S29434, a Quinone Reductase 2 Inhibitor: Main Biochemical and Cellular Characterization

The specific NQO2 inhibitor, S29434, only marginally improves the survival of dopamine neurons in MPTP-intoxicated mice

Over the years, evidence has accumulated on a possible contributive role of the cytosolic quinone reductase NQO2 in models of dopamine neuron degeneration induced by parkinsonian toxin, but most of the data have been obtained in vitro. For this reason, we asked the question whether NQO2 is involved in the in vivo toxicity of MPTP, a neurotoxin classically used to model Parkinson disease-induced neurodegeneration. First, we show that NQO2 is expressed in mouse substantia nigra dopaminergic cell bodies and in human dopaminergic SH-SY5Y cells as well. A highly specific NQO2 inhibitor, S29434, was able to reduce MPTP-induced cell death in a co-culture system of SH-SY5Y cells with astrocytoma U373 cells but was inactive in SH-SY5Y monocultures. We found that S29434 only marginally prevents substantia nigra tyrosine hydroxylase+ cell loss after MPTP intoxication in vivo. The compound produced a slight increase of dopaminergic cell survival at day 7 and 21 following MPTP treatment, especially with 1.5 and 3 mg/kg dosage regimen. The rescue effect did not reach statistical significance (except for one experiment at day 7) and tended to decrease with the 4.5 mg/kg dose, at the latest time point. Despite the lack of robust protective activity of the inhibitor of NQO2 in the mouse MPTP model, we cannot rule out a possible role of the enzyme in parkinsonian degeneration, particularly because it is substantially expressed in dopaminergic neurons.

Autophagy and neuroprotection in astrocytes exposed to 6-hydroxydopamine is negatively regulated by NQO2: relevance to Parkinson's disease

Dopaminergic degeneration is a central feature of Parkinson's disease (PD), but glial dysfunction may accelerate or trigger neuronal death. In fact, astrocytes play a key role in the maintenance of the blood-brain barrier and detoxification. 6-hydroxydopamine (6OHDA) is used to induce PD in rodent models due to its specific toxicity to dopaminergic neurons, but its effect on astrocytes has been poorly investigated. Here, we show that 6OHDA dose-dependently impairs autophagy in human U373 cells and primary murine astrocytes in the absence of cell death. LC3II downregulation was observed 6 to 48 h after treatment. Interestingly, 6OHDA enhanced NRH:quinone oxidoreductase 2 (NQO2) expression and activity in U373 cells, even if 6OHDA turned out not to be its substrate. Autophagic flux was restored by inhibition of NQO2 with S29434, which correlated with a partial reduction in oxidative stress in response to 6OHDA in human and murine astrocytes. NQO2 inhibition also increased the neuroprotective capability of U373 cells, since S29434 protected dopaminergic SHSY5Y cells from 6OHDA-induced cell death when cocultured with astrocytes. The toxic effects of 6OHDA on autophagy were attenuated by silencing NQO2 in human cells and primary astrocytes from NQO2-/- mice. Finally, the analysis of Gene Expression Omnibus datasets showed elevated NQO2 gene expression in the blood cells of early-stage PD patients. These data support a toxifying function of NQO2 in dopaminergic degeneration via negative regulation of autophagy and neuroprotection in astrocytes, suggesting a potential pharmacological target in PD.

Specific quinone reductase 2 inhibitors reduce metabolic burden and reverse Alzheimer's disease phenotype in mice

Biological aging can be described as accumulative, prolonged metabolic stress and is the major risk factor for cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recently, we identified and described a quinone reductase 2 (QR2) pathway in the brain, in which QR2 acts as a removable memory constraint and metabolic buffer within neurons. QR2 becomes overexpressed with age, and it is possibly a novel contributing factor to age-related metabolic stress and cognitive deficit. We found that, in human cells, genetic removal of QR2 produced a shift in the proteome opposing that found in AD brains while simultaneously reducing oxidative stress. We therefore created highly specific QR2 inhibitors (QR2is) to enable evaluation of chronic QR2 inhibition as a means to reduce biological age-related metabolic stress and cognitive decline. QR2is replicated results obtained by genetic removal of QR2, while local QR2i microinjection improved hippocampal and cortical-dependent learning in rats and mice. Continuous consumption of QR2is in drinking water improved cognition and reduced pathology in the brains of AD-model mice (5xFAD), with a noticeable between-sex effect on treatment duration. These results demonstrate the importance of QR2 activity and pathway function in the healthy and neurodegenerative brain and what we believe to be the great therapeutic potential of QR2is as first-in-class drugs.

