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Yen YC, Li Y, Chen CL, Klose T, Watts VJ, Dessauer CW, Tesmer JJG. Structure of adenylyl cyclase 5 in complex with Gβγ offers insights into ADCY5-related dyskinesia. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2024; 31:1189-1197. [PMID: 38589608 PMCID: PMC11329361 DOI: 10.1038/s41594-024-01263-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
The nine different membrane-anchored adenylyl cyclase isoforms (AC1-9) in mammals are stimulated by the heterotrimeric G protein, Gαs, but their response to Gβγ regulation is isoform specific. In the present study, we report cryo-electron microscope structures of ligand-free AC5 in complex with Gβγ and a dimeric form of AC5 that could be involved in its regulation. Gβγ binds to a coiled-coil domain that links the AC transmembrane region to its catalytic core as well as to a region (C1b) that is known to be a hub for isoform-specific regulation. We confirmed the Gβγ interaction with both purified proteins and cell-based assays. Gain-of-function mutations in AC5 associated with human familial dyskinesia are located at the interface of AC5 with Gβγ and show reduced conditional activation by Gβγ, emphasizing the importance of the observed interaction for motor function in humans. We propose a molecular mechanism wherein Gβγ either prevents dimerization of AC5 or allosterically modulates the coiled-coil domain, and hence the catalytic core. As our mechanistic understanding of how individual AC isoforms are uniquely regulated is limited, studies such as this may provide new avenues for isoform-specific drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Chen Yen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Yong Li
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Chun-Liang Chen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Thomas Klose
- Purdue Cryo-EM Facility, Hockmeyer Hall for Structural Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Val J Watts
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Carmen W Dessauer
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - John J G Tesmer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
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2
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Khanppnavar B, Schuster D, Lavriha P, Uliana F, Özel M, Mehta V, Leitner A, Picotti P, Korkhov VM. Regulatory sites of CaM-sensitive adenylyl cyclase AC8 revealed by cryo-EM and structural proteomics. EMBO Rep 2024; 25:1513-1540. [PMID: 38351373 PMCID: PMC10933263 DOI: 10.1038/s44319-024-00076-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Membrane adenylyl cyclase AC8 is regulated by G proteins and calmodulin (CaM), mediating the crosstalk between the cAMP pathway and Ca2+ signalling. Despite the importance of AC8 in physiology, the structural basis of its regulation by G proteins and CaM is not well defined. Here, we report the 3.5 Å resolution cryo-EM structure of the bovine AC8 bound to the stimulatory Gαs protein in the presence of Ca2+/CaM. The structure reveals the architecture of the ordered AC8 domains bound to Gαs and the small molecule activator forskolin. The extracellular surface of AC8 features a negatively charged pocket, a potential site for unknown interactors. Despite the well-resolved forskolin density, the captured state of AC8 does not favour tight nucleotide binding. The structural proteomics approaches, limited proteolysis and crosslinking mass spectrometry (LiP-MS and XL-MS), allowed us to identify the contact sites between AC8 and its regulators, CaM, Gαs, and Gβγ, as well as to infer the conformational changes induced by these interactions. Our results provide a framework for understanding the role of flexible regions in the mechanism of AC regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basavraj Khanppnavar
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland
- Department of Biology, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dina Schuster
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland
- Department of Biology, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Biology, Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Pia Lavriha
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Federico Uliana
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biological Chemistry, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Merve Özel
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Ved Mehta
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Alexander Leitner
- Department of Biology, Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Paola Picotti
- Department of Biology, Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Volodymyr M Korkhov
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland.
- Department of Biology, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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3
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Schuster D, Khanppnavar B, Kantarci I, Mehta V, Korkhov VM. Structural insights into membrane adenylyl cyclases, initiators of cAMP signaling. Trends Biochem Sci 2024; 49:156-168. [PMID: 38158273 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2023.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Membrane adenylyl cyclases (ACs) catalyze the conversion of ATP to the ubiquitous second messenger cAMP. As effector proteins of G protein-coupled receptors and other signaling pathways, ACs receive and amplify signals from the cell surface, translating them into biochemical reactions in the intracellular space and integrating different signaling pathways. Despite their importance in signal transduction and physiology, our knowledge about the structure, function, regulation, and molecular interactions of ACs remains relatively scarce. In this review, we summarize recent advances in our understanding of these membrane enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina Schuster
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland; Department of Biology, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, ETH Zurich, Switzerland; Department of Biology, Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Basavraj Khanppnavar
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland; Department of Biology, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ilayda Kantarci
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Ved Mehta
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Volodymyr M Korkhov
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland; Department of Biology, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, ETH Zurich, Switzerland.
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4
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Yen YC, Li Y, Chen CL, Klose T, Watts VJ, Dessauer CW, Tesmer JJG. Isoform Specific Regulation of Adenylyl Cyclase 5 by Gβγ. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.02.539090. [PMID: 37205557 PMCID: PMC10187219 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.02.539090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The nine different membrane-anchored adenylyl cyclase isoforms (AC1-9) in mammals are stimulated by the heterotrimeric G protein Gαs, but their response to Gβγ regulation is isoform-specific. For example, AC5 is conditionally activated by Gβγ. Here, we report cryo-EM structures of ligand-free AC5 in complex with Gβγ and of a dimeric form of AC5 that could be involved in its regulation. Gβγ binds to a coiled-coil domain that links the AC transmembrane region to its catalytic core as well as to a region (C1b) that is known to be a hub for isoform-specific regulation. We confirmed the Gβγ interaction with both purified proteins and cell-based assays. The interface with Gβγ involves AC5 residues that are subject to gain-of-function mutations in humans with familial dyskinesia, indicating that the observed interaction is important for motor function. A molecular mechanism wherein Gβγ either prevents dimerization of AC5 or allosterically modulates the coiled-coil domain, and hence the catalytic core, is proposed. Because our mechanistic understanding of how individual AC isoforms are uniquely regulated is limited, studies such as this may provide new avenues for isoform-specific drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Chen Yen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Yong Li
- Department Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Chun-Liang Chen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Thomas Klose
- Purdue CryoEM Facility, Suite 171, Hockmeyer Hall for Structural Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Val J Watts
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Carmen W Dessauer
- Department Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - John J. G. Tesmer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
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5
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Zhang C, Sun Y, Xu M, Shu C, Yue Z, Hou J, Ou D. Potential links between COVID-19 and periodontitis: a bioinformatic analysis based on GEO datasets. BMC Oral Health 2022; 22:520. [DOI: 10.1186/s12903-022-02435-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
2019 Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The COVID-19 pandemic has already had a serious influence on human existence, causing a huge public health concern for countries all around the world. Because SARS-CoV-2 infection can be spread by contact with the oral cavity, the link between oral illness and COVID-19 is gaining traction. Through bioinformatics approaches, we explored the possible molecular mechanisms linking the COVID-19 and periodontitis to provide the basis and direction for future research.
