1
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Strobel KR, Schlegel M, Jain M, Kretschmer S, Krasheninnikov AV, Meyer JC. Temperature-dependence of beam-driven dynamics in graphene-fullerene sandwiches. Micron 2024; 184:103666. [PMID: 38850966 DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2024.103666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 05/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
C60 fullerenes encapsulated between graphene sheets were investigated by aberration-corrected high-resolution transmission electron microscopy at different temperatures, namely about 93 K, 293 K and 733 K, and by molecular dynamics simulations. We studied beam-induced dynamics of the C60 fullerenes and the encapsulating graphene, measured the critical doses for the initial damage to the fullerenes and followed the beam-induced polymerization. We find that, while the doses for the initial damage do not strongly depend on temperature, the clusters formed by the subsequent polymerization are more tubular at lower temperatures, while sheet-like structures are generated at higher temperatures. The experimental findings are supported by the results of first-principles and analytical potential molecular dynamics simulations. The merging of curved carbon sheets is clearly promoted at higher temperatures and proceeds at once over few-nm segments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin R Strobel
- University of Tübingen, Institute of Applied Physics, Auf der Morgenstelle 10, Tübingen 72076, Germany; NMI Natural and Medical Sciences Institute at the University of Tübingen, Markwiesenstrasse 55, Reutlingen 72770, Germany.
| | - Michael Schlegel
- University of Tübingen, Institute of Applied Physics, Auf der Morgenstelle 10, Tübingen 72076, Germany; NMI Natural and Medical Sciences Institute at the University of Tübingen, Markwiesenstrasse 55, Reutlingen 72770, Germany
| | - Mitisha Jain
- Institute of Ion Beam Physics and Materials Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Dresden 01328, Germany
| | - Silvan Kretschmer
- Institute of Ion Beam Physics and Materials Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Dresden 01328, Germany
| | - Arkady V Krasheninnikov
- Institute of Ion Beam Physics and Materials Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Dresden 01328, Germany
| | - Jannik C Meyer
- University of Tübingen, Institute of Applied Physics, Auf der Morgenstelle 10, Tübingen 72076, Germany; NMI Natural and Medical Sciences Institute at the University of Tübingen, Markwiesenstrasse 55, Reutlingen 72770, Germany.
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2
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Chernozatonskii LA, Kochaev AI. Bilayer C 60 Polymer/ h-BN Heterostructures: A DFT Study of Electronic and Optic Properties. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1580. [PMID: 38891526 PMCID: PMC11175054 DOI: 10.3390/polym16111580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2024] [Revised: 05/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Interest in fullerene-based polymer structures has renewed due to the development of synthesis technologies using thin C60 polymers. Fullerene networks are good semiconductors. In this paper, heterostructure complexes composed of C60 polymer networks on atomically thin dielectric substrates are modeled. Small tensile and compressive deformations make it possible to ensure appropriate placement of monolayer boron nitride with fullerene networks. The choice of a piezoelectric boron nitride substrate was dictated by interest in their applicability in mechanoelectric, photoelectronic, and electro-optical devices with the ability to control their properties. The results we obtained show that C60 polymer/h-BN heterostructures are stable compounds. The van der Waals interaction that arises between them affects their electronic and optical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonid A. Chernozatonskii
- Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics RAS, 4 Kosygin Street, 119334 Moscow, Russia
- Scientific School on Chemistry and Technology of Polymer Materials, Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Aleksey I. Kochaev
- Research and Education Center “Silicon and Carbon Nanotechnologies”, Ulyanovsk State University, 42 Leo Tolstoy Street, 432017 Ulyanovsk, Russia
- Laboratory of 2D Nanomaterials in Electronics, Photonics and Spintronics, National Research Nuclear University “MEPhI”, 31 Kashirskoe sh., 115409 Moscow, Russia
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3
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Harano K, Nakamuro T, Nakamura E. Cinematographic study of stochastic chemical events at atomic resolution. Microscopy (Oxf) 2024; 73:101-116. [PMID: 37864546 DOI: 10.1093/jmicro/dfad052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The advent of single-molecule atomic-resolution time-resolved electron microscopy (SMART-EM) has created a new field of 'cinematic chemistry,' allowing for the cinematographic recording of dynamic behaviors of organic and inorganic molecules and their assembly. However, the limited electron dose per frame of video images presents a major challenge in SMART-EM. Recent advances in direct electron counting cameras and techniques to enhance image quality through the implementation of a denoising algorithm have enabled the tracking of stochastic molecular motions and chemical reactions with sub-millisecond temporal resolution and sub-angstrom localization precision. This review showcases the development of dynamic molecular imaging using the SMART-EM technique, highlighting insights into nanomechanical behavior during molecular shuttle motion, pathways of multistep chemical reactions, and elucidation of crystallization processes at the atomic level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Harano
- Center for Basic Research on Materials, National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan
| | - Takayuki Nakamuro
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Eiichi Nakamura
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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4
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Smith JG, Sawant KJ, Zeng Z, Eldred TB, Wu J, Greeley JP, Gao W. Disproportionation chemistry in K 2PtCl 4 visualized at atomic resolution using scanning transmission electron microscopy. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadi0175. [PMID: 38335285 PMCID: PMC10857378 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adi0175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
