoumarin derivatives were synthesized from inexpensive starting materials. All tested compounds could be glucuronidated to nonfluorescent glucuronides by UGT1A10, four of them highly selectively by this enzyme. A new UGT1A10 mutant, 1A10-H210M, was prepared on the basis of the newly constructed model. Glucuronidation kinetics of the new compounds, in both wild-type and mutant UGT1A10 enzymes, revealed variable effects of the mutation. All six new C3-substituted 7-hydroxycoumarins were glucuronidated faster by human intestine than by liver microsomes, supporting the results obtained with recombinant UGTs. The most selective 4-(dimethylamino)phenyl and triazole C3-substituted 7-hydroxycoumarins could be very useful substrates in studying the function and expression of the human UGT1A10.
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Affiliation(s)
- Risto O Juvonen
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences , University of Eastern Finland , Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio , Finland
| | | | | | | | - Johanna Troberg
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy , University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 56, FI-00014 Helsinki , Finland
| | - Aleksanteri Petsalo
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences , University of Eastern Finland , Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio , Finland
| | | | - Hannu Raunio
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences , University of Eastern Finland , Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio , Finland
| | - Moshe Finel
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy , University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 56, FI-00014 Helsinki , Finland
| | - Olli T Pentikäinen
- Institute of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine , University of Turku , FI-20014 Turku , Finland
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Ambrosio G, de la Torre X, Mazzarino M, Parr MK, Botrè F. Effect of non-prohibited drugs on the phase II metabolic profile of morphine. An in vitro investigation for doping control purposes. Drug Test Anal 2018; 10:984-994. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2017] [Revised: 11/12/2017] [Accepted: 11/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriella Ambrosio
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Rome Italy
| | - Xavier de la Torre
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Rome Italy
| | - Monica Mazzarino
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Rome Italy
| | - Maria K. Parr
- Department of Biology Chemistry and Pharmacy; Freie Universität Berlin; Germany
| | - Francesco Botrè
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Rome Italy
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale; “Sapienza” Università di Roma; Rome Italy
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Kahma H, Filppula AM, Neuvonen M, Tarkiainen EK, Tornio A, Holmberg MT, Itkonen MK, Finel M, Neuvonen PJ, Niemi M, Backman JT. Clopidogrel Carboxylic Acid Glucuronidation is Mediated Mainly by UGT2B7, UGT2B4, and UGT2B17: Implications for Pharmacogenetics and Drug-Drug Interactions . Drug Metab Dispos 2017; 46:141-150. [PMID: 29138287 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.117.078162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The antiplatelet drug clopidogrel is metabolized to an acyl-β-d-glucuronide, which causes time-dependent inactivation of CYP2C8. Our aim was to characterize the UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzymes that are responsible for the formation of clopidogrel acyl-β-d-glucuronide. Kinetic analyses and targeted inhibition experiments were performed using pooled human liver and intestine microsomes (HLMs and HIMs, respectively) and selected human recombinant UGTs based on preliminary screening. The effects of relevant UGT polymorphisms on the pharmacokinetics of clopidogrel were evaluated in 106 healthy volunteers. UGT2B7 and UGT2B17 exhibited the greatest level of clopidogrel carboxylic acid glucuronidation activities, with a CLint,u of 2.42 and 2.82 µl⋅min-1⋅mg-1, respectively. Of other enzymes displaying activity (UGT1A3, UGT1A9, UGT1A10-H, and UGT2B4), UGT2B4 (CLint,u 0.51 µl⋅min-1⋅mg-1) was estimated to contribute significantly to the hepatic clearance. Nonselective UGT2B inhibitors strongly inhibited clopidogrel acyl-β-d-glucuronide formation in HLMs and HIMs. The UGT2B17 inhibitor imatinib and the UGT2B7 and UGT1A9 inhibitor mefenamic acid inhibited clopidogrel carboxylic acid glucuronidation in HIMs and HLMs, respectively. Incubation of clopidogrel carboxylic acid in HLMs with UDPGA and NADPH resulted in strong inhibition of CYP2C8 activity. In healthy volunteers, the UGT2B17*2 deletion allele was associated with a 10% decrease per copy in the plasma clopidogrel acyl-β-d-glucuronide to clopidogrel carboxylic acid area under the plasma concentration-time curve from 0 to 4 hours (AUC0-4) ratio (P < 0.05). To conclude, clopidogrel carboxylic acid is metabolized mainly by UGT2B7 and UGT2B4 in the liver and by UGT2B17 in the small intestinal wall. The formation of clopidogrel acyl-β-d-glucuronide is impaired in carriers of the UGT2B17 deletion. These findings may have implications regarding the intracellular mechanisms leading to CYP2C8 inactivation by clopidogrel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helinä Kahma
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, and Helsinki University Hospital (H.K., A.M.F., M.Ne., E.K.T., A.T., M.T.H., M.K.I., P.J.N., M.Ni., J.T.B.) and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki (M.F.), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anne M Filppula
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, and Helsinki University Hospital (H.K., A.M.F., M.Ne., E.K.T., A.T., M.T.H., M.K.I., P.J.N., M.Ni., J.T.B.) and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki (M.F.), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mikko Neuvonen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, and Helsinki University Hospital (H.K., A.M.F., M.Ne., E.K.T., A.T., M.T.H., M.K.I., P.J.N., M.Ni., J.T.B.) and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki (M.F.), Helsinki, Finland
| | - E Katriina Tarkiainen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, and Helsinki University Hospital (H.K., A.M.F., M.Ne., E.K.T., A.T., M.T.H., M.K.I., P.J.N., M.Ni., J.T.B.) and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki (M.F.), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Aleksi Tornio
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, and Helsinki University Hospital (H.K., A.M.F., M.Ne., E.K.T., A.T., M.T.H., M.K.I., P.J.N., M.Ni., J.T.B.) and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki (M.F.), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mikko T Holmberg
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, and Helsinki University Hospital (H.K., A.M.F., M.Ne., E.K.T., A.T., M.T.H., M.K.I., P.J.N., M.Ni., J.T.B.) and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki (M.F.), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Matti K Itkonen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, and Helsinki University Hospital (H.K., A.M.F., M.Ne., E.K.T., A.T., M.T.H., M.K.I., P.J.N., M.Ni., J.T.B.) and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki (M.F.), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Moshe Finel
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, and Helsinki University Hospital (H.K., A.M.F., M.Ne., E.K.T., A.T., M.T.H., M.K.I., P.J.N., M.Ni., J.T.B.) and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki (M.F.), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Pertti J Neuvonen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, and Helsinki University Hospital (H.K., A.M.F., M.Ne., E.K.T., A.T., M.T.H., M.K.I., P.J.N., M.Ni., J.T.B.) and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki (M.F.), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mikko Niemi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, and Helsinki University Hospital (H.K., A.M.F., M.Ne., E.K.T., A.T., M.T.H., M.K.I., P.J.N., M.Ni., J.T.B.) and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki (M.F.), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Janne T Backman
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, and Helsinki University Hospital (H.K., A.M.F., M.Ne., E.K.T., A.T., M.T.H., M.K.I., P.J.N., M.Ni., J.T.B.) and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki (M.F.), Helsinki, Finland
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9
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He G, Troberg J, Lv X, Xia YL, Zhu LL, Ning J, Ge GB, Finel M, Yang L. Identification and characterization of human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases responsible for xanthotoxol glucuronidation. Xenobiotica 2017; 48:109-116. [DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2017.1283719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Guiyuan He
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Resource Discovery, Biotechnology Department, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China,
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China,
| | - Johanna Troberg
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Finland, and
| | - Xia Lv
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Resource Discovery, Biotechnology Department, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China,
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China,
| | - Yang-Liu Xia
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Resource Discovery, Biotechnology Department, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China,
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China,
| | - Liang-Liang Zhu
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Resource Discovery, Biotechnology Department, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China,
| | - Jing Ning
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Resource Discovery, Biotechnology Department, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China,
| | - Guang-Bo Ge
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Resource Discovery, Biotechnology Department, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China,
| | - Moshe Finel
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Finland, and
| | - Ling Yang
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Resource Discovery, Biotechnology Department, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China,
- Centre for System Pharmacokinetics, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
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10
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Kanda T, Takahashi K, Nakamura M, Nakamoto S, Wu S, Haga Y, Sasaki R, Jiang X, Yokosuka O. Androgen Receptor Could Be a Potential Therapeutic Target in Patients with Advanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2017; 9:cancers9050043. [PMID: 28475115 PMCID: PMC5447953 DOI: 10.3390/cancers9050043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Revised: 05/02/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a male-dominant disease with poor prognosis. Sorafenib is the only approved systemic chemotherapeutic drug for patients with advanced HCC. Previous studies have shown that androgen and androgen receptor (AR) are involved in human hepatocarcinogenesis and the development of HCC. Here, we discuss the recent data on AR and HCC, and the combination of sorafenib and inhibitors of AR for advanced-HCC patients. Androgen-dependent and androgen-independent AR activation exist in human hepatocarcinogenesis. AR could directly control hepatocarcinogenesis and regulate the innate immune system to influence HCC progression. Combination of sorafenib with AR inhibitors might represent a potential treatment for patients with advanced HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuo Kanda
- Department of Gastroenterology and Nephrology, Chiba University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
| | - Koji Takahashi
- Department of Gastroenterology and Nephrology, Chiba University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
| | - Masato Nakamura
- Department of Gastroenterology and Nephrology, Chiba University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
| | - Shingo Nakamoto
- Department of Gastroenterology and Nephrology, Chiba University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
| | - Shuang Wu
- Department of Gastroenterology and Nephrology, Chiba University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
| | - Yuki Haga
- Department of Gastroenterology and Nephrology, Chiba University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
| | - Reina Sasaki
- Department of Gastroenterology and Nephrology, Chiba University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
| | - Xia Jiang
- Department of Gastroenterology and Nephrology, Chiba University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
- Department of General Surgery, The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Donggang Road No. 89, Shijiazhuang 050031, China.