Methods
Transcriptomic data from blood samples of patients with COVID-19 and periodontitis was downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. The shared differentially expressed genes were identified. The analysis of Gene Ontology, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genesand Genomes pathway, and protein–protein interaction network was conducted for the shared differentially expressed genes. Top 5 hub genes were selected through Maximal Clique Centrality algorithm. Then mRNA-miRNA network of the hub genes was established based on miRDB database, miRTarbase database and Targetscan database. The Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression analysis was used to discover possible biomarkers, which were then investigated in relation to immune-related genes.
Results
Fifty-six shared genes were identified through differential expression analysis in COVID-19 and periodontitis. The function of these genes was enriched in regulation of hormone secretion, regulation of secretion by cell. Myozenin 2 was identified through Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression Analysis, which was down-regulated in both COVID-19 and periodontitis. There was a positive correlation between Myozenin 2 and the biomarker of activated B cell, memory B cell, effector memory CD4 T cell, Type 17 helper cell, T follicular helper cell and Type 2 helper cell.
Conclusion
By bioinformatics analysis, Myozenin 2 is predicted to correlate to the pathogenesis and immune infiltrating of COVID-19 and periodontitis. However, more clinical and experimental researches are needed to validate the function of Myozenin 2.
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6
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Zaleski MP, Chen H, Roy-Chowdhuri S, Patel KP, Luthra R, Routbort MJ, Kamat AM, Gao J, Siefker-Radtke A, Czerniak B, Guo CC. Distinct Gene Mutations Are Associated With Clinicopathologic Features in Urachal Carcinoma. Am J Clin Pathol 2022; 158:263-269. [PMID: 35467000 PMCID: PMC9350833 DOI: 10.1093/ajcp/aqac039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate the gene mutational profile of urachal carcinoma in correlation with its clinicopathologic features. METHODS We analyzed genetic mutations in 30 cases of urachal carcinoma by next-generation sequencing (NGS) test. Histologic slides and clinical data were reviewed. RESULTS The patients included 21 men and 9 women, with a mean age of 53 years (range, 24-75 years). The urachal carcinomas included mucinous (11), enteric (10), signet ring cell (8), and high-grade neuroendocrine (1) subtypes. Targeted NGS analysis demonstrated genetic mutations in all the urachal tumors (mean, 2; range, 1-4). TP53 was the most mutated gene (25), followed by KRAS (9) and GNAS (8) genes. TP53 mutations were more common in the signet ring cell subtype (7/8), and GNAS mutations were present only in the mucinous (5/11) and signet ring cell subtypes (3/8) but not in the enteric subtype (0/10). KRAS mutations were significantly associated with cancer stage IV (P = .02) and younger patient age (P = .046). Furthermore, the presence of KRAS mutations in urachal carcinoma portended a poorer overall survival (P = .006). CONCLUSIONS Urachal carcinoma demonstrates frequent gene mutations that are associated with distinct clinicopathologic features. Gene mutation may underlie the development and progression of this aggressive disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Zaleski
- Department Pathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Hui Chen
- Department Pathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Sinchita Roy-Chowdhuri
- Department Pathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Keyur P Patel
- Department Hematopathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Rajyalakshmi Luthra
- Department Hematopathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Mark J Routbort
- Department Hematopathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Ashish M Kamat
- Department Urology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jianjun Gao
- Genitourinary Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Arlene Siefker-Radtke
- Genitourinary Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Bogdan Czerniak
- Department Pathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Charles C Guo
- Department Pathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
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7
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Ostrom KF, LaVigne JE, Brust TF, Seifert R, Dessauer CW, Watts VJ, Ostrom RS. Physiological roles of mammalian transmembrane adenylyl cyclase isoforms. Physiol Rev 2022; 102:815-857. [PMID: 34698552 PMCID: PMC8759965 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00013.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Adenylyl cyclases (ACs) catalyze the conversion of ATP to the ubiquitous second messenger cAMP. Mammals possess nine isoforms of transmembrane ACs, dubbed AC1-9, that serve as major effector enzymes of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The transmembrane ACs display varying expression patterns across tissues, giving the potential for them to have a wide array of physiological roles. Cells express multiple AC isoforms, implying that ACs have redundant functions. Furthermore, all transmembrane ACs are activated by Gαs, so it was long assumed that all ACs are activated by Gαs-coupled GPCRs. AC isoforms partition to different microdomains of the plasma membrane and form prearranged signaling complexes with specific GPCRs that contribute to cAMP signaling compartments. This compartmentation allows for a diversity of cellular and physiological responses by enabling unique signaling events to be triggered by different pools of cAMP. Isoform-specific pharmacological activators or inhibitors are lacking for most ACs, making knockdown and overexpression the primary tools for examining the physiological roles of a given isoform. Much progress has been made in understanding the physiological effects mediated through individual transmembrane ACs. GPCR-AC-cAMP signaling pathways play significant roles in regulating functions of every cell and tissue, so understanding each AC isoform's role holds potential for uncovering new approaches for treating a vast array of pathophysiological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Justin E LaVigne
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
| | - Tarsis F Brust
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lloyd L. Gregory School of Pharmacy, Palm Beach Atlantic University, West Palm Beach, Florida
| | - Roland Seifert
- Institute of Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Carmen W Dessauer
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Sciences Center at Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Val J Watts
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
- Purdue Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
- Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
| | - Rennolds S Ostrom
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Irvine, California
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8