The direct observation of a solid-state chemical reaction can reveal otherwise hidden mechanisms that control the reaction kinetics. However, probing the chemical bond breaking and formation at the molecular level remains challenging because of the insufficient spatial-temporal resolution and composition analysis of available characterization methods. Using atomic-resolution differential phase-contrast imaging in scanning transmission electron microscopy, we have visualized the decomposition chemistry of K2PtCl4 to identify its transient intermediate phases and their interfaces that characterize the chemical reduction process. The crystalline structure of K2PtCl4 is found to undergo a disproportionation reaction to form K2PtCl6, followed by gradual reduction to crystalline Pt metal and KCl. By directly imaging different Pt─Cl bond configurations and comparing them to models predicted via density functional theory calculations, a causal connection between the initial and final states of a chemical reaction is established, showcasing new opportunities to resolve reaction pathways through atomistic experimental visualization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob G. Smith
- Future Material Innovation Center, Zhangjiang Institute for Advanced Study, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Kaustubh J. Sawant
- Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Zhenhua Zeng
- Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Tim B. Eldred
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Jianbo Wu
- Future Material Innovation Center, Zhangjiang Institute for Advanced Study, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, P. R. China
- Center of Hydrogen Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Jeffrey P. Greeley
- Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Wenpei Gao
- Future Material Innovation Center, Zhangjiang Institute for Advanced Study, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, P. R. China
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5
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Bourret E, Liu X, Noble CA, Cover K, Davidson TP, Huang R, Koenig RM, Reeves KS, Vlassiouk IV, Côté M, Baxter JS, Lupini AR, Geohegan DB, Dorn HC, Stevenson S. Colossal C 130 Fullertubes: Soluble [5,5] C 130-D 5h(1) Pristine Molecules with 70 Nanotube Carbons and Two 30-Atom Hemifullerene End-caps. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:25942-25947. [PMID: 37890151 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c09082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
We report the seminal experimental isolation and DFT characterization of pristine [5,5] C130-D5h(1) fullertubes. This achievement represents the largest soluble carbon molecule obtained in its pristine form. The [5,5] C130 species is the highest aspect ratio fullertube purified to date and now surpasses the recent gigantic [5,5] C120-D5d(1). In contrast to C90, C100, and C120 fullertubes, the longer C130-D5h has more nanotubular carbons (70) than end-cap fullerenyl atoms (60). Starting from 39,393 possible C130 isolated pentagon rule (IPR) structures and after analyzing polarizability, retention time, and UV-vis spectra, these three layers of data remarkably predict a single candidate isomer and fullertube, [5,5] C130-D5h(1). This structural assignment is augmented by atomic resolution STEM data showing distinctive and tubular "pill-like" structures with diameters and aspect ratios consistent with [5,5] C130-D5h(1) fullertubes. The high selectivity of the aminopropanol reaction with spheroidal fullerenes permits facile separation and removal of fullertubes from soot extracts. Experimental analyses (HPLC retention time, UV-vis, and STEM) were synergistically used (with polarizability and DFT property calculations) to down select and confirm the C130 fullertube structure. Achieving the isolation of a new [5,5] C130-D5h fullertube opens the door to application development and fundamental studies of electron confinement, fluorescence, and metallic character for a fullertube series of molecules with systematic tubular elongation. This [5,5] fullertube family also invites comparative studies with single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), nanohorns (SWCNHs), and fullerenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Bourret
- Département de Physique, Université de Montréal, Montréal, H2 V 0B3, Canada
| | - Xiaoyang Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Cora A Noble
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805, United States
| | - Kevin Cover
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Tanisha P Davidson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805, United States
- FIRST Molecules Center, Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805, United States
| | - Rong Huang
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Ryan M Koenig
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805, United States
| | - K Shawn Reeves
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Ivan V Vlassiouk
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Michel Côté
- Département de Physique, Université de Montréal, Montréal, H2 V 0B3, Canada
| | - Jefferey S Baxter
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Andrew R Lupini
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - David B Geohegan
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Harry C Dorn
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Steven Stevenson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805, United States
- FIRST Molecules Center, Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805, United States
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6
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Hoelzel H, Lee S, Amsharov KY, Jux N, Harano K, Nakamura E, Lungerich D. Time-resolved imaging and analysis of the electron beam-induced formation of an open-cage metallo-azafullerene. Nat Chem 2023; 15:1444-1451. [PMID: 37386284 DOI: 10.1038/s41557-023-01261-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023]
Abstract