| | - Osamu Yokosuka
- Department of Gastroenterology and Nephrology, Chiba University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
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11
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Troberg J, Järvinen E, Ge GB, Yang L, Finel M. UGT1A10 Is a High Activity and Important Extrahepatic Enzyme: Why Has Its Role in Intestinal Glucuronidation Been Frequently Underestimated? Mol Pharm 2016; 14:2875-2883. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.6b00852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Troberg
- Division
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Erkka Järvinen
- Division
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Guang-Bo Ge
- Laboratory
of Pharmaceutical Resource Discovery, Dalian Institute of Chemical
Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Ling Yang
- Laboratory
of Pharmaceutical Resource Discovery, Dalian Institute of Chemical
Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Moshe Finel
- Division
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Finland
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12
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Lu Y, Fang Y, Wu X, Ma C, Wang Y, Xu L. Effects of UGT1A9 genetic polymorphisms on monohydroxylated derivative of oxcarbazepine concentrations and oxcarbazepine monotherapeutic efficacy in Chinese patients with epilepsy. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2016; 73:307-315. [PMID: 27900402 DOI: 10.1007/s00228-016-2157-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
AIM The human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase which is genetically polymorphic catalyzes glucuronidations of various drugs. The interactions among UGT1A4, UGT1A6, UGT1A9, and UGT2B15 genetic polymorphisms, monohydroxylated derivative (MHD) of oxcarbazepine (OXC) plasma concentrations, and OXC monotherapeutic efficacy were explored in 124 Chinese patients with epilepsy receiving OXC monotherapy. METHOD MHD is the major active metabolite of OXC, and its plasma concentration was measured using high-performance liquid chromatography when patients reached their maintenance dose of OXC. Genomic DNA was extracted from whole blood and SNP genotyping performed using PCR followed by dideoxy chain termination sequencing. We followed the patients for at least 1 year to evaluate the OXC monotherapy efficacy. Patients were divided into two groups according to their therapeutic outcome: group 1, seizure free; group 2, not seizure free. The data were analyzed using T test, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), Kruskal-Wallis test, chi-square test, Fisher's exact test, correlation analysis, and multivariate regression analysis. RESULT T test analysis showed that MHD plasma concentrations were significantly different between the two groups (p = 0.002). One-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni post hoc testing of four candidate SNPs revealed that carriers of the UGT1A9 variant allele I399 C > T (TT 13.28 ± 7.44 mg/L, TC 16.41 ± 6.53 mg/L) had significantly lower MHD plasma concentrations and poorer seizure control than noncarriers (CC 22.24 ± 8.49 mg/L, p < 0.05). CONCLUSION In our study, we have demonstrated the effects of UGT1A9 genetic polymorphisms on MHD plasma concentrations and OXC therapeutic efficacy. Through MHD monitoring, we can predict OXC therapeutic efficacy, which may be useful for the personalization of OXC therapy in epileptic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Lu
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Youxin Fang
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xunyi Wu
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Chunlai Ma
- Department of Pharmacy, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Yue Wang
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lan Xu
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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13
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Ikushiro S, Nishikawa M, Masuyama Y, Shouji T, Fujii M, Hamada M, Nakajima N, Finel M, Yasuda K, Kamakura M, Sakaki T. Biosynthesis of Drug Glucuronide Metabolites in the Budding Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Pharm 2016; 13:2274-82. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.5b00954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shinichi Ikushiro
- Department
of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Toyama Prefectural University, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama 939-0398, Japan
| | - Miyu Nishikawa
- Department
of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Toyama Prefectural University, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama 939-0398, Japan
- Imizu
Institute, TOPU BIO RESEARCH Co., Ltd, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama 939-0398, Japan
| | - Yuuka Masuyama
- Department
of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Toyama Prefectural University, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama 939-0398, Japan
| | - Tadashi Shouji
- Department
of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Toyama Prefectural University, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama 939-0398, Japan
| | - Miharu Fujii
- Imizu
Institute, TOPU BIO RESEARCH Co., Ltd, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama 939-0398, Japan
| | - Masahiro Hamada
- Department
of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Toyama Prefectural University, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama 939-0398, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Nakajima
- Department
of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Toyama Prefectural University, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama 939-0398, Japan
| | - Moshe Finel
- Division
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kaori Yasuda
- Department
of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Toyama Prefectural University, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama 939-0398, Japan
| | - Masaki Kamakura
- Department
of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Toyama Prefectural University, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama 939-0398, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Sakaki
- Department
of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Toyama Prefectural University, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama 939-0398, Japan
- Imizu
Institute, TOPU BIO RESEARCH Co., Ltd, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama 939-0398, Japan
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14
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Methyl tetra-O-acetyl-α-D-glucopyranuronate: crystal structure and influence on the crystallisation of the β anomer. Carbohydr Res 2016; 425:35-9. [PMID: 27031190 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2016.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Revised: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Methyl tetra-O-acetyl-β-D-glucopyranuronate (1) and methyl tetra-O-acetyl-α-D-glucopyranuronate (3) were isolated as crystalline solids and their crystal structures were obtained. That of the β anomer (1) was the same as that reported by Root et al., while anomer (3) was found to crystallise in the orthorhombic space group P212121 with two independent molecules in the asymmetric unit. No other crystal forms were found for either compound upon recrystallisation from a range of solvents. The α anomer (3) was found to be an impurity in initially precipitated batches of β-anomer (1) in quantities <3%; however, it was possible to remove the α impurity either by recrystallisation or by efficient washing, i.e. the α anomer is not incorporated inside the β anomer crystals. The β anomer (1) was found to grow as prisms or needles elongated in the a crystallographic direction in the absence of the α impurity, while the presence of the α anomer (3) enhanced this elongation.
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15
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Palonek E, Ericsson M, Gårevik N, Rane A, Lehtihet M, Ekström L. Atypical excretion profile and GC/C/IRMS findings may last for nine months after a single dose of nandrolone decanoate. Steroids 2016; 108:105-11. [PMID: 26853157 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2016.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The use of the anabolic androgenic steroid nandrolone and its prohormones is prohibited in sport. A common route of nandrolone administration is intramuscular injections of a nandrolone ester. Here we have investigated the detection time of nandrolone and 19-norandrosterone and 19-noretiocholanolone metabolites in eleven healthy men after the administration of a 150 mg dose of nandrolone decanoate. The urinary concentrations of nandrolone and the metabolites were monitored by GC-MS/MS for nine months and in some samples the presence of 19-norandrosterone was confirmed by GC/C/IRMS analysis. The participants were genotyped for polymorphisms in PDE7B1 and UGT2B15 genes previously shown to influence the activation and inactivation of nandrolone decanoate. There were large inter-individual variations in the excretion rate of nandrolone and the metabolites, although not related to genetic variations in the UGT2B15 (rs1902023) and PDE7B1 (rs7774640) genes. After the administration, 19-norandrosterone was found at 2-8-fold higher concentrations than 19-noretiocholanolone. We showed that nandrolone doping can be identified 4 and 9 months after the injection of only one single dose in six and three individuals, respectively. We also noted that GC/C/IRMS confirms the presence of exogenous 19-norandrosterone in the urine samples, showing δ13 values around -32 ‰. This was true even in a sample that was not identified as an atypical finding after the GC-MS/MS analysis further showing the power of using GC/C/IRMS in routine anti-doping settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elzbieta Palonek
- Doping Control Laboratory, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska University Hospital, SE-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, SE-14186 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Magnus Ericsson
- Doping Control Laboratory, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska University Hospital, SE-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, SE-14186 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Nina Gårevik
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, SE-14186 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anders Rane
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, SE-14186 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mikael Lehtihet
- Department of Medicine/Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet and Centre for Andrology and Sexual Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital C2:84, SE 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lena Ekström
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, SE-14186 Stockholm, Sweden.