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Ferré S, Ciruela F, Dessauer CW, González-Maeso J, Hébert TE, Jockers R, Logothetis DE, Pardo L. G protein-coupled receptor-effector macromolecular membrane assemblies (GEMMAs). Pharmacol Ther 2022; 231:107977. [PMID: 34480967 PMCID: PMC9375844 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2021.107977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest group of receptors involved in cellular signaling across the plasma membrane and a major class of drug targets. The canonical model for GPCR signaling involves three components - the GPCR, a heterotrimeric G protein and a proximal plasma membrane effector - that have been generally thought to be freely mobile molecules able to interact by 'collision coupling'. Here, we synthesize evidence that supports the existence of GPCR-effector macromolecular membrane assemblies (GEMMAs) comprised of specific GPCRs, G proteins, plasma membrane effector molecules and other associated transmembrane proteins that are pre-assembled prior to receptor activation by agonists, which then leads to subsequent rearrangement of the GEMMA components. The GEMMA concept offers an alternative and complementary model to the canonical collision-coupling model, allowing more efficient interactions between specific signaling components, as well as the integration of the concept of GPCR oligomerization as well as GPCR interactions with orphan receptors, truncated GPCRs and other membrane-localized GPCR-associated proteins. Collision-coupling and pre-assembled mechanisms are not exclusive and likely both operate in the cell, providing a spectrum of signaling modalities which explains the differential properties of a multitude of GPCRs in their different cellular environments. Here, we explore the unique pharmacological characteristics of individual GEMMAs, which could provide new opportunities to therapeutically modulate GPCR signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergi Ferré
- Integrative Neurobiology Section, National Institute on Drug Addiction, Intramural Research Program, NIH, DHHS, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Francisco Ciruela
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Institute of Neurosciences, IDIBELL, University of Barcelona, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Carmen W. Dessauer
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Javier González-Maeso
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Terence E. Hébert
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec
| | - Ralf Jockers
- University of Paris, Institute Cochin, INSERM, CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Diomedes E. Logothetis
- Laboratory of Electrophysiology, Departments of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chemistry and Chemical Biology and Center for Drug Discovery, School of Pharmacy at the Bouvé College of Health Sciences and College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Leonardo Pardo
- Laboratory of Computational Medicine, Biostatistics Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
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9
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Bhagirath AY, Bhatia V, Medapati MR, Singh N, Hinton M, Chelikani P, Dakshinamurti S. Critical cysteines in the functional interaction of adenylyl cyclase isoform 6 with Gαs. FASEB Bioadv 2021; 4:180-196. [PMID: 35664968 PMCID: PMC9159366 DOI: 10.1096/fba.2021-00073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Activation of adenylyl cyclases (ACs) by G‐protein Gαs catalyzes the production of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), a key second messenger that regulates diverse physiological responses. There are 10 AC isoforms present in humans, with AC5 and AC6 proposed to play vital roles in cardiac function. We have previously shown that under hypoxic conditions, AC6 is amenable to post‐translational modification by nitrosylation, resulting in decreased AC catalytic activity. Using a computational model of the AC6–Gαs complex, we predicted key nitrosylation‐amenable cysteine residues involved in the interaction of AC6 with Gαs and pursued a structure–function analysis of these cysteine residues in both AC6 and Gαs. Our results based on site‐directed mutagenesis of AC6 and Gαs, a constitutively active Gαs, AC activity, and live cell intracellular cAMP assays suggest that Cys1004 in AC6 (subunit C2) and Cys237 in Gαs are present at the AC–Gαs interface and are important for the activation of AC6 by Gαs. We further provide mechanistic evidence to show that mutating Cys 1004 in the second catalytic domain of AC6 makes it amenable to inhibition by Gαi, which may account for decreased functional activity of AC6 when this residue is unavailable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjali Y. Bhagirath
- Biology of Breathing Theme Children's Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba (CHRIM) Winnipeg Manitoba Canada
- Department of Oral Biology University of Manitoba Winnipeg Manitoba Canada
| | - Vikram Bhatia
- Biology of Breathing Theme Children's Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba (CHRIM) Winnipeg Manitoba Canada
- Department of Oral Biology University of Manitoba Winnipeg Manitoba Canada
| | | | - Nisha Singh
- Department of Oral Biology University of Manitoba Winnipeg Manitoba Canada
| | - Martha Hinton
- Biology of Breathing Theme Children's Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba (CHRIM) Winnipeg Manitoba Canada
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology University of Manitoba Winnipeg Manitoba Canada
| | - Prashen Chelikani
- Biology of Breathing Theme Children's Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba (CHRIM) Winnipeg Manitoba Canada
- Department of Oral Biology University of Manitoba Winnipeg Manitoba Canada
| | - Shyamala Dakshinamurti
- Biology of Breathing Theme Children's Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba (CHRIM) Winnipeg Manitoba Canada
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology University of Manitoba Winnipeg Manitoba Canada
- Department of Pediatrics University of Manitoba Winnipeg Manitoba Canada
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10
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Mansour A, Nagi K, Dallaire P, Lukasheva V, Le Gouill C, Bouvier M, Pineyro G. Comprehensive Signaling Profiles Reveal Unsuspected Functional Selectivity of δ-Opioid Receptor Agonists and Allow the Identification of Ligands with the Greatest Potential for Inducing Cyclase Superactivation. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2021; 4:1483-1498. [PMID: 34661070 PMCID: PMC8506601 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.1c00019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Prolonged exposure
to opioid receptor agonists triggers adaptations
in the adenylyl cyclase (AC) pathway that lead to enhanced production
of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) upon withdrawal. This cellular
phenomenon contributes to withdrawal symptoms, hyperalgesia and analgesic
tolerance that interfere with clinical management of chronic pain
syndromes. Since δ-opioid receptors (DOPrs) are a promising
target for chronic pain management, we were interested in finding
out if cell-based signaling profiles as generated for drug discovery
purposes could inform us of the ligand potential to induce sensitization
of the cyclase path. For this purpose, signaling of DOPr agonists
was monitored at multiple effectors. The resulting signaling profiles
revealed marked functional selectivity, particularly for Met-enkephalin
(Met-ENK) whose signaling bias profile differed from those of synthetic
ligands like SNC-80 and ARM390. Signaling diversity among ligands
was systematized by clustering agonists according to similarities
in Emax and Log(τ) values for the
different responses. The classification process revealed that the
similarity in Gα/Gβγ, but not in β-arrestin
(βarr), responses was correlated with the potential of Met-ENK,
deltorphin II, (d-penicillamine2,5)-enkephalin (DPDPE), ARM390,
and SNC-80 to enhance cAMP production, all of which required Ca2+ mobilization to produce this response. Moreover, superactivation
by Met-ENK, which was the most-effective Ca2+ mobilizing
agonist, required Gαi/o activation, availability of Gβγ
subunits at the membrane, and activation of Ca2+ effectors
such as calmodulin and protein kinase C (PKC). In contrast, superactivation by (N-(l-tyrosyl)-(3S)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-l-phenylalanyl-l-phenylalanine (TIPP), which was set
in a distinct category through clustering, required activation of
Gαi/o subunits but was independent of the Gβγ dimer