Various concentrations of hesperetin induce different types of programmed cell death in human breast cancerous and normal cell lines in a ROS-dependent manner

The polyphenolic component of citrus fruits, hesperetin (Hst), is a metabolite of hesperidin. In this study, we examined the effect of varying doses and exposure times of hesperetin on MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cancer cells, as well as MCF-10A normal cells. By using MTT assay, real-time PCR, western blot, and flow cytometry, we determined the effects of Hst on cell viability, ROS levels, and markers of cell death. Furthermore, molecular docking was used to identify Hst targets that might be involved in ROS-dependent cell death. According to the results, different concentrations of Hst induced different modes of cell death at specific ROS levels. Paraptosis occurred in all cell lines at concentration ranges of IC35 to IC60, and apoptosis occurred at concentrations greater than IC65. In addition, MDA-MB-231 cells were subjected to senescence at sub-toxic doses when treated for a long period of time. When Hst levels were higher, N-acetylcysteine (NAC)'s effect on neutralizing ROS was more pronounced. According to the docking results, Hst may interact with several proteins involved in the regulation of ROS. As an example, the interaction of CCS (Copper chaperone for superoxide dismutase) with Hst might interfere with its chaperone function in folding SOD-1 (superoxide dismutase enzyme), contributing to an increase in cytoplasmic ROS levels. Finally, depending on the ROS level, Hst induces various modes of cell death.

Patent highlights October-November 2022

A snapshot of recent noteworthy developments in the patent literature of relevance to pharmaceutical and medical research and development.

Three Australian Lepidosperma Labill. Species as sources of prenylated and oxyprenylated derivatives of piceatannol, resveratrol and pinosylvin: Melatoninergic binding and inhibition of quinone reductase 2

Prenylated and hydroxyprenylated piceatannol, resveratrol and pinosylvin derivatives were isolated from resin produced by three Australian Lepidosperma Labill. Species (Cyperaceae). From L. congestum R.Br. one known compound, 3',5'-bis-prenyl-E-resveratrol, and five undescribed compounds were isolated, 3'-O-prenyl-5'-prenyl-E-piceatannol, 5',6'-bis-prenyl-E-piceatannol, 5'-prenyl-E-piceatannol, 3',5'-bis(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-E-resveratrol and 3',5'-bis-E-hydroxyprenyl-E-resveratrol. From L. gunnii Boeckeler one undescribed compound was isolated, 3'-E-hydroxyprenyl-5'-Z-hydroxyprenyl-E-resveratrol. From L. laterale R.Br. six undescribed compounds were isolated, 3-O-prenyl-E-pinosylvin, 3-O-Z-hydroxyprenyl-E-pinosylvin, 3'-Z-hydroxyprenyl-E-resveratrol, 3-O-Z-hydroxyprenyl-E-resveratrol, 3-O-Z-hydroxyprenyl-4'-O-methyl-E-resveratrol, and 3-O-prenyl-3'-δ,δ'-dihydroxyprenyl-E-resveratrol. Compounds, including a reference compound 3-O-prenyl-3'-O-methyl-E-piceatannol, were screened in an assay for melatoninergic binding to MT1 and MT2 receptors and binding to QR2/MT3 enzyme, and for inhibition of QR2/MT3 in a functional assay. Strong binding was observed for 3-O-Z-hydroxyprenyl-E-resveratrol with a K_i of 0.022 nM and the strongest inhibition of QR2/MT3 observed was for the reference compound, 3-O-prenyl-3'-O-methyl-E-piceatannol, with an inhibition of 61% at 1 μM and 95% at 10 μM. The three most active binders and inhibitors of QR2/MT3 were found to have a common substructure corresponding to 3-O-prenylresveratrol.

Mapping the Melatonin Receptor. 8. Selective MT2 Agonists derived from 5,6-dihydroindolo[2,1-a]isoquinolines and related systems

A series of substituted indolo[2,1- a ]isoquinolines and indolo[1,2- a ]benzoxazines have been prepared, as melatonin analogues, to investigate the nature of the binding site of the melatonin receptor. Agonist and antagonist potency of all the analogues was measured using the [35S]GTPγS binding assay protocol. The binding affinity of the analogues were measured by competition binding studies against the human MT1 (hMT1) and MT2 (hMT2) receptors stably transfected in Chinese Hamster Ovarian (CHO) cells, using 2-[ 125 I]-iodomelatonin, as a ligand.  N -Acetyl 2-(10-methoxy-5,6-dihydroindolo[2,1- a ]isoquinolin-12-yl)propyl-1-amine  (12a)  binds strongly to both the hMT1 and hMT2 receptors, and shows a preference for the hMT2, as does Its propanamido counterpart  12b . The introduction of two methyl groups into their side chain, analogues  15a  and 1 5b,  leads to antagonism, in the case of the former, and drastically diminishes its hMT1 binding; an analogous profile is seen for  15b , which, however, is a partial agonist.. Introduction of chlorine or methoxyl groups into ring 4 gives compounds, that are weakly binding, with a preference for MT2. Substitution of oxygen for carbon at position 5 gives the indolo[1,2- c ]benzoxazines  33 ,  36a  and  b , that bind strongly to the human receptors,  33 ,  36b  are potent agonists at the melatonin receptors, but do not discriminate between hMT1 and hMT2.