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16
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Geldof L, Lootens L, Decroix L, Botrè F, Meuleman P, Leroux-Roels G, Deventer K, Van Eenoo P. Metabolic studies of prostanozol with the uPA-SCID chimeric mouse model and human liver microsomes. Steroids 2016; 107:139-48. [PMID: 26774429 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2016.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Revised: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic androgenic steroids are prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency because of their adverse health and performance enhancing effects. Effective control of their misuse by detection in urine requires knowledge about their metabolism. In case of designer steroids, ethical objections limit the use of human volunteers to perform excretion studies. Therefore the suitability of alternative models needs to be investigated. In this study pooled human liver microsomes (HLM) and an uPA(+/+)-SCID chimeric mouse model were used to examine the metabolism of the designer steroid prostanozol as a reference standard. Metabolites were detected by GC-MS (full scan) and LC-MS/MS (precursor ion scan). In total twenty-four prostanozol metabolites were detected with the in vitro and in vivo metabolism studies, which could be grouped into two broad classes, those with a 17-hydroxy- and those with a 17-keto-substituent. Major first phase metabolic sites were tentatively identified as C-3'; C-4 and C-16. Moreover, 3'- and 16β-hydroxy-17-ketoprostanozol could be unequivocally identified, since authentic reference material was available, in both models. Comparison with published data from humans showed a good correlation, except for phase II metabolism. As metabolites were in contrast to the human studies predominantly present in the free fraction. Two types of metabolites ((di)hydroxylated prostanozol metabolites) that have not been described before could be confirmed in a real positive doping control sample. Hence, the results provide further evidence for the applicability of chimeric mice and HLM to perform metabolism studies of designer steroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lore Geldof
- Doping Control Laboratory (DoCoLab), Technologiepark 30 B, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium.
| | - Leen Lootens
- Doping Control Laboratory (DoCoLab), Technologiepark 30 B, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Lieselot Decroix
- Doping Control Laboratory (DoCoLab), Technologiepark 30 B, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Francesco Botrè
- Antidoping Lab, Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana (FMSI), Largo Giulio Onesti 1, I-00197 Rome, Italy
| | - Philip Meuleman
- Center for Vaccinology (CEVAC), Ghent University and Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Geert Leroux-Roels
- Center for Vaccinology (CEVAC), Ghent University and Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Koen Deventer
- Doping Control Laboratory (DoCoLab), Technologiepark 30 B, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Peter Van Eenoo
- Doping Control Laboratory (DoCoLab), Technologiepark 30 B, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
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17
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He G, Yang S, Lu J, Xu Y. New long term metabolite in human urine for metenolone misuse by liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Steroids 2016; 105:1-11. [PMID: 26519767 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2015.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Revised: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 10/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In this study, metenolone metabolic profiles were investigated. Metenolone was administered to one healthy male volunteer. Liquid-liquid extraction and direct-injection were applied to processing urine samples. Urinary extracts were analyzed by liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOFMS) using full scan and product ion scan with accurate mass measurement for the first time. Due to the lack of useful fragment ion for structural elucidation, GC-MS instrumentation was employed to obtain structural details of the trimethylsilylated phase I metabolite released after hydrolysis, and the EI mass spectrum was always informative in steroidal structure studies owing to more useful fragment ions than the ESI mass spectrum. 16 metabolites including 6 glucuronide and 9 unreported sulfate conjugates were characterized and tentatively identified. All the metabolites were evaluated in terms of how long they could be detected. The sulfate conjugate S6 (1-methylen-5α-androst-3,17-dione-2ξ-sulfate) was considered to be a new long term metabolite for metenolone misuse that could be detected 40 days by liquid-liquid extraction and up to 30 days by direct-injection analysis after oral administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genye He
- National Anti-doping Laboratory, China Anti-Doping Agency, 1st Anding Road, ChaoYang District, Beijing 100029, PR China; Sport Science College, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, PR China
| | - Sheng Yang
- National Anti-doping Laboratory, China Anti-Doping Agency, 1st Anding Road, ChaoYang District, Beijing 100029, PR China
| | - Jianghai Lu
- National Anti-doping Laboratory, China Anti-Doping Agency, 1st Anding Road, ChaoYang District, Beijing 100029, PR China.
| | - Youxuan Xu
- National Anti-doping Laboratory, China Anti-Doping Agency, 1st Anding Road, ChaoYang District, Beijing 100029, PR China.
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18
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Palermo A, Alessi B, Botrè F, de la Torre X, Fiacco I, Mazzarino M. In vitroevaluation of the effects of anti-fungals, benzodiazepines and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on the glucuronidation of 19-norandrosterone: implications on doping control analysis. Drug Test Anal 2015; 8:930-9. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Revised: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Amelia Palermo
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Largo Giulio Onesti, 1 00197 Rome Italy
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologia del Farmaco; ‘Sapienza’ Università di Roma; Piazzale Aldo Moro 5 00185 Rome Italy
| | - Beatrice Alessi
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Largo Giulio Onesti, 1 00197 Rome Italy
| | - Francesco Botrè
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Largo Giulio Onesti, 1 00197 Rome Italy
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale; ‘Sapienza’ Università di Roma; Viale Regina Elena 324 00161 Rome Italy
| | - Xavier de la Torre
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Largo Giulio Onesti, 1 00197 Rome Italy
| | - Ilaria Fiacco
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Largo Giulio Onesti, 1 00197 Rome Italy
| | - Monica Mazzarino
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Largo Giulio Onesti, 1 00197 Rome Italy
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19
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Baume N, Geyer H, Vouillamoz M, Grisdale R, Earl M, Aguilera R, Cowan DA, Ericsson M, Gmeiner G, Kwiatkowska D, Kioukia-Fougia N, Molina A, Ruivo J, Segura J, Van Eenoo P, Jan N, Robinson N, Saugy M. Evaluation of longitudinal steroid profiles from male football players in UEFA competitions between 2008 and 2013. Drug Test Anal 2015; 8:603-12. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2015] [Revised: 07/10/2015] [Accepted: 07/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Norbert Baume
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses; University Center of Legal Medicine, Geneva and Lausanne; Chemin des Croisettes 22 1066 Epalinges Switzerland
| | - Hans Geyer
- Institute of Biochemistry - Center for Preventive Doping Research; German Sport University Cologne; Cologne Germany
| | | | | | - Mike Earl
- Union of European Football Associations; Nyon Switzerland
| | - Rodrigo Aguilera
- Madrid Anti-Doping Laboratory; AEPSAD c/ El Greco, s/n Madrid 28040 Spain
| | - David A. Cowan
- Drug Control Centre; King's College London; Franklin-Wilkins Building London SE1 9NH United Kingdom
| | - Magnus Ericsson
- Doping Control Laboratory; Karolinska University Hospital; C2-66 Stockholm S-141 86 Sweden
| | | | - Dorota Kwiatkowska
- Department of Anti-Doping Research; Institute of Sport; Trylogii 2/16 Warsaw 01-982 Poland
| | | | - Adeline Molina
- Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD); Département des Analyses; 143 avenue Roger Salengro Châtenay-Malabry 92290 France
| | - João Ruivo
- Laboratório de Análises de Dopagem (LAD); Autoridade Antidopagem de Portugal (ADoP); Av. Professor Egas Moniz Lisboa 1600-190 Portugal
| | - Jordi Segura
- Fundació Institut Mar D'Investigacions Mèdiques (IMIM); c/ Doctor Aiguader, 88 Barcelona 08003 Spain
| | - Peter Van Eenoo
- Doping Control Laboratory; Ghent University (UGent); Technologiepark 30 9052 Zwijnaarde Belgium
| | - Nicolas Jan
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses; University Center of Legal Medicine, Geneva and Lausanne; Chemin des Croisettes 22 1066 Epalinges Switzerland
| | - Neil Robinson
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses; University Center of Legal Medicine, Geneva and Lausanne; Chemin des Croisettes 22 1066 Epalinges Switzerland
| | - Martial Saugy
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses; University Center of Legal Medicine, Geneva and Lausanne; Chemin des Croisettes 22 1066 Epalinges Switzerland
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20
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Kuuranne T, Saugy M, Baume N. Confounding factors and genetic polymorphism in the evaluation of individual steroid profiling. Br J Sports Med 2015; 48:848-55. [PMID: 24764553 PMCID: PMC4033181 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2014-093510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In the fight against doping, steroid profiling is a powerful tool to detect drug misuse with endogenous anabolic androgenic steroids. To establish sensitive and reliable models, the factors influencing profiling should be recognised. We performed an extensive literature review of the multiple factors that could influence the quantitative levels and ratios of endogenous steroids in urine matrix. For a comprehensive and scientific evaluation of the urinary steroid profile, it is necessary to define the target analytes as well as testosterone metabolism. The two main confounding factors, that is, endogenous and exogenous factors, are detailed to show the complex process of quantifying the steroid profile within WADA-accredited laboratories. Technical aspects are also discussed as they could have a significant impact on the steroid profile, and thus the steroid module of the athlete biological passport (ABP). The different factors impacting the major components of the steroid profile must be understood to ensure scientifically sound interpretation through the Bayesian model of the ABP. Not only should the statistical data be considered but also the experts in the field must be consulted for successful implementation of the steroidal module.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiia Kuuranne
- Doping Control Laboratory, United Medix Laboratories Ltd., , Helsinki, Finland
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21
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Troberg J, Järvinen E, Muniz M, Sneitz N, Mosorin J, Hagström M, Finel M. Dog UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase Enzymes of Subfamily 1A: Cloning, Expression, and Activity. Drug Metab Dispos 2014; 43:107-18. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.114.059303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
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22
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Greer AK, Dates CR, Starlard-Davenport A, Edavana VK, Bratton SM, Dhakal IB, Finel M, Kadlubar SA, Radominska-Pandya A. A potential role for human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A4 promoter single nucleotide polymorphisms in the pharmacogenomics of tamoxifen and its derivatives. Drug Metab Dispos 2014; 42:1392-400. [PMID: 24917585 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.114.058016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Tamoxifen (Tam) is a selective estrogen receptor modulator used to inhibit breast tumor growth. Tam can be directly N-glucuronidated via the tertiary amine group or O-glucuronidated after cytochrome P450-mediated hydroxylation. In this study, the glucuronidation of Tam and its hydroxylated and/or chlorinated derivatives [4-hydroxytamoxifen (4OHTam), toremifene (Tor), and 4-hydroxytoremifene (4OHTor)] was examined using recombinant human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) from the 1A subfamily and human hepatic microsomes. Recombinant UGT1A4 catalyzed the formation of N-glucuronides of Tam and its derivatives and was the most active UGT enzyme toward these compounds. Therefore, it was hypothesized that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the promoter region of UGT1A4 have the ability to significantly decrease the glucuronidation rates of Tam metabolites in the human liver. In vitro activity of 64 genotyped human liver microsomes was used to determine the association between the UGT1A4 promoter and coding region SNPs and the glucuronidation rates of Tam, 4OHTam, Tor, and 4OHTor. Significant decreases in enzymatic activity were observed in microsomes for individuals heterozygous for -163G/A and -217T/G. These alterations in glucuronidation may lead to prolonged circulating half-lives and may potentially modify the effectiveness of these drugs in the treatment of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra K Greer
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (A.K.G., C.R.D., S.M.B., A.R.-P.), Medical Genetics (A.S.-D., V.K.E., S.A.K.), and Biostatistics (I.B.D.), College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas; and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (M.F.)