The visualization of single-molecule reactions provides crucial insights into chemical processes, and the ability to do so has grown with the advances in high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. There is currently a limited mechanistic understanding of chemical reactions under the electron beam. However, such reactions may enable synthetic methodologies that cannot be accessed by traditional organic chemistry methods. Here we demonstrate the synthetic use of the electron beam, by in-depth single-molecule, atomic-resolution, time-resolved transmission electron microscopy studies, in inducing the formation of a doubly holed fullerene-porphyrin cage structure from a well-defined benzoporphyrin precursor deposited on graphene. Through real-time imaging, we analyse the hybrid's ability to host up to two Pb atoms, and subsequently probe the dynamics of the Pb-Pb binding motif in this exotic metallo-organic cage structure. Through simulation, we conclude that the secondary electrons, which accumulate in the periphery of the irradiated area, can also initiate chemical reactions. Consequently, designing advanced carbon nanostructures by electron-beam lithography will depend on the understanding and limitations of molecular radiation chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Hoelzel
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuernberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Sol Lee
- Center for NanoMedicine, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, South Korea
| | | | - Norbert Jux
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuernberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Koji Harano
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
- Center for Basic Research on Materials, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Eiichi Nakamura
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Dominik Lungerich
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
- Center for NanoMedicine, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, South Korea.
- Department of Nano Biomedical Engineering (NanoBME), Advanced Science Institute, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea.
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7
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Yu T, Li J, Han M, Zhang Y, Li H, Peng Q, Tang HK. Enhancing the Mechanical Stability of 2D Fullerene with a Graphene Substrate and Encapsulation. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:1936. [PMID: 37446452 DOI: 10.3390/nano13131936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
Recent advancements have led to the synthesis of novel monolayer 2D carbon structures, namely quasi-hexagonal-phase fullerene (qHPC60) and quasi-tetragonal-phase fullerene (qTPC60). Particularly, qHPC60 exhibits a promising medium band gap of approximately 1.6 eV, making it an attractive candidate for semiconductor devices. In this study, we conducted comprehensive molecular dynamics simulations to investigate the mechanical stability of 2D fullerene when placed on a graphene substrate and encapsulated within it. Graphene, renowned for its exceptional tensile strength, was chosen as the substrate and encapsulation material. We compared the mechanical behaviors of qHPC60 and qTPC60, examined the influence of cracks on their mechanical properties, and analyzed the internal stress experienced during and after fracture. Our findings reveal that the mechanical reliability of 2D fullerene can be significantly improved by encapsulating it with graphene, particularly strengthening the cracked regions. The estimated elastic modulus increased from 191.6 (qHPC60) and 134.7 GPa (qTPC60) to 531.4 and 504.1 GPa, respectively. Moreover, we observed that defects on the C60 layer had a negligible impact on the deterioration of the mechanical properties. This research provides valuable insights into enhancing the mechanical properties of 2D fullerene through graphene substrates or encapsulation, thereby holding promising implications for future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taotao Yu
- School of Science, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Jianyu Li
- School of Science, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Mingjun Han
- School of Science, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Yinghe Zhang
- School of Science, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Haipeng Li
- School of Materials Science and Physics, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
| | - Qing Peng
- School of Science, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
- State Key Laboratory of Nonlinear Mechanics, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Engineering Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Ho-Kin Tang
- School of Science, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
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8
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Xu T, Jiang J. On the configuration of the graphene/carbon nanotube/graphene van der Waals heterostructure. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:5066-5072. [PMID: 36723006 DOI: 10.1039/d2cp04797g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The graphene/carbon nanotube/graphene (GCG) van der Waals heterostructure is a promising candidate for application in electronics and optical devices, for which the configuration and mechanical properties are of great importance. We perform molecular dynamics simulations to investigate the configuration of the GCG structure, which is successfully interpreted by the mechanic model based on the competition between the bending energy and the adhesion energy. It is found that the cross-section of the nanotube is compressed into an ellipse by the graphene layers, and the eccentricity increases with the increase of the nanotube's diameter. We obtain a concise expression for the relationship between the eccentricity and the nanotube's diameter. These findings shall be valuable for further studies on the physical and mechanical properties of the GCG structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyan Xu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Mechanics in Energy Engineering, Shanghai Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, Shanghai Frontier Science Center of Mechanoinformatics, School of Mechanics and Engineering Science, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jinwu Jiang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Mechanics in Energy Engineering, Shanghai Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, Shanghai Frontier Science Center of Mechanoinformatics, School of Mechanics and Engineering Science, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, People's Republic of China.