and Ca2+ mobilization, relying instead on Src and Raf-1
to induce this cellular adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Mansour
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec H3T 1J4, Canada.,CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montréal, Quebec H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Karim Nagi
- College of Medicine, QU Health, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar
| | - Paul Dallaire
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec H3T 1J4, Canada.,CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montréal, Quebec H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Viktoriya Lukasheva
- Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Christian Le Gouill
- Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Michel Bouvier
- Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Graciela Pineyro
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec H3T 1J4, Canada.,CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montréal, Quebec H3T 1C5, Canada
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11
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Young BD, Sha J, Vashisht AA, Wohlschlegel JA. Human Multisubunit E3 Ubiquitin Ligase Required for Heterotrimeric G-Protein β-Subunit Ubiquitination and Downstream Signaling. J Proteome Res 2021; 20:4318-4330. [PMID: 34342229 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.1c00292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) initiate intracellular signaling events through heterotrimeric G-protein α-subunits (Gα) and the βγ-subunit dimer (Gβγ). In this study, we utilized mass spectrometry to identify novel regulators of Gβγ signaling in human cells. This prompted our characterization of KCTD2 and KCTD5, two related potassium channel tetramerization domain (KCTD) proteins that specifically recognize Gβγ. We demonstrated that these KCTD proteins are substrate adaptors for a multisubunit CUL3-RING ubiquitin ligase, in which a KCTD2-KCTD5 hetero-oligomer associates with CUL3 through KCTD5 subunits and recruits Gβγ through both KCTD proteins in response to G-protein activation. These KCTD proteins promote monoubiquitination of lysine-23 within Gβ1/2 in vitro and in HEK-293 cells. Depletion of these adaptors from cancer cell lines sharply impairs downstream signaling. Together, our studies suggest that a KCTD2-KCTD5-CUL3-RING E3 ligase recruits Gβγ in response to signaling, monoubiquitinates lysine-23 within Gβ1/2, and regulates Gβγ effectors to modulate downstream signal transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Young
- Department of Biological Chemistry, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States.,Molecular Biology Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Jihui Sha
- Department of Biological Chemistry, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Ajay A Vashisht
- Department of Biological Chemistry, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - James A Wohlschlegel
- Department of Biological Chemistry, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States.,Molecular Biology Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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12
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Nassiri Toosi Z, Su X, Austin R, Choudhury S, Li W, Pang YT, Gumbart JC, Torres MP. Combinatorial phosphorylation modulates the structure and function of the G protein γ subunit in yeast. Sci Signal 2021; 14:14/688/eabd2464. [PMID: 34158397 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.abd2464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) in proteins are often targets of combinatorial posttranslational modifications, which serve to regulate protein structure and function. Emerging evidence suggests that the N-terminal tails of G protein γ subunits, which are essential components of heterotrimeric G proteins, are intrinsically disordered, phosphorylation-dependent determinants of G protein signaling. Here, we found that the yeast Gγ subunit Ste18 underwent combinatorial, multisite phosphorylation events within its N-terminal IDR. G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) activation and osmotic stress induced phosphorylation at Ser7, whereas glucose and acid stress induced phosphorylation at Ser3, which was a quantitative indicator of intracellular pH. Each site was phosphorylated by a distinct set of kinases, and phosphorylation of one site affected phosphorylation of the other, as determined through exposure to serial stimuli and through phosphosite mutagenesis. Last, we showed that phosphorylation resulted in changes in IDR structure and that different combinations of phosphorylation events modulated the activation rate and amplitude of the downstream mitogen-activated protein kinase Fus3. These data place Gγ subunits among intrinsically disordered proteins that undergo combinatorial posttranslational modifications that govern signaling pathway output.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Nassiri Toosi
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Xinya Su
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Ruth Austin
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Shilpa Choudhury
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Wei Li
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA.,Southeast Center for Mathematics and Biology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Yui Tik Pang
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - James C Gumbart
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Matthew P Torres
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA. .,Southeast Center for Mathematics and Biology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
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13
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GPR34 activation potentially bridges lymphoepithelial lesion to genesis of salivary gland MALT lymphoma. Blood 2021; 139:2186-2197. [PMID: 34086889 DOI: 10.1182/blood.2020010495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
GPR34 translocation and mutation are specifically associated with salivary gland MALT lymphoma (SG-MALT-Lymphoma). Majority of GPR34 mutations are clustered in its C-terminus, resulting in truncated proteins lacking the phosphorylation motif important for receptor desensitization. It is unclear why GPR34 genetic changes associate with SG-MALT-Lymphoma and how these mutations contribute to the lymphoma development. We generated isogenic Flp-InTRex293 cell lines that stably expressed a single copy of GPR34 or its various mutants, and performed a range of in vitro assays. We showed that the GPR34 Q340X truncation, but not R84H and D151A mutants conferred a significantly increased resistance to apoptosis, and greater transforming potential than the GPR34 wild type. The GPR34 truncation mutant had a significantly delayed internalization than the wild type following ligand (lysophosphatidylserine) stimulation. Among 9 signaling pathways examined, the GPR34 Q340X truncation, to a lesser extent the D151A mutant, significantly activated CRE, NFkB and AP1 reporter activities, particularly in the presence of ligand stimulation. We further demonstrated enhanced activities of phospholipase-A1/2 in the culture supernatant of Flp-InTRex293 cells that expressed the GPR34 Q340X mutant, and their potential to catalyze the synthesis of lysophosphatidylserine from phosphatidylserine. Importantly, phospholipase-A1 was abundantly expressed in the duct epithelium of salivary glands and those involved in lymphoepithelial lesions (LELs). Our findings advocate a model of paracrine stimulation of malignant B-cells via GPR34, in which PLA is released by LELs, and hydrolyzes the phosphatidylserine exposed on apoptotic cells, generating lysophosphatidylserine, the ligand for GPR34. Thus, GPR34 activation potentially bridges LELs to genesis of SG-MALT-Lymphoma.