| | - Centdrika R Dates
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (A.K.G., C.R.D., S.M.B., A.R.-P.), Medical Genetics (A.S.-D., V.K.E., S.A.K.), and Biostatistics (I.B.D.), College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas; and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (M.F.)
| | - Athena Starlard-Davenport
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (A.K.G., C.R.D., S.M.B., A.R.-P.), Medical Genetics (A.S.-D., V.K.E., S.A.K.), and Biostatistics (I.B.D.), College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas; and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (M.F.)
| | - Vineetha K Edavana
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (A.K.G., C.R.D., S.M.B., A.R.-P.), Medical Genetics (A.S.-D., V.K.E., S.A.K.), and Biostatistics (I.B.D.), College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas; and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (M.F.)
| | - Stacie M Bratton
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (A.K.G., C.R.D., S.M.B., A.R.-P.), Medical Genetics (A.S.-D., V.K.E., S.A.K.), and Biostatistics (I.B.D.), College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas; and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (M.F.)
| | - Ishwori B Dhakal
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (A.K.G., C.R.D., S.M.B., A.R.-P.), Medical Genetics (A.S.-D., V.K.E., S.A.K.), and Biostatistics (I.B.D.), College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas; and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (M.F.)
| | - Moshe Finel
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (A.K.G., C.R.D., S.M.B., A.R.-P.), Medical Genetics (A.S.-D., V.K.E., S.A.K.), and Biostatistics (I.B.D.), College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas; and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (M.F.)
| | - Susan A Kadlubar
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (A.K.G., C.R.D., S.M.B., A.R.-P.), Medical Genetics (A.S.-D., V.K.E., S.A.K.), and Biostatistics (I.B.D.), College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas; and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (M.F.)
| | - Anna Radominska-Pandya
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (A.K.G., C.R.D., S.M.B., A.R.-P.), Medical Genetics (A.S.-D., V.K.E., S.A.K.), and Biostatistics (I.B.D.), College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas; and Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (M.F.)
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23
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Strahm E, Rane A, Ekström L. PDE7B is involved in nandrolone decanoate hydrolysis in liver cytosol and its transcription is up-regulated by androgens in HepG2. Front Pharmacol 2014; 5:132. [PMID: 24910615 PMCID: PMC4038775 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2014.00132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Most androgenic drugs are available as esters for a prolonged depot action. However, the enzymes involved in the hydrolysis of the esters have not been identified. There is one study indicating that PDE7B may be involved in the activation of testosterone enanthate. The aims are to identify the cellular compartments where the hydrolysis of testosterone enanthate and nandrolone decanoate occurs, and to investigate the involvement of PDE7B in the activation. We also determined if testosterone and nandrolone affect the expression of the PDE7B gene. The hydrolysis studies were performed in isolated human liver cytosolic and microsomal preparations with and without specific PDE7B inhibitor. The gene expression was studied in human hepatoma cells (HepG2) exposed to testosterone and nandrolone. We show that PDE7B serves as a catalyst of the hydrolysis of testosterone enanthate and nandrolone decanoate in liver cytosol. The gene expression of PDE7B was significantly induced 3- and 5- fold after 2 h exposure to 1 μM testosterone enanthate and nandrolone decanoate, respectively. These results show that PDE7B is involved in the activation of esterified nandrolone and testosterone and that the gene expression of PDE7B is induced by supra-physiological concentrations of androgenic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Strahm
- Division of Clinical Pharmaclogy, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anders Rane
- Division of Clinical Pharmaclogy, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lena Ekström
- Division of Clinical Pharmaclogy, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Stockholm, Sweden
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24
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Targeting misuse of 2-amino-N-ethyl-1-phenylbutane in urine samples:in vitro-in vivocorrelation of metabolic profiles and development of LC-TOF-MS method. Drug Test Anal 2014; 7:89-94. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2013] [Revised: 02/15/2014] [Accepted: 02/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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25
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Greer AK, Madadi NR, Bratton SM, Eddy SD, Mazerska Z, Hendrickson HP, Crooks PA, Radominska-Pandya A. Novel resveratrol-based substrates for human hepatic, renal, and intestinal UDP-glucuronosyltransferases. Chem Res Toxicol 2014; 27:536-45. [PMID: 24571610 PMCID: PMC4002122 DOI: 10.1021/tx400408x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Trans-Resveratrol (tRes) has been shown to have powerful antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, and antiaging properties; however, its use as a therapeutic agent is limited by its rapid metabolism into its conjugated forms by UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs). The aim of the current study was to test the hypothesis that the limited bioavailability of tRes can be improved by modifying its structure to create analogs which would be glucuronidated at a lower rate than tRes itself. In this work, three synthetic stilbenoids, (E)-3-(3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)-2-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)acrylic acid (NI-12a), (E)-2,4-dimethoxy-6-(4-methoxystyryl)benzaldehyde oxime (NI-ST-05), and (E)-4-(3,5-dimethoxystyryl)-2,6-dinitrophenol (DNR-1), have been designed based on the structure of tRes and synthesized in our laboratory. UGTs recognize and glucuronidate tRes at each of the 3 hydroxyl groups attached to its aromatic rings. Therefore, each of the above compounds was designed with the majority of the hydroxyl groups blocked by methylation and the addition of other novel functional groups as part of a drug optimization program. The activities of recombinant human UGTs from the 1A and 2B families were examined for their capacity to metabolize these compounds. Glucuronide formation was identified using HPLC and verified by β-glucuronidase hydrolysis and LC-MS/MS analysis. NI-12a was glucuronidated at both the -COOH and -OH functions, NI-ST-05 formed a novel N-O-glucuronide, and no product was observed for DNR-1. NI-12a is primarily metabolized by the hepatic and renal enzyme UGT1A9, whereas NI-ST-05 is primarily metabolized by an extrahepatic enzyme, UGT1A10, with apparent Km values of 240 and 6.2 μM, respectively. The involvement of hepatic and intestinal UGTs in the metabolism of both compounds was further confirmed using a panel of human liver and intestinal microsomes, and high individual variation in activity was demonstrated between donors. In summary, these studies clearly establish that modified, tRes-based stilbenoids may be preferable alternatives to tRes itself due to increased bioavailability via altered conjugation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra K Greer
- Departments of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, and ‡Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences , Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, United States
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26
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Sahadevan S, Gunawan A, Tholen E, Große-Brinkhaus C, Tesfaye D, Schellander K, Hofmann-Apitius M, Cinar MU, Uddin MJ. Pathway based analysis of genes and interactions influencing porcine testis samples from boars with divergent androstenone content in back fat. PLoS One 2014; 9:e91077. [PMID: 24614349 PMCID: PMC3948775 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2013] [Accepted: 02/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the primary factors contributing to boar taint is the level of androstenone in porcine adipose tissues. A majority of the studies performed to identify candidate biomarkers for the synthesis of androstenone in testis tissues follow a reductionist approach, identifying and studying the effect of biomarkers individually. Although these studies provide detailed information on individual biomarkers, a global picture of changes in metabolic pathways that lead to the difference in androstenone synthesis is still missing. The aim of this work was to identify major pathways and interactions influencing steroid hormone synthesis and androstenone biosynthesis using an integrative approach to provide a bird's eye view of the factors causing difference in steroidogenesis and androstenone biosynthesis. For this purpose, we followed an analysis procedure merging together gene expression data from boars with divergent levels of androstenone and pathway mapping and interaction network retrieved from KEGG database. The interaction networks were weighted with Pearson correlation coefficients calculated from gene expression data and significant interactions and enriched pathways were identified based on these networks. The results show that 1,023 interactions were significant for high and low androstenone animals and that a total of 92 pathways were enriched for significant interactions. Although published articles show that a number of these enriched pathways were activated as a result of downstream signaling of steroid hormones, we speculate that the significant interactions in pathways such as glutathione metabolism, sphingolipid metabolism, fatty acid metabolism and significant interactions in cAMP-PKA/PKC signaling might be the key factors determining the difference in steroidogenesis and androstenone biosynthesis between boars with divergent androstenone levels in our study. The results and assumptions presented in this study are from an in-silico analysis done at the gene expression level and further laboratory experiments at genomic, proteomic or metabolomic level are necessary to validate these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudeep Sahadevan