Measurement of NQO2 Catalytic Activity and of Its Inhibition by Melatonin

The third melatonin binding site MT₃ turned out to be an enzyme, NQO2 (E.C. 1.6.99.2). Its catalytic activity is inhibited by melatonin with an IC₅₀ in the 50-100 μM range. Some of the functions of melatonin at pharmacological concentrations (1 μM and above) might be explained by this inhibition capacity of melatonin at NQO2. In order to determine precisely these parameters, it is required to comprehend the basic enzymology of this enzyme. In the following chapter, we present the basic conditions of measuring NQO2 catalytic activities and inhibition.

Neuroprotective Properties of Quinone Reductase 2 Inhibitor M-11, a 2-Mercaptobenzimidazole Derivative

The ability of NQO2 to increase the production of free radicals under enhanced generation of quinone derivatives of catecholamines is considered to be a component of neurodegenerative disease pathogenesis. The present study aimed to investigate the neuroprotective mechanisms of original NQO2 inhibitor M-11 (2-[2-(3-oxomorpholin-4-il)-ethylthio]-5-ethoxybenzimidazole hydrochloride) in a cellular damage model using NQO2 endogenous substrate adrenochrome (125 µM) and co-substrate BNAH (100 µM). The effects of M-11 (10-100 µM) on the reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, apoptosis and lesion of nuclear DNA were evaluated using flow cytometry and single-cell gel electrophoresis assay (comet assay). Results were compared with S29434, the reference inhibitor of NQO2. It was found that treatment of HT-22 cells with M-11 results in a decline of ROS production triggered by incubation of cells with NQO2 substrate and co-substrate. Pre-incubation of HT-22 cells with compounds M-11 or S29434 results in a decrease of DNA damage and late apoptotic cell percentage reduction. The obtained results provide a rationale for further development of the M-11 compound as a potential neuroprotective agent.

Synthesis and SAR Studies of Isoquinoline and Tetrahydroisoquinoline Derivatives as Melatonin Receptor Ligands

In our constant search for new successors of agomelatine, we report herein a new series of compounds resulting from bioisosteric modulation of the naphthalene ring. The isoquinoline and tetrahydroisoquinoline derivatives were synthesized and pharmacologically evaluated. This isosteric replacement of the naphthalene group of agomelatine has led to potent agonist and partial agonist compounds with nanomolar melatonergic binding affinities. Overall, the presence of a nitrogen atom was accompanied with a decrease in the binding affinity toward both MT₁ and MT₂ and the loss of 5HT_2C response, especially for tetrahydroisoquinoline in comparison with the parent compound. Interestingly, due to the presence of this nitrogen atom, a notable improvement in the pharmacokinetic properties was observed for all compounds.

Apigenin and Luteolin Regulate Autophagy by Targeting NRH-Quinone Oxidoreductase 2 in Liver Cells

Dietary flavonoids stimulate autophagy and prevent liver dysfunction, but the upstream signaling pathways triggered by these compounds are not well understood. Certain polyphenols bind directly to NRH-quinone oxidoreductase 2 (NQO2) and inhibit its activity. NQO2 is highly expressed in the liver, where it participates in quinone metabolism, but recent evidence indicates that it may also play a role in the regulation of oxidative stress and autophagy. Here, we addressed a potential role of NQO2 in autophagy induction by flavonoids. The pro-autophagic activity of seven flavonoid aglycons correlated perfectly with their ability to inhibit NQO2 activity, and flavones such as apigenin and luteolin showed the strongest activity in all assays. The silencing of NQO2 strongly reduced flavone-induced autophagic flux, although it increased basal LC3-II levels in HepG2 cells. Both flavones induced AMP kinase (AMPK) activation, while its reduction by AMPK beta (PRKAB1) silencing inhibited flavone-induced autophagy. Interestingly, the depletion of NQO2 levels by siRNA increased the basal AMPK phosphorylation but abrogated its further increase by apigenin. Thus, NQO2 contributes to the negative regulation of AMPK activity and autophagy, while its targeting by flavones releases pro-autophagic signals. These findings imply that NQO2 works as a flavone receptor mediating autophagy and may contribute to other hepatic effects of flavonoids.