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14
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Tennakoon M, Senarath K, Kankanamge D, Ratnayake K, Wijayaratna D, Olupothage K, Ubeysinghe S, Martins-Cannavino K, Hébert TE, Karunarathne A. Subtype-dependent regulation of Gβγ signalling. Cell Signal 2021; 82:109947. [PMID: 33582184 PMCID: PMC8026654 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2021.109947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) transmit information to the cell interior by transducing external signals to heterotrimeric G protein subunits, Gα and Gβγ subunits, localized on the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane. Though the initial focus was mainly on Gα-mediated events, Gβγ subunits were later identified as major contributors to GPCR-G protein signalling. A broad functional array of Gβγ signalling has recently been attributed to Gβ and Gγ subtype diversity, comprising 5 Gβ and 12 Gγ subtypes, respectively. In addition to displaying selectivity towards each other to form the Gβγ dimer, numerous studies have identified preferences of distinct Gβγ combinations for specific GPCRs, Gα subtypes and effector molecules. Importantly, Gβ and Gγ subtype-dependent regulation of downstream effectors, representing a diverse range of signalling pathways and physiological functions have been found. Here, we review the literature on the repercussions of Gβ and Gγ subtype diversity on direct and indirect regulation of GPCR/G protein signalling events and their physiological outcomes. Our discussion additionally provides perspective in understanding the intricacies underlying molecular regulation of subtype-specific roles of Gβγ signalling and associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mithila Tennakoon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Kanishka Senarath
- Genetics and Molecular Biology Unit, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
| | - Dinesh Kankanamge
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Kasun Ratnayake
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Dhanushan Wijayaratna
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Koshala Olupothage
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Sithurandi Ubeysinghe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | | | - Terence E Hébert
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, QC H3G 1Y6, Canada.
| | - Ajith Karunarathne
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA.
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15
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Tctex-1 augments G protein-coupled receptor-mediated G s signaling by activating adenylyl cyclase. J Pharmacol Sci 2020; 145:150-154. [PMID: 33357773 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2020.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteins interacting with G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) can modulate signal transduction of these receptors. However, the regulatory mechanisms of the interacting proteins are diverse and largely unknown. We have previously shown that Tctex-1 (or DYNLT1) can interact with the parathyroid hormone receptor (PTHR). In the present study, we investigated the role of Tctex-1 in the PTHR signaling and found that Tctex-1 augmented the PTHR-mediated Gs/adenylyl cyclase (AC) pathway by activating AC regardless of the binding to PTHR. Furthermore, Tctex-1 directly bound to AC type 6. These data demonstrate a novel mechanism underlying GPCR/Gs signaling regulated by Tctex-1.
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16
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Seth A, Finkbeiner M, Grischin J, Schultz JE. Gsα stimulation of mammalian adenylate cyclases regulated by their hexahelical membrane anchors. Cell Signal 2020; 68:109538. [PMID: 31931092 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2020.109538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Revised: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian adenylate cyclases (ACs) are pseudoheterodimers with dissimilar hexahelical membrane-anchors, isoform-specifically conserved for more than half a billion years. We exchanged both membrane anchors of the AC isoform 2 by the quorum-sensing receptor from Vibrio harveyi, CqsS, which has a ligand, Cholera-Autoinducer-1 (CAI-1). In the chimera, AC activity was stimulated by Gsα, CAI-1 had no effect. Surprisingly, CAI-1 inhibited Gsα stimulation. We report that Gsα stimulation of human AC isoforms 2, 3, 5, and 9 expressed in Sf9 cells is inhibited by serum as is AC activity in membranes isolated from rat brain cortex. AC2 activation by forskolin or forskolin/Gsα was similarly inhibited. Obviously, serum contains as yet unidentified factors affecting AC activity. The data establish a linkage in ACs, in which the membrane anchors, as receptors, transduce extracellular signals to the cytosolic catalytic dimer. A mechanistic three state model of AC regulation is presented compatible with all known regulatory inputs into mammalian ACs. The data allow designating the membrane anchors of mammalian ACs as orphan receptors, and establish a new level of AC regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anubha Seth
- Pharmazeutisches Institut der Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; Max-Planck-Institut für Entwicklungsbiologie, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Julia Grischin
- Max-Planck-Institut für Entwicklungsbiologie, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Joachim E Schultz
- Pharmazeutisches Institut der Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
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17
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Jorwal P, Sikdar SK. Lactate reduces epileptiform activity through HCA1 and GIRK channel activation in rat subicular neurons in an in vitro model. Epilepsia 2019; 60:2370-2385. [DOI: 10.1111/epi.16389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Jorwal
- Molecular Biophysics Unit Indian Institute of Science Bangalore India
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18
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Smrcka AV, Fisher I. G-protein βγ subunits as multi-functional scaffolds and transducers in G-protein-coupled receptor signaling. Cell Mol Life Sci 2019; 76:4447-4459. [PMID: 31435698 PMCID: PMC6842434 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-019-03275-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 08/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
G-protein βγ subunits are key participants in G-protein signaling. These subunits facilitate interactions between receptors and G proteins that are critical for the G protein activation cycle at the plasma membrane. In addition, they play roles in directly transducing signals to an ever expanding range of downstream targets, including integral membrane and cytosolic proteins. Emerging data indicate that Gβγ may play additional roles at intracellular compartments including endosomes, the Golgi apparatus, and the nucleus. Here, we discuss the molecular and structural basis for their ability to coordinate this wide range of cellular activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan V Smrcka
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48104, USA.