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Algorithms and Scientific Computing (SCAI), Schloss Birlinghoven, Sankt Augustin, Germany
| | - Asep Gunawan
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
- Department of Animal Production and Technology, Faculty of Animal Science, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - Ernst Tholen
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | | | - Dawit Tesfaye
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | | | - Martin Hofmann-Apitius
- Fraunhofer Institute for Algorithms and Scientific Computing (SCAI), Schloss Birlinghoven, Sankt Augustin, Germany
- Bonn-Aachen International Center for Information Technology (B-IT), Bonn, Germany
| | - Mehmet Ulas Cinar
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
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27
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Mazzarino M, de la Torre X, Fiacco I, Botrè F. Drug-drug interaction and doping, part 2: Anin vitrostudy on the effect of non-prohibited drugs on the phase I metabolic profile of stanozolol. Drug Test Anal 2014; 6:969-77. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2013] [Revised: 11/08/2013] [Accepted: 12/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Monica Mazzarino
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Largo Giulio Onesti, 1 00197 Rome Italy
| | - Xavier de la Torre
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Largo Giulio Onesti, 1 00197 Rome Italy
| | - Ilaria Fiacco
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Largo Giulio Onesti, 1 00197 Rome Italy
| | - Francesco Botrè
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Largo Giulio Onesti, 1 00197 Rome Italy
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale; ‘Sapienza’ Università di Roma; Viale Regina Elena 324 00161 Rome Italy
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28
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Ma P, Kanizaj N, Chan SA, Ollis DL, McLeod MD. The Escherichia coli glucuronylsynthase promoted synthesis of steroid glucuronides: improved practicality and broader scope. Org Biomol Chem 2014; 12:6208-14. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ob00984c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Steroid glucuronides can be quickly and conveniently prepared on the milligram scale using theE. coliglucuronylsynthase enzyme followed by purification with solid-phase extraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Ma
- Research School of Chemistry
- Australian National University
- Canberra, Australia
| | - Nicholas Kanizaj
- Research School of Chemistry
- Australian National University
- Canberra, Australia
| | - Shu-Ann Chan
- Research School of Chemistry
- Australian National University
- Canberra, Australia
| | - David L. Ollis
- Research School of Chemistry
- Australian National University
- Canberra, Australia
| | - Malcolm D. McLeod
- Research School of Chemistry
- Australian National University
- Canberra, Australia
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29
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Orlovius AK, Guddat S, Gütschow M, Thevis M, Schänzer W. In vitro synthesis and characterisation of three fenoterol sulfoconjugates detected in fenoterol post-administration urine samples. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:9477-87. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7383-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2013] [Revised: 09/16/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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30
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Hwang MS, Lee SJ, Kim WY, Jeong HE, Shin JG. Genetic variations in UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2B15 in a Korean population. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2013; 29:105-9. [PMID: 23877107 DOI: 10.2133/dmpk.dmpk-13-sc-054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2B15 (UGT2B15) is involved in the glucoronidation of steroid hormones as well as many drugs. Genetic variations in UGT2B15 have been shown to affect enzyme function and suggested to have a role in human diseases, such as breast and prostate cancers. In the present study, we sequenced genomic DNA from 50 normal Korean subjects to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in UGT2B15. A total of thirteen genetic variations were found: two in exons, two in introns, seven in the 5'-untranslated region (UTR), and two in the 3'-UTR. The order and frequency distribution of UGT2B15 variations was: -1139T>C (rs9994887), -508G>A (rs1120265), -506T>A (rs1580083), 253T>G (rs1902023) (42%), 23687A>T (rs4148271) (31%), 2635A>T (rs2045100) (28%), -497C>T (14%), -378C>T (14%), 23669C>T (12%), and 23476A>C (rs4148269) (11%), with other minor alleles with a frequency of <10%. Thirteen variations were used to characterize linkage disequilibrium structures at the UGT2B15 locus. Five tag SNPs were identified, and the observed allelic frequencies were compared to those of other ethnic populations. This information describing genetic polymorphisms in UGT2B15 could serve as an important resource for studying individual variations in drug and hormone metabolism in Korean as well as other ethnic populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi-Sun Hwang
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacogenomics Research Center, Inje University College of Medicine, Inje University
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31
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Rahikainen T, Häkkinen MR, Finel M, Pasanen M, Juvonen RO. A high throughput assay for the glucuronidation of 7-hydroxy-4-trifluoromethylcoumarin by recombinant human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases and liver microsomes. Xenobiotica 2013; 43:853-61. [DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2013.783724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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32
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Strahm E, Sjöberg U, Garle M, Rane A, Ekström L. Implication of Human UGT2B7, 2B15, and 2B17 in 19-Norandrosterone Metabolism. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2013; 4:75. [PMID: 23805127 PMCID: PMC3693077 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2013.00075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2013] [Accepted: 06/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Nandrolone (19-nortestosterone) is an anabolic androgenic steroid commonly abused for doping purposes. Nandrolone is mainly metabolized in the liver into 19-norandrosterone prior to glucuronidation and excretion through urine over an extended period of time. Several UGTs (i.e., UGT2B7, UGT2B15, and UGT2B17) are thought to be the major enzymes responsible for conjugation of androgens in human. An in vitro study using recombinant enzymes expressed in insect cells showed that UGT1A4 and UGT2B7 are the two main enzymes responsible of 19-norandrosterone glucuronidation. However, the identity of the enzyme involved in nandrolone metabolism in vivo together with their relative contribution and regulation remain unknown. Inhibition assays using human liver microsomes (HLM) incubated with 19-norandrosterone and selective inhibitors confirmed that UGT2B7 and UGT2B15 are involved in 19-norandrosterone glucuronidation, since the presence of the specific UGT2B7 and UGT2B15 inhibitors gemfibrozil and valproic acid inhibited the 19-norandrosterone glucuronidation by 35 and 45%, respectively. HLM were genotyped for UGT2B15 D85Y, UGT2B7 H268Y, and the UGT2B17 deletion polymorphism. The glucuronidation activity on 19-norandrosterone was significantly higher in UGT2B15 DD than in the other UGT2B15 genotypes (p < 0.05). Moreover, human liver cancer HepG2 cells were exposed to androgens to determine if the transcriptional activity of the genes of interest was affected. Only UGT2B7 mRNA expression was significantly increased (1.8-folds) after incubation with nandrolone decanoate. These results show that the UGT2B7 and UGT2B15 are involved in 19-norandrosterone glucuronidation and that the UGT2B15 polymorphism (D85Y) is the only UGT genetic variation that influences the glucuronidation activity. This could partly explain the inter-individual variation in 19-norandrosterone excretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Strahm
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- *Correspondence: Emmanuel Strahm, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden e-mail:
| | - Ulf Sjöberg
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mats Garle
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anders Rane
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lena Ekström
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Gauthier J, Poirier D, Ayotte C. Characterization of desoxymethyltestosterone main urinary metabolite produced from cultures of human fresh hepatocytes. Steroids 2012; 77:635-43. [PMID: 22366110 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2012.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2011] [Revised: 02/07/2012] [Accepted: 02/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Desoxymethyltestosterone (DMT; 17β-hydroxy-17α-methyl-5α-androst-2-ene) is a designer steroid present in hormonal supplements distributed illegally as such or in combination with other steroids, for self-administration. It figures on the list of substances prohibited in sports and its detection in athlete's urine samples is based upon the presence of the parent compound or the main urinary metabolite, which has not been characterized yet. Following its isolation from cultures of human fresh hepatocytes and S9 fractions of liver homogenates, we were able to identify this metabolite as being 17α-methyl-2β,3α,17β-trihydroxy-5α-androstane. Other minor metabolites were also characterized. The production, isolation, NMR, mass spectral analyses and chemical synthesis are presented.