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9
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Shimizu T, Lungerich D, Harano K, Nakamura E. Time-Resolved Imaging of Stochastic Cascade Reactions over a Submillisecond to Second Time Range at the Angstrom Level. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:9797-9805. [PMID: 35609254 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c02297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Many chemical reactions, such as multistep catalytic cycles, are cascade reactions in which a series of transient intermediates appear and disappear stochastically over an extended period. The mechanisms of such reactions are challenging to study, even in ultrafast pump-probe experiments. The dimerization of a van der Waals dimer of [60]fullerene producing a short carbon nanotube is a typical cascade reaction and is probably the most frequently studied in carbon materials chemistry. As many as 23 intermediates were predicted by theory, but only the first stable one has been verified experimentally. With the aid of fast electron microscopy, we obtained cinematographic recordings of individual molecules at a maximum frame rate of 1600 frames per second. Using Chambolle total variation algorithm processing and automated cross-correlation image matching analysis, we report on the identification of several metastable intermediates by their shape and size. Although the reaction events occurred stochastically, varying the lifetime of each intermediate accordingly, the average lifetime for each intermediate structure could be obtained from statistical analysis of many cinematographic images for the cascade reaction. Among the shortest-living intermediates, we detected one that lasted less than 3 ms in three independent cascade reactions. We anticipate that the rapid technological development of microscopy and image processing will soon initiate an era of cinematographic studies of chemical reactions and cinematic chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiki Shimizu
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Dominik Lungerich
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.,Center for Nanomedicine (CNM), Institute for Basic Science (IBS), IBS Hall, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03722, South Korea.,Graduate Program of Nano Biomedical Engineering (NanoBME), Advanced Science Institute, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Koji Harano
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Eiichi Nakamura
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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10
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Kharel P, Janicek BE, Bae SH, Loutris AL, Carmichael PT, Huang PY. Atomic-Resolution Imaging of Small Organic Molecules on Graphene. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:3628-3635. [PMID: 35413204 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c00213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Here, we demonstrate atomic-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) imaging of light elements in small organic molecules on graphene. We use low-dose, room-temperature, aberration-corrected STEM to image 2D monolayer and bilayer molecular crystals, followed by advanced image processing methods to create high-quality composite images from ∼102-104 individual molecules. In metalated porphyrin and phthalocyanine derivatives, these images contain an elementally sensitive contrast with up to 1.3 Å resolution─sufficient to distinguish individual carbon and nitrogen atoms. Importantly, our methods can be applied to molecules with low masses (∼0.6 kDa) and nanocrystalline domains containing just a few hundred molecules, making it possible to study systems for which large crystals cannot easily be grown. Our approach is enabled by low-background graphene substrates, which we show increase the molecules' critical dose by 2-7×. These results indicate a new route for low-dose, atomic-resolution electron microscopy imaging to solve the structures of small organic molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priti Kharel
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Blanka E Janicek
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Sang Hyun Bae
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Amanda L Loutris
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Patrick T Carmichael
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Pinshane Y Huang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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11