| | - Isaac Fisher
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48104, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester School of Medicine, Rochester, NY, 14629, USA
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19
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Fonin AV, Darling AL, Kuznetsova IM, Turoverov KK, Uversky VN. Multi-functionality of proteins involved in GPCR and G protein signaling: making sense of structure-function continuum with intrinsic disorder-based proteoforms. Cell Mol Life Sci 2019; 76:4461-4492. [PMID: 31428838 PMCID: PMC11105632 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-019-03276-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 08/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
GPCR-G protein signaling system recognizes a multitude of extracellular ligands and triggers a variety of intracellular signaling cascades in response. In humans, this system includes more than 800 various GPCRs and a large set of heterotrimeric G proteins. Complexity of this system goes far beyond a multitude of pair-wise ligand-GPCR and GPCR-G protein interactions. In fact, one GPCR can recognize more than one extracellular signal and interact with more than one G protein. Furthermore, one ligand can activate more than one GPCR, and multiple GPCRs can couple to the same G protein. This defines an intricate multifunctionality of this important signaling system. Here, we show that the multifunctionality of GPCR-G protein system represents an illustrative example of the protein structure-function continuum, where structures of the involved proteins represent a complex mosaic of differently folded regions (foldons, non-foldons, unfoldons, semi-foldons, and inducible foldons). The functionality of resulting highly dynamic conformational ensembles is fine-tuned by various post-translational modifications and alternative splicing, and such ensembles can undergo dramatic changes at interaction with their specific partners. In other words, GPCRs and G proteins exist as sets of conformational/basic, inducible/modified, and functioning proteoforms characterized by a broad spectrum of structural features and possessing various functional potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander V Fonin
- Laboratory of structural Dynamics, Stability and Folding of Proteins, Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, 194064, Russian Federation
| | - April L Darling
- Department of Molecular Medicine and USF Health Byrd Alzheimer's Research Institute, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Irina M Kuznetsova
- Laboratory of structural Dynamics, Stability and Folding of Proteins, Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, 194064, Russian Federation
| | - Konstantin K Turoverov
- Laboratory of structural Dynamics, Stability and Folding of Proteins, Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, 194064, Russian Federation
- Department of Biophysics, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Polytechnicheskaya av. 29, St. Petersburg, 195251, Russian Federation
| | - Vladimir N Uversky
- Department of Molecular Medicine and USF Health Byrd Alzheimer's Research Institute, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA.
- Institute for Biological Instrumentation, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Moscow, Russian Federation.
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20
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Bruce NJ, Narzi D, Trpevski D, van Keulen SC, Nair AG, Röthlisberger U, Wade RC, Carloni P, Hellgren Kotaleski J. Regulation of adenylyl cyclase 5 in striatal neurons confers the ability to detect coincident neuromodulatory signals. PLoS Comput Biol 2019; 15:e1007382. [PMID: 31665146 PMCID: PMC6821081 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Long-term potentiation and depression of synaptic activity in response to stimuli is a key factor in reinforcement learning. Strengthening of the corticostriatal synapses depends on the second messenger cAMP, whose synthesis is catalysed by the enzyme adenylyl cyclase 5 (AC5), which is itself regulated by the stimulatory Gαolf and inhibitory Gαi proteins. AC isoforms have been suggested to act as coincidence detectors, promoting cellular responses only when convergent regulatory signals occur close in time. However, the mechanism for this is currently unclear, and seems to lie in their diverse regulation patterns. Despite attempts to isolate the ternary complex, it is not known if Gαolf and Gαi can bind to AC5 simultaneously, nor what activity the complex would have. Using protein structure-based molecular dynamics simulations, we show that this complex is stable and inactive. These simulations, along with Brownian dynamics simulations to estimate protein association rates constants, constrain a kinetic model that shows that the presence of this ternary inactive complex is crucial for AC5's ability to detect coincident signals, producing a synergistic increase in cAMP. These results reveal some of the prerequisites for corticostriatal synaptic plasticity, and explain recent experimental data on cAMP concentrations following receptor activation. Moreover, they provide insights into the regulatory mechanisms that control signal processing by different AC isoforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil J. Bruce
- Molecular and Cellular Modeling Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), Schloss-Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Daniele Narzi
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Trpevski
- Science for Life Laboratory, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Siri C. van Keulen
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Anu G. Nair
- Institute of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ursula Röthlisberger
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Rebecca C. Wade
- Molecular and Cellular Modeling Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), Schloss-Heidelberg, Germany
- Center for Molecular Biology (ZMBH), DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
- Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing (IWR), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Paolo Carloni
- Department of Physics and Department of Neurobiology, RWTH Aachen University,Aachen, Germany
- Institute for Neuroscience and Medicine (INM)-11, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-9), Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- Institute for Advanced Simulation (IAS-5), Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Jeanette Hellgren Kotaleski
- Science for Life Laboratory, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
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21
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Saito M, Cui L, Hirano M, Li G, Yanagisawa T, Sato T, Sukegawa J. Activity of Adenylyl Cyclase Type 6 Is Suppressed by Direct Binding of the Cytoskeletal Protein 4.1G. Mol Pharmacol 2019; 96:441-451. [PMID: 31383768 DOI: 10.1124/mol.119.116426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling pathways mediated by trimeric G proteins have been extensively elucidated, but their associated regulatory mechanisms remain unclear. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)/PTH-related protein receptor (PTHR) is a GPCR coupled with Gs and Gq Gs activates adenylyl cyclases (ACs), which produces cAMP to regulate various cell fates. We previously showed that cell surface expression of PTHR was increased by its direct interaction with a subcortical cytoskeletal protein, 4.1G, whereas PTHR-mediated Gs/AC/cAMP signaling was suppressed by 4.1G through an unknown mechanism in human embryonic kidney (HEK)293 cells. In the present study, we found that AC type 6 (AC6), one of the major ACs activated downstream of PTHR, interacts with 4.1G in HEK293 cells, and the N-terminus of AC6 (AC6-N) directly and selectively binds to the 4.1/ezrin/radixin/moesin (FERM) domain of 4.1G (4.1G-FERM) in vitro. AC6-N was distributed at the plasma membrane, which was disturbed by knockdown of 4.1G. An AC6-N mutant, AC6-N-3A, in which three consecutive arginine residues are mutated to alanine residues, altered both binding to 4.1G-FERM and its plasma membrane distribution in vivo. Further, we overexpressed AC6-N to competitively inhibit the interaction of endogenous AC6 and 4.1G in cells. cAMP production induced by forskolin, an adenylyl cyclase activator, and PTH-(1-34) was enhanced by AC6-N expression and 4.1G-knockdown. In contrast, AC6-N-3A had no impact on forskolin- and PTH-(1-34)-induced cAMP productions. These data provide a novel regulatory mechanism that AC6 activity is suppressed by the direct binding of 4.1G to AC6-N, resulting in attenuation of PTHR-mediated Gs/AC6/cAMP signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Saito
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (M.S., L.C., M.H., G.L., T.Y., T.S., J.S.); Department of Human Health and Nutrition, Shokei Gakuin University, Natori, Miyagi, Japan (M.H., J.S.); and Faculty of Health Sciences, Tohoku Fukushi University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (T.Y.)