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34
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Zhu L, Ge G, Zhang H, Liu H, He G, Liang S, Zhang Y, Fang Z, Dong P, Finel M, Yang L. Characterization of hepatic and intestinal glucuronidation of magnolol: application of the relative activity factor approach to decipher the contributions of multiple UDP-glucuronosyltransferase isoforms. Drug Metab Dispos 2011; 40:529-38. [PMID: 22180045 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.111.042192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnolol is a food additive that is often found in mints and gums. Human exposure to this compound can reach a high dose; thus, characterization of magnolol disposition in humans is very important. Previous studies indicated that magnolol can undergo extensive glucuronidation in humans in vivo. In this study, in vitro assays were used to characterize the glucuronidation pathway in human liver and intestine. Assays with recombinant human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzymes (UGTs) revealed that multiple UGT isoforms were involved in magnolol glucuronidation, including UGT1A1, -1A3, -1A7, -1A8, -1A9, -1A10, and -2B7. Magnolol glucuronidation by human liver microsomes (HLM), human intestine microsomes (HIM), and most recombinant UGTs exhibited strong substrate inhibition kinetics. The degree of substrate inhibition was relatively low in the case of UGT1A10, whereas the reaction catalyzed by UGT1A9 followed biphasic kinetics. Chemical inhibition studies and the relative activity factor (RAF) approach were used to identify the individual UGTs that played important roles in magnolol glucuronidation in HLM and HIM. The results indicate that UGT2B7 is mainly responsible for the reaction in HLM, whereas UGT2B7 and UGT1A10 are significant contributors in HIM. In summary, the current study clarifies the glucuronidation pathway of magnolol and demonstrates that the RAF approach can be used as an efficient method for deciphering the roles of individual UGTs in a given glucuronidation pathway in the native tissue that is catalyzed by multiple isoforms with variable and atypical kinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangliang Zhu
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Resource Discovery, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 457 Zhongshan Rd., Dalian, 116023 China
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35
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Höglund C, Sneitz N, Radominska-Pandya A, Laakonen L, Finel M. Phenylalanine 93 of the human UGT1A10 plays a major role in the interactions of the enzyme with estrogens. Steroids 2011; 76:1465-73. [PMID: 21846474 PMCID: PMC3188330 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2011.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2011] [Revised: 07/28/2011] [Accepted: 07/29/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Little is currently known about the substrate binding site of the human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) and the structural elements that affect their complex substrate selectivity. In order to further understand and extend our earlier findings with phenylalanines 90 and 93 of UGT1A10, we have replaced each of them with Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile or Tyr, and tested the activity of the resulting 12 mutants toward eight different substrates. Apart from scopoletin glucuronidation, the F90 mutants other than F90L were nearly inactive, while the F93 mutants' activity was strongly substrate dependent. Hence, F93L displayed high entacapone and 1-naphthol glucuronidation rates, whereas F93G, which was nearly inactive in entacapone glucuronidation, was highly active toward estradiol, estriol and even ethinylestradiol, a synthetic estrogen that is a poor substrate for the wild-type UGT1A10. Kinetic analyses of 4-nitrophenol, estradiol and ethinylestradiol glucuronidation by the mutants that catalyzed the respective reactions at considerable rates, revealed increased K(m) values for 4-nitrophenol and estradiol in all the mutants, whilst the K(m) values of F93G and F93A for ethinylestradiol were lower than in control UGT1A10. Based on the activity results and a new molecular model of UGT1A10, it is suggested that both F90 and F93 are located in a surface helix at the far end of the substrate binding site. Nevertheless, only F93 directly affects the selectivity of UGT1A10 toward large and rigid estrogens, particularly those with substitutions at the D ring. The effects of F93 mutations on the glucuronidation of smaller or less rigid substrates are indirect, however.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla Höglund
- Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Pharmacy, P.O. Box 56 (Viikinkaari 5), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, P.O. Box 56 (Viikinkaari 5), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Nina Sneitz
- Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Pharmacy, P.O. Box 56 (Viikinkaari 5), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, P.O. Box 56 (Viikinkaari 5), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anna Radominska-Pandya
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas, USA (A.R.-P.)
| | - Liisa Laakonen
- Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Pharmacy, P.O. Box 56 (Viikinkaari 5), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Moshe Finel
- Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Pharmacy, P.O. Box 56 (Viikinkaari 5), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
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Mareck U, Guddat S, Schwenke A, Beuck S, Geyer H, Flenker U, Elers J, Backer V, Thevis M, Schänzer W. Determination of salbutamol and salbutamol glucuronide in human urine by means of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2011; 3:820-7. [PMID: 22081503 DOI: 10.1002/dta.367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2011] [Revised: 08/18/2011] [Accepted: 08/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The determination of salbutamol and its glucuronide in human urine following the inhalative and oral administration of therapeutic doses of salbutamol preparations was performed by means of direct urine injection utilizing liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and employing d(3)-salbutamol and d(3)-salbutamol glucuronide as internal standards. Unconjugated salbutamol was detected in all administration study urine samples. Salbutamol concentrations following inhalation were commonly (99%) below 1000 ng/ml whereas values after oral administration frequently (48%) exceeded this threshold. While salbutamol glucuronide was not detected in urine samples collected after inhalation of the drug, 26 out of 82 specimens obtained after oral application contained salbutamol glucuronide with a peak value of 63 ng/ml. The percentage of salbutamol glucuronide compared to unconjugated salbutamol was less than 3%. Authentic doping control urine samples indicating screening results for salbutamol less than 1000 ng/ml, showed salbutamol glucuronide concentrations between 2 and 6 ng/ml, whereas adverse analytical findings resulting from salbutamol levels higher than 1000 ng/ml, had salbutamol glucuronide values between 8 and 15 ng/ml. The approach enabled the rapid determination of salbutamol and its glucuronic acid conjugate in human urine and represents an alternative to existing procedures since time-consuming hydrolysis or derivatization steps were omitted. Moreover, the excretion of salbutamol glucuronide in human urine following the administration of salbutamol was proven.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ute Mareck
- Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany.
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37
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Gårevik N, Strahm E, Garle M, Lundmark J, Ståhle L, Ekström L, Rane A. Long term perturbation of endocrine parameters and cholesterol metabolism after discontinued abuse of anabolic androgenic steroids. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2011; 127:295-300. [PMID: 21884791 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2011] [Revised: 08/05/2011] [Accepted: 08/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To study the long-term impact of anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) abuse on the cholesterol profile, and the potential to suppress endocrine activity in men working out at gym facilities. To study the relation between urinary biomarkers for testosterone and nandrolone abuse and the UGT2B17 genotype and time profile. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Subjects (N = 56) were recruited through Anti-Doping Hot-Line. Serum levels of luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), plasma levels of low density lipoprotein (LDL), high density lipoprotein (HDL) and urinary steroid profile were regularly measured for a period of up to one year after cessation of intramuscular AAS abuse. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A sustained suppression of LH, and FSH was observed for several months. The nandrolone urinary biomarker 19-NA was detectable several months after the last nandrolone intake and was correlated to the levels of LH and FSH. Testosterone abuse on the other hand was detectable only for a few weeks, and some of the testosterone abusers did not test positive due to a genetic deletion polymorphism of the UGT2B17. Significantly increased levels of HDL and decreased levels of LDL were observed for 6-months after cessation of AAS abuse. CONCLUSION Some individuals had a sustained suppression of LH and FSH for a period of 1 year whereas the cholesterol profile was normalized within 6 month. The long term consequences of these findings remain to be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Gårevik
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, SE-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden.