Association of NQO2 With UDP-Glucuronosyltransferases Reduces Menadione Toxicity in Neuroblastoma Cells

The balance between detoxification and toxicity is linked to enzymes of the drug metabolism Phase I (cytochrome P450 or oxidoreductases) and phase II conjugating enzymes (such as the UGTs). After the reduction of quinones, the product of the reaction, the quinols-if not conjugated-re-oxidizes spontaneously to form the substrate quinone with the concomitant production of the toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). Herein, we documented the modulation of the toxicity of the quinone menadione on a genetically modified neuroblastoma model cell line that expresses both the quinone oxidoreductase 2 (NQO2, E.C. 1.10.5.1) alone or together with the conjugation enzyme UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT1A6, E.C. 2.4.1.17), one of the two UGT isoenzymes capable to conjugate menadione. As previously shown, NQO2 enzymatic activity is concomitant to massive ROS production, as previously shown. The quantification of ROS produced by the menadione metabolism was probed by electron-paramagnetic resonance (EPR) on cell homogenates, while the production of superoxide was measured by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) on intact cells. In addition, the dysregulation of the redox homeostasis upon the cell exposure to menadione was studied by fluorescence measurements. Both EPR and LCMS studies confirmed a significant increase in the ROS production in the NQO2 overexpressing cells due to the fast reduction of quinone into quinol that can re-oxidize to form superoxide radicals. However, the effect of NQO2 inhibition was drastically different between cells overexpressing only NQO2 vs. both NQO2 and UGT. Whereas NQO2 inhibition decreases the amount of superoxide in the first case by decreasing the amount of quinol formed, it increased the toxicity of menadione in the cells co-expressing both enzymes. Moreover, for the cells co-expressing QR2 and UGT the homeostasis dysregulation was lower in presence of menadione than for the its counterpart expressing only QR2. Those results confirmed that the cooperation of the two enzymes plays a fundamental role during the cells' detoxification process. The fluorescence measurements of the variation of redox homeostasis of each cell line and the detection of a glucuronide form of menadiol in the cells co-expressing NQO2 and UGT1A6 enzymes further confirmed our findings.

Melatonin controversies, an update

Melatonin was discovered more than 60 years ago. Since then, several seminal discoveries have allowed us to define its function as a neuroendocrine hormone and its molecular targets in mammals and many other species. However, many fundamental issues have not yet been solved such as the subcellular localization of melatonin synthesis and the full spectrum of its molecular targets. In addition, a considerable number of controversies persist in the field, mainly concerning how many functions melatonin has. Altogether, this illustrates how "immature" the field still is. The intention of this opinion article is to note the controversies and limitations in the field, to initiate a discussion and to make proposals/guidelines to overcome them and move the field forward.

Journal of pineal research guideline for authors: Defining and characterizing melatonin targets

A multitude of effects has been attributed to melatonin at pmol/L to mmol/L concentrations. More than fifteen targets have been proposed for melatonin but only few of them are well characterized. The current guidelines intend to provide a framework to improve and rationalize the characterization of melatonin targets and effects. They should be considered as mandatory guidelines and minimum requirements for manuscripts submitted to the Journal of Pineal Research.

Quinazoline and phthalazine derivatives as novel melatonin receptor ligands analogues of agomelatine

For further development of successors of Agomelatine through modulation of its pharmacokinetic properties, we report herein the design, synthesis and pharmacological results of a new family of melatonin receptor ligands. Issued from the introduction of quinazoline and phthalazine scaffolds carrying an ethyl amide lateral chain and a methoxy group as bioisosteric ligands analogues of previously developed Agomelatine. The biological activity of the prepared analogues was compared with that of Agomelatine. Quinazoline and phthalazine rings proved to be a versatile scaffold for easy feasible MT₁ and MT₂ ligands. Potent agonists with sub-micromolar binding affinity were obtained. However, the presence of two nitrogen atoms resulted in compounds with lower affinity for both MT₁ and MT₂, in comparison with the parent compound, balanced by the exhibition of good pharmacokinetic properties.

Antimalarial Properties of Dunnione Derivatives as NQO2 Substrates

Dunnione, a natural product isolated from the leaves of Streptocarpus dunnii (Gesneriaceae), acts as a substrate for quinone-reductases that may be associated with its antimalarial properties. Following our exploration of reactive oxygen species-producing compounds such as indolones, as possible new approaches for the research of new ways to treat this parasitosis, we explored derivatives of this natural product and their possible antiplasmodial and antimalarial properties, in vitro and in vivo, respectively. Apart from one compound, all the products tested had weak to moderate antiplasmodial activities, the best IC₅₀ value being equal to 0.58 µM. In vivo activities in the murine model were moderate (at a dose of 50 mg/kg/mice, five times higher than the dose of chloroquine). These results encourage further pharmacomodulation steps to improve the targeting of the parasitized red blood cells and antimalarial activities.