| | - Linran Cui
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (M.S., L.C., M.H., G.L., T.Y., T.S., J.S.); Department of Human Health and Nutrition, Shokei Gakuin University, Natori, Miyagi, Japan (M.H., J.S.); and Faculty of Health Sciences, Tohoku Fukushi University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (T.Y.)
| | - Marina Hirano
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (M.S., L.C., M.H., G.L., T.Y., T.S., J.S.); Department of Human Health and Nutrition, Shokei Gakuin University, Natori, Miyagi, Japan (M.H., J.S.); and Faculty of Health Sciences, Tohoku Fukushi University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (T.Y.)
| | - Guanjie Li
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (M.S., L.C., M.H., G.L., T.Y., T.S., J.S.); Department of Human Health and Nutrition, Shokei Gakuin University, Natori, Miyagi, Japan (M.H., J.S.); and Faculty of Health Sciences, Tohoku Fukushi University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (T.Y.)
| | - Teruyuki Yanagisawa
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (M.S., L.C., M.H., G.L., T.Y., T.S., J.S.); Department of Human Health and Nutrition, Shokei Gakuin University, Natori, Miyagi, Japan (M.H., J.S.); and Faculty of Health Sciences, Tohoku Fukushi University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (T.Y.)
| | - Takeya Sato
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (M.S., L.C., M.H., G.L., T.Y., T.S., J.S.); Department of Human Health and Nutrition, Shokei Gakuin University, Natori, Miyagi, Japan (M.H., J.S.); and Faculty of Health Sciences, Tohoku Fukushi University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (T.Y.)
| | - Jun Sukegawa
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (M.S., L.C., M.H., G.L., T.Y., T.S., J.S.); Department of Human Health and Nutrition, Shokei Gakuin University, Natori, Miyagi, Japan (M.H., J.S.); and Faculty of Health Sciences, Tohoku Fukushi University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (T.Y.)
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22
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Baldwin TA, Li Y, Brand CS, Watts VJ, Dessauer CW. Insights into the Regulatory Properties of Human Adenylyl Cyclase Type 9. Mol Pharmacol 2019; 95:349-360. [PMID: 30696718 DOI: 10.1124/mol.118.114595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Membrane-bound adenylyl cyclase (AC) isoforms have distinct regulatory mechanisms that contribute to their signaling specificity and physiologic roles. Although insight into the physiologic relevance of AC9 has progressed, the understanding of AC9 regulation is muddled with conflicting studies. Currently, modes of AC9 regulation include stimulation by Gαs, protein kinase C (PKC) βII, or calcium-calmodulin kinase II (CaMKII) and inhibition by Gαi/o, novel PKC isoforms, or calcium-calcineurin. Conversely, the original cloning of human AC9 reported that AC9 is insensitive to Gαi inhibition. The purpose of our study was to clarify which proposed regulators of AC9 act directly or indirectly, particularly with respect to Gαi/o. The proposed regulators, including G proteins (Gαs, Gαi, Gαo, Gβγ), protein kinases (PKCβII, CaMKII), and forskolin, were systematically evaluated using classic in vitro AC assays and cell-based cAMP accumulation assays in COS-7 cells. Our studies show that AC9 is directly regulated by Gαs with weak conditional activation by forskolin; other modes of proposed regulation either occur indirectly or possibly require additional scaffolding proteins to facilitate regulation. We also show that AC9 contributes to basal cAMP production; knockdown or knockout of endogenous AC9 reduces basal AC activity in COS-7 cells and splenocytes. Importantly, although AC9 is not directly inhibited by Gαi/o, it can heterodimerize with Gαi/o-regulated isoforms, AC5 and AC6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanya A Baldwin
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas (T.A.B., Y.L., C.S.B., C.W.D.); and Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana (V.J.W.)
| | - Yong Li
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas (T.A.B., Y.L., C.S.B., C.W.D.); and Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana (V.J.W.)
| | - Cameron S Brand
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas (T.A.B., Y.L., C.S.B., C.W.D.); and Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana (V.J.W.)
| | - Val J Watts
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas (T.A.B., Y.L., C.S.B., C.W.D.); and Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana (V.J.W.)
| | - Carmen W Dessauer
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas (T.A.B., Y.L., C.S.B., C.W.D.); and Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana (V.J.W.)
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Wiggins SV, Steegborn C, Levin LR, Buck J. Pharmacological modulation of the CO 2/HCO 3-/pH-, calcium-, and ATP-sensing soluble adenylyl cyclase. Pharmacol Ther 2018; 190:173-186. [PMID: 29807057 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic AMP (cAMP), the prototypical second messenger, has been implicated in a wide variety of (often opposing) physiological processes. It simultaneously mediates multiple, diverse processes, often within a single cell, by acting locally within independently-regulated and spatially-restricted microdomains. Within each microdomain, the level of cAMP will be dependent upon the balance between its synthesis by adenylyl cyclases and its degradation by phosphodiesterases (PDEs). In mammalian cells, there are many PDE isoforms and two types of adenylyl cyclases; the G protein regulated transmembrane adenylyl cyclases (tmACs) and the CO2/HCO3-/pH-, calcium-, and ATP-sensing soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC). Discriminating the roles of individual cyclic nucleotide microdomains requires pharmacological modulators selective for the various PDEs and/or adenylyl cyclases. Such tools present an opportunity to develop therapeutics specifically targeted to individual cAMP dependent pathways. The pharmacological modulators of tmACs have recently been reviewed, and in this review, we describe the current status of pharmacological tools available for studying sAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakarr V Wiggins
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, United States
| | - Clemens Steegborn
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Bayreuth, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Lonny R Levin
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, United States.