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Brents LK, Medina-Bolivar F, Seely KA, Nair V, Bratton SM, Nopo-Olazabal L, Patel RY, Liu H, Doerksen RJ, Prather PL, Radominska-Pandya A. Natural prenylated resveratrol analogs arachidin-1 and -3 demonstrate improved glucuronidation profiles and have affinity for cannabinoid receptors. Xenobiotica 2011; 42:139-56. [PMID: 21970716 DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2011.609570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The therapeutic promise of trans-resveratrol (tRes) is limited by poor bioavailability following rapid metabolism. We hypothesise that trans-arachidin-1 (tA1) and trans-arachidin-3 (tA3), peanut hairy root-derived isoprenylated analogs of tRes, will exhibit slower metabolism/enhanced bioavailability and retain biological activity via cannabinoid receptor (CBR) binding relative to their non-prenylated parent compounds trans-piceatannol (tPice) and tRes, respectively. RESULTS The activities of eight human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) toward these compounds were evaluated. The greatest activity was observed for extrahepatic UGTs 1A10 and 1A7, followed by hepatic UGTs 1A1 and 1A9. Importantly, an additional isoprenyl and/or hydroxyl group in tA1 and tA3 slowed overall glucuronidation. CBR binding studies demonstrated that all analogs bound to CB1Rs with similar affinities (5-18 µM); however, only tA1 and tA3 bound appreciably to CB2Rs. Molecular modelling studies confirmed that the isoprenyl moiety of tA1 and tA3 improved binding affinity to CB2Rs. Finally, although tA3 acted as a competitive CB1R antagonist, tA1 antagonised CB1R agonists by both competitive and non-competitive mechanisms. CONCLUSIONS Prenylated stilbenoids may be preferable alternatives to tRes due to increased bioavailability via slowed metabolism. Similar structural analogs might be developed as novel CB therapeutics for obesity and/or drug dependency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa K Brents
- Arkansas Biosciences Institute, Arkansas State University, AR, USA
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Bratton SM, Mosher CM, Khallouki F, Finel M, Court MH, Moran JH, Radominska-Pandya A. Analysis of R- and S-hydroxywarfarin glucuronidation catalyzed by human liver microsomes and recombinant UDP-glucuronosyltransferases. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2011; 340:46-55. [PMID: 21972237 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.111.184721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Coumadin (R-, S-warfarin) is a challenging drug to accurately dose, both initially and for maintenance, because of its narrow therapeutic range and wide interpatient variability and is typically administered as a racemic (Rac) mixture, which complicates the biotransformation pathways. The goal of the current work was to identify the human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) involved in the glucuronidation of the separated R- and S-enantiomers of 6-, 7-, and 8-hydroxywarfarin and the possible interactions between these enantiomers. The kinetic and inhibition constants for human recombinant 1A family UGTs toward these separated enantiomers have been assessed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-UV-visible analysis, and product confirmations have been made using HPLC-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry. We found that separated R- and S-enantiomers of 6-, 7-, and 8-hydroxywarfarin demonstrate significantly different glucuronidation kinetics and can be mutually inhibitory. In some cases significant substrate inhibition was observed, as shown by K(m), V(max), and K(i), comparisons. In particular, UGT1A1 and extrahepatic UGT1A10 have significantly higher capacities than other isoforms for S-7-hydroxywarfarin and R-7-hydroxywarfarin glucuronidation, respectively. Activity data generated using a set of well characterized human liver microsomes supported the recombinant enzyme data, suggesting an important (although not exclusive) role for UGT1A1 in glucuronidation of the main warfarin metabolites, including Rac-6- and 7-hydroxywarfarin and their R- and S-enantiomers in the liver. This is the first demonstration that the R- and S-enantiomers of hydroxywarfarins are glucuronidated, with significantly different enzymatic affinity and capacity, and supports the importance of UGT1A1 as the major hepatic isoform involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacie M Bratton
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
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Anielski P, Simmchen J, Wassill L, Ganghofner D, Thieme D. Epidemiological investigation of the UGT2B17 polymorphism in doping control urine samples and its correlation to T/E ratios. Drug Test Anal 2011; 3:645-51. [PMID: 21928278 DOI: 10.1002/dta.332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2011] [Revised: 06/22/2011] [Accepted: 06/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The deletion polymorphism of the enzyme UGT2B17 is known to correlate with the level of the testosterone to epitestosterone (T/E) ratio in urine specimen. Due to the importance of the T/E ratio to detect testosterone abuse in doping analysis, a PCR-ELISA system (Genotype® UGT test, AmplexDiagnostics) was established to identify the UGT2B17 phenotype in urine samples. Epidemiological investigations in a set of 674 routine doping controls (in- and out-of-competition) resulted in 22.8% homozygote gene-deleted and 74.5% UGT2B17-positive athletes. The validated test system has shown to be robust and sensitive: in only 18 cases (2.7%) isolation of cell material from urine failed. Following hydrolysis of glucuronidated conjugates, steroids were analyzed as bis-TMS derivatives by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), for example, testosterone (T) and epitestosterone (E). Additionally, isotope ration mass spectrometry (IRMS) analysis and luteinizing hormone (LH) measurement were applied. Mean T/E ratios significantly correlated with the UGT2B17 phenotype (del: T/E 0.9; pos: 1.7), however the values did not differ as distinctive as reported in previous studies. Additionally, the T/E ratios in the gene-deleted group did not show a normal curve of distribution (median of T/E 0.5). Obviously, beside the UGT2B17 deletion further influences have to be taken into account, for example, polymorphisms or induction of other metabolizing enzymes. Our results indicate that the UGT2B17 polymorphism might be insufficient when utilized solely as a crucial parameter for individual interpretation of T/E in urine. Nevertheless, the detection of the UGT2B17-gene deletion in urine samples would provide additional information important for gathering evidence in analysis of steroids in doping control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Anielski
- Institute of Doping Analysis and Sports Biochemistry, Kreischa, Germany.
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Bioavailability of testosterone enanthate dependent on genetic variation in the phosphodiesterase 7B but not on the uridine 5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT2B17) gene. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2011; 21:325-32. [PMID: 21383644 DOI: 10.1097/fpc.0b013e328344c5c6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study the disposition of serum testosterone and seven of its metabolites before and after 2 days of an intramuscular dose (500 mg) of testosterone enanthate in relation to the phosphodiesterase (PDE7B) and the uridine 5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT2B17) genotypes. METHODS Patients were genotyped for UGT2B17 deletion polymorphism and single nucleotide polymorphisms in the PDE7B gene. The involvement of PDE7B in hydrolysis of enanthate was assessed in human liver homogenates. RESULTS Genetic variation in the PDE7B gene was found to be associated with the serum level of testosterone. Individuals homozygous for PDE7B rs7774640 G allele had a smaller increase (2.5-fold) in the serum testosterone levels compared with carriers of the A allele (3.9-fold, P=0.0006). In addition, genetic variation in the PDE7B gene significantly influences the testosterone/epitestosterone ratio, a biomarker of testosterone doping. Our in-vitro incubation studies confirmed that PDE7B serves as a catalyst of the hydrolysis of testosterone enanthate. The UGT2B17 deletion polymorphism did not show any significant association with serum testosterone levels or the other androgen metabolites investigated. CONCLUSION We have shown that PDE7B is involved in the hydrolysis of testosterone enanthate and that genetic variation in the PDE7B gene is a determinant of the systemic levels of testosterone after administration of testosterone enanthate. It is reasonable to believe that the genetic variation in testosterone bioavailability may be correlated to varying effects of this androgen, whether it is used for replacement therapy or abused in doping. Thus our results may be important to consider in doping test programmes and in therapeutics with androgens and other esterified drugs.
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42
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Chimalakonda KC, Bratton SM, Le VH, Yiew KH, Dineva A, Moran CL, James LP, Moran JH, Radominska-Pandya A. Conjugation of synthetic cannabinoids JWH-018 and JWH-073, metabolites by human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases. Drug Metab Dispos 2011; 39:1967-76. [PMID: 21746969 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.111.040709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
K2, a synthetic cannabinoid (SC), is an emerging drug of abuse touted as "legal marijuana" and marketed to young teens and first-time drug users. Symptoms associated with K2 use include extreme agitation, syncope, tachycardia, and visual and auditory hallucinations. One major challenge to clinicians is the lack of clinical, pharmacological, and metabolic information for the detection and characterization of K2 and its metabolites in human samples. Information on the metabolic pathway of SCs is very limited. However, previous reports have shown the metabolites of these compounds are excreted primarily as glucuronic acid conjugates. Based on this information, this study evaluates nine human recombinant uridine diphosphate-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) isoforms and human liver and intestinal microsomes for their ability to glucuronidate hydroxylated metabolites of 1-naphthalenyl-1(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-methanone (JWH-018) and (1-butyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1-naphthalenyl-methanone (JWH-073), the two most common SCs found in K2 products. Conjugates were identified and characterized using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry, whereas kinetic parameters were quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography-UV-visible methods. UGT1A1, UGT1A3, UGT1A9, UGT1A10, and UGT2B7 were shown to be the major enzymes involved, showing relatively high affinity with K(m) ranging from 12 to 18 μM for some hydroxylated K2s. These UGTs also exhibited a high metabolic capacity for these compounds, which indicates that K2 metabolites may be rapidly glucuronidated and eliminated from the body. Studies of K2 metabolites will help future development and validation of a specific assay for K2 and its metabolites and will allow researchers to fully explore their pharmacological actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishna C Chimalakonda
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas, USA
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43