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Ionization and electron excitation of C 60 in a carbon nanotube: A variable temperature/voltage transmission electron microscopic study. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2200290119. [PMID: 35377799 PMCID: PMC9169795 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2200290119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The destruction of specimen molecules by an electron beam (e-beam) is either beneficial, as in mass spectrometry capitalizing on ion formation, or deleterious, as in electron microscopy. In the latter application, the e-beam not only produces the specimen image, but also causes information loss upon prolonged irradiation. However, the atomistic mechanism of such loss has been unclear. Performing single-molecule kinetic analysis of C60 dimerization in a carbon nanotube (CNT) under variable-temperature/voltage conditions, we identified three reactive species—that is, radical cation, singlet, and triplet excited states—reacting competitively as the voltage and the properties of the CNT were changed. The key enabler was in situ continuous recording of the whole reaction process, suggesting an upcoming new era of “cinematic chemistry.” There is increasing attention to chemical applications of transmission electron microscopy, which is often plagued by radiation damage. The damage in organic matter predominantly occurs via radiolysis. Although radiolysis is highly important, previous studies on radiolysis have largely been descriptive and qualitative, lacking in such fundamental information as the product structure, the influence of the energy of the electrons, and the reaction kinetics. We need a chemically well-defined system to obtain such data and have chosen as a model a variable-temperature and variable-voltage (VT/VV) study of the [2 + 2] dimerization of a van der Waals dimer [60]fullerene (C60) to C120 in a carbon nanotube (CNT), as studied for several hundred individual reaction events at atomic resolution. We report here the identification of five reaction pathways that serve as mechanistic models of radiolysis damage. Two of them occur via a radical cation of the specimen generated by specimen ionization, and three involve singlet or triplet excited states of the specimen, as initiated by electron excitation of the CNT, followed by energy transfer to the specimen. The [2 + 2] product was identified by measuring the distance between the two C60 moieties, and the mechanisms were distinguished by the pre-exponential factor and the Arrhenius activation energy—the standard protocol of chemical kinetic studies. The results illustrate the importance of VT/VV kinetic analysis in the studies of radiation damage and show that chemical ionization and electron excitation are inseparable, but different, mechanisms of radiation damage, which has so far been classified loosely under the single term “ionization.”
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12
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Mustonen K, Hofer C, Kotrusz P, Markevich A, Hulman M, Mangler C, Susi T, Pennycook TJ, Hricovini K, Richter C, Meyer JC, Kotakoski J, Skákalová V. Toward Exotic Layered Materials: 2D Cuprous Iodide. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2106922. [PMID: 34877720 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202106922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Heterostructures composed of 2D materials are already opening many new possibilities in such fields of technology as electronics and magnonics, but far more could be achieved if the number and diversity of 2D materials were increased. So far, only a few dozen 2D crystals have been extracted from materials that exhibit a layered phase in ambient conditions, omitting entirely the large number of layered materials that may exist at other temperatures and pressures. This work demonstrates how such structures can be stabilized in 2D van der Waals (vdw) stacks under room temperature via growing them directly in graphene encapsulation by using graphene oxide as the template material. Specifically, an ambient stable 2D structure of copper and iodine, a material that normally only occurs in layered form at elevated temperatures between 645 and 675 K, is produced. The results establish a simple route to the production of more exotic phases of materials that would otherwise be difficult or impossible to stabilize for experiments in ambient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimmo Mustonen
- Faculty of Physics, University of Vienna, Vienna, 1090, Austria
| | - Christoph Hofer
- Eberhard Karls University of Tuebingen, Institute for Applied Physics, 72076, Tuebingen, Germany
- NMI Natural and Medical Sciences Institute at the University of Tuebingen, Markwiesenstr. 55, D-72770, Reutlingen, Germany
- University of Antwerp, EMAT, Antwerp, 2020, Belgium
| | - Peter Kotrusz
- Danubia NanoTech s.r.o., Bratislava, Slovakia
- Institute of Electrical Engineering, SAS, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | | | - Martin Hulman
- Danubia NanoTech s.r.o., Bratislava, Slovakia
- Institute of Electrical Engineering, SAS, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Clemens Mangler
- Faculty of Physics, University of Vienna, Vienna, 1090, Austria
| | - Toma Susi
- Faculty of Physics, University of Vienna, Vienna, 1090, Austria
| | | | - Karol Hricovini
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, LIDYL, Gif-sur-Yvette, 91191, France
- Laboratoire de Physique des Matériaux et Surfaces, CY Cergy Paris Université, Cergy-Pontoise, 95 031, France
| | - Christine Richter
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, LIDYL, Gif