| | - Jochen Buck
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, United States
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Function of Adenylyl Cyclase in Heart: the AKAP Connection. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis 2018; 5:jcdd5010002. [PMID: 29367580 PMCID: PMC5872350 DOI: 10.3390/jcdd5010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Revised: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), synthesized by adenylyl cyclase (AC), is a universal second messenger that regulates various aspects of cardiac physiology from contraction rate to the initiation of cardioprotective stress response pathways. Local pools of cAMP are maintained by macromolecular complexes formed by A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs). AKAPs facilitate control by bringing together regulators of the cAMP pathway including G-protein-coupled receptors, ACs, and downstream effectors of cAMP to finely tune signaling. This review will summarize the distinct roles of AC isoforms in cardiac function and how interactions with AKAPs facilitate AC function, highlighting newly appreciated roles for lesser abundant AC isoforms.
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25
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Loss of type 9 adenylyl cyclase triggers reduced phosphorylation of Hsp20 and diastolic dysfunction. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5522. [PMID: 28717248 PMCID: PMC5514062 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-05816-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Adenylyl cyclase type 9 (AC9) is found tightly associated with the scaffolding protein Yotiao and the IKs ion channel in heart. But apart from potential IKs regulation, physiological roles for AC9 are unknown. We show that loss of AC9 in mice reduces less than 3% of total AC activity in heart but eliminates Yotiao-associated AC activity. AC9−/− mice exhibit no structural abnormalities but show a significant bradycardia, consistent with AC9 expression in sinoatrial node. Global changes in PKA phosphorylation patterns are not altered in AC9−/− heart, however, basal phosphorylation of heat shock protein 20 (Hsp20) is significantly decreased. Hsp20 binds AC9 in a Yotiao-independent manner and deletion of AC9 decreases Hsp20-associated AC activity in heart. In addition, expression of catalytically inactive AC9 in neonatal cardiomyocytes decreases isoproterenol-stimulated Hsp20 phosphorylation, consistent with an AC9-Hsp20 complex. Phosphorylation of Hsp20 occurs largely in ventricles and is vital for the cardioprotective effects of Hsp20. Decreased Hsp20 phosphorylation suggests a potential baseline ventricular defect for AC9−/−. Doppler echocardiography of AC9−/− displays a decrease in the early ventricular filling velocity and ventricular filling ratio (E/A), indicative of grade 1 diastolic dysfunction and emphasizing the importance of local cAMP production in the context of macromolecular complexes.
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Dessauer CW, Watts VJ, Ostrom RS, Conti M, Dove S, Seifert R. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. CI. Structures and Small Molecule Modulators of Mammalian Adenylyl Cyclases. Pharmacol Rev 2017; 69:93-139. [PMID: 28255005 PMCID: PMC5394921 DOI: 10.1124/pr.116.013078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Adenylyl cyclases (ACs) generate the second messenger cAMP from ATP. Mammalian cells express nine transmembrane AC (mAC) isoforms (AC1-9) and a soluble AC (sAC, also referred to as AC10). This review will largely focus on mACs. mACs are activated by the G-protein Gαs and regulated by multiple mechanisms. mACs are differentially expressed in tissues and regulate numerous and diverse cell functions. mACs localize in distinct membrane compartments and form signaling complexes. sAC is activated by bicarbonate with physiologic roles first described in testis. Crystal structures of the catalytic core of a hybrid mAC and sAC are available. These structures provide detailed insights into the catalytic mechanism and constitute the basis for the development of isoform-selective activators and inhibitors. Although potent competitive and noncompetitive mAC inhibitors are available, it is challenging to obtain compounds with high isoform selectivity due to the conservation of the catalytic core. Accordingly, caution must be exerted with the interpretation of intact-cell studies. The development of isoform-selective activators, the plant diterpene forskolin being the starting compound, has been equally challenging. There is no known endogenous ligand for the forskolin binding site. Recently, development of selective sAC inhibitors was reported. An emerging field is the association of AC gene polymorphisms with human diseases. For example, mutations in the AC5 gene (ADCY5) cause hyperkinetic extrapyramidal motor disorders. Overall, in contrast to the guanylyl cyclase field, our understanding of the (patho)physiology of AC isoforms and the development of clinically useful drugs targeting ACs is still in its infancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen W Dessauer
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Sciences Center at Houston, Houston, Texas (C.W.D.); Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana (V.J.W.); Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Irvine, California (R.S.O.); Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.C.); Institute of Pharmacy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany (S.D.); and Institute of Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany (R.S.)
| | - Val J Watts
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Sciences Center at Houston, Houston, Texas (C.W.D.); Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana (V.J.W.); Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Irvine, California (R.S.O.); Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.C.); Institute of Pharmacy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany (S.D.); and Institute of Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany (R.S.)
| | - Rennolds S Ostrom
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Sciences Center at Houston, Houston, Texas (C.W.D.); Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana (V.J.W.); Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Irvine, California (R.S.O.); Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.C.); Institute of Pharmacy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany (S.D.); and Institute of Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany (R.S.)
| | - Marco Conti
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Sciences Center at Houston, Houston, Texas (C.W.D.); Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana (V.J.W.); Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Irvine, California (R.S.O.); Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.C.); Institute of Pharmacy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany (S.D.); and Institute of Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany (R.S.)
| | - Stefan Dove
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Sciences Center at Houston, Houston, Texas (C.W.D.); Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana (V.J.W.); Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Irvine, California (R.S.O.); Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.C.); Institute of Pharmacy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany (S.D.); and Institute of Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany (R.S.)
| | - Roland Seifert
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Sciences Center at Houston, Houston, Texas (C.W.D.); Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana (V.J.W.); Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Irvine, California (R.S.O.); Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.C.); Institute of Pharmacy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany (S.D.); and Institute of Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany (R.S.)
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