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Peters FT, Meyer MR. In vitro approaches to studying the metabolism of new psychoactive compounds. Drug Test Anal 2011; 3:483-95. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2010] [Revised: 03/15/2011] [Accepted: 04/07/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Zhang H, Tolonen A, Rousu T, Hirvonen J, Finel M. Effects of cell differentiation and assay conditions on the UDP-glucuronosyltransferase activity in Caco-2 cells. Drug Metab Dispos 2010; 39:456-64. [PMID: 21098645 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.110.036582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell differentiation increases UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) gene expression in Caco-2 cells. Glucuronidation of 13 UGT substrates, 1-naphthol, diclofenac, epitestosterone, estradiol, ethinylestradiol, indomethacin, oxazepam, R- and S-propranolol, propofol, testosterone, trifluoperazine, and zidovudine, were studied to derive a broad view on the effect of cell differentiation on the glucuronidation activities of different human UGTs. In parallel, the glucuronidation of these compounds in human liver microsomes (HLM) and human intestinal microsomes (HIM) was analyzed. Because many of the substrates are highly lipophilic, the effects of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) concentrations in the reaction mixture on glucuronidation rates were tested, as well as the effect of alamethicin, a pore-forming peptide. Large differences were observed in the effects of DMSO and alamethicin between recombinant UGTs and Caco-2 cells and HLM and HIM, and, therefore, the activity assays were performed under multiple conditions. Regardless of the assay conditions, however, the results clearly indicated that although differentiation increases glucuronidation activity, the rates in Caco-2 cells are mostly very low, much lower than those in either HLM or HIM. One clear exception was observed: substrates of UGT1A6, such as 1-naphthol, were glucuronidated at very high rates in both undifferentiated and differentiated Caco-2 cells. It may thus be concluded that Caco-2 cells, even differentiated ones, do not provide a good model system to assess first-pass drug glucuronidation in the intestine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongbo Zhang
- Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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45
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Scarth JP, Teale P, Kuuranne T. Drug metabolism in the horse: a review. Drug Test Anal 2010; 3:19-53. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2010] [Revised: 08/02/2010] [Accepted: 08/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Deshmukh N, Petróczi A, Barker J, Székely AD, Hussain I, Naughton DP. Potentially harmful advantage to athletes: a putative connection between UGT2B17 gene deletion polymorphism and renal disorders with prolonged use of anabolic androgenic steroids. SUBSTANCE ABUSE TREATMENT PREVENTION AND POLICY 2010; 5:7. [PMID: 20429943 PMCID: PMC2877023 DOI: 10.1186/1747-597x-5-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2010] [Accepted: 04/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Background and objective With prolonged use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS), occasional incidents of renal disorders have been observed. Independently, it has also been established that there are considerable inter-individual and inter-ethnic differences, in particular with reference to the uridine diphosphate-glucuronosyltransferase 2B17 (UGT2B17) gene, in metabolising these compounds. This report postulates the association of deletion polymorphism in the UGT2B17 gene with the occurrence of renal disorders on chronic exposure to AAS. Presentation of the hypothesis The major deactivation and elimination pathway of AASs is through glucuronide conjugation, chiefly catalyzed by the UGT2B17 enzyme, followed by excretion in urine. Excretion of steroids is affected in individuals with a deletion mutation in the UGT2B17 gene. We hypothesize that UGT2B17 deficient individuals are more vulnerable to developing renal disorders with prolonged use of AAS owing to increases in body mass index and possible direct toxic effects of steroids on the kidneys. Elevated serum levels of biologically active steroids due to inadequate elimination can lead to prolonged muscle build up. An increase in body mass index may cause renal injuries due to sustained elevated glomerular pressure and flow rate. Testing the hypothesis In the absence of controlled clinical trials in humans, observational studies can be carried out. Real time PCR with allelic discrimination should be employed to examine the prevalence of different UGT2B17 genotypes in patients with impaired renal function and AAS abuse. In individuals with the UGT2B17 deletion polymorphism, blood tests, biofluid analyses, urinalysis, and hair analyses following the administration of an anabolic steroid can be used to determine the fate of the substance once in the body. Implications of the hypothesis If the hypothesis is upheld, anabolic steroid users with a deletion mutation in the UGT2B17 gene may be exposed to an increased risk of developing renal disorders. In the current detecting - sanctioning anti-doping system, athletes motivated by the potential to evade detection owing to their unique genetic make-up could subject themselves to a serious health consequence. More research on AAS metabolism in the presence of UGT2B17 gene deletion is required. Benefit - harm evaluations in therapeutic use of anabolic steroids should also consider this potential link between UGT2B17 gene deletion polymorphism and renal disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nawed Deshmukh
- School of Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, London, UK
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He X, Hesse LM, Hazarika S, Masse G, Harmatz JS, Greenblatt DJ, Court MH. Evidence for oxazepam as an in vivo probe of UGT2B15: oxazepam clearance is reduced by UGT2B15 D85Y polymorphism but unaffected by UGT2B17 deletion. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2010; 68:721-30. [PMID: 19916996 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2009.03519.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Although in vitro studies indicate that oxazepam is an isoform-selective substrate probe for UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2B15, the utility of this drug as an in vivo probe is uncertain. The main aim of this study was to determine whether common missense polymorphisms in the UGT2B15 gene (D85Y and K523T) are associated with altered oxazepam pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. We also determined the possible influence of a common deletion polymorphism in the gene encoding UGT2B17, which shows substantial substrate specificity overlap with UGT2B15. METHODS Thirty healthy male subjects were administered 15 mg of oxazepam by mouth followed by plasma oxazepam concentration monitoring for 36 h, and pharmacodynamic testing for 8 h. Genotypes were determined by genomic polymerase chain reaction and commercial 5'-nuclease assays. RESULTS Allele frequencies for D85Y, K523T, UGT2B17del were 47%, 23% and 19%, respectively. Median oxazepam apparent oral clearance was significantly lower in 85YY subjects (1.62 ml min(-1) kg(-1)) compared with 85DD subjects (3.35 ml min(-1) kg(-1); P= 0.003, Student-Newman-Keuls test), whereas 85DY subjects were intermediate (2.34 ml min(-1) kg(-1); P= 0.018 vs. 85DD, P= 0.034 vs. 85YY). Regression analysis indicated that UGT2B15 D85Y genotype accounted for 34% of interindividual variability. However, neither UGT2B15 K523T nor UGT2B17del was associated with altered oxazepam disposition. Furthermore, no differences in pharmacodynamic measures, including quantitative electroencephalography, digit-symbol substitution test, self- or observer-rated visual analogue scales, could be demonstrated for any of the polymorphisms evaluated. CONCLUSIONS These results identify UGT2B15 D85Y as a major determinant of oxazepam clearance, and indicate that oxazepam may be useful as an in vivo probe for glucuronidation by UGT2B15.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi He
- Laboratory of Comparative and Molecular Pharmacogenomics and Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA
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Jäntti SE, Tammimäki A, Raattamaa H, Piepponen P, Kostiainen R, Ketola RA. Determination of Steroids and Their Intact Glucuronide Conjugates in Mouse Brain by Capillary Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2010; 82:3168-75. [DOI: 10.1021/ac902321z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sirkku E. Jäntti
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, and Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, FI-00014, Finland
| | - Anne Tammimäki
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, and Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, FI-00014, Finland
| | - Helena Raattamaa
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, and Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, FI-00014, Finland
| | - Petteri Piepponen
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, and Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, FI-00014, Finland
| | - Risto Kostiainen
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, and Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, FI-00014, Finland
| | - Raimo A. Ketola
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, and Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, FI-00014, Finland
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Itäaho K, Laakkonen L, Finel M. How many and which amino acids are responsible for the large activity differences between the highly homologous UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT) 1A9 and UGT1A10? Drug Metab Dispos 2010; 38:687-96. [PMID: 20089735 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.109.031229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The amino acid sequences of the human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) 1A9 and 1A10 are 93% identical, yet there are large differences in their activity and substrate selectivity. For example, the regioselectivity in propranolol glucuronidation, the regioselectivity in dobutamine glucuronidation, and the glucuronidation rate of alpha- and beta-estradiol differ greatly between UGT1A9 and UGT1A10. To identify the residue responsible for the activity differences, we divided the N-terminal half of the two UGTs into five comparable segments by inserting four unique restriction sites at identical positions in both genes and constructing chimeras in which segments of UGT1A9 were individually replaced by the corresponding segments from UGT1A10. Activity analyses of the resulting mutants, 910A [1A10((1-83))/1A9((84-285))], 910B [1A9((1-83))/1A10((84-147))/1A9((148-285))], 910C [1A9((1-147))/1A10((148-181))/1A9((182-285))], 910D [1A9((1-181))/1A10((182-235))/1A9((236-285))], and 910E [1A9((1-235))/1A10((236-285))] indicated that more than one residue is responsible for the differences between UGT1A9 and UGT1A10. We next prepared four double chimeras, in which two of the above UGT1A9 segments were replaced simultaneously by the corresponding UGT1A10 segments. However, none of the double chimeras glucuronidated either estradiol, propranolol, or dobutamine at rates that resembled those of UGT1A10. On the other hand, studying the kinetics of 1-naphthol glucuronidation yielded more focused results, indicating that residues within segment B (84-147) contribute directly to the K(m) value for this substrate. Further mutagenesis and activity assays suggested that Phe117 of UGT1A9 participates in 1-naphthol binding. In addition, it appears that residues within segment C of the N-terminal domain, mainly at positions 152 and 169, contribute to the higher glucuronidation rates of UGT1A10.
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Abstract
Phase-II metabolism has a major contribution to androgen metabolism, converting the highly non-polar compounds to a more easily excreted form prior to their excretion in urine. In the human body the main phase-II metabolic reactions are glucuronidation and sulphonation. These reactions are catalysed by enzymes, which are categorised into families and further subfamilies based on their function and similarities of their amino-acid sequences. Due to inter-individual variation of the metabolising enzymes and their activities, the metabolic patterns of prohibited substances should be estimated for efficient doping control. In addition to target analytes the phase-II reactions have an effect on the selection of sample preparation procedure, chromatographic technique and ionisation method of the analysis routine. For method development and identification purposes adequate reference material is required, and to replace the laborious in vivo excretion studies, in vitro methodologies have been implemented to produce intact phase-II metabolites of androgens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiia Kuuranne
- Doping Control Laboratory, United Laboratories Ltd, Höyläämötie 14, 00380, Helsinki, Finland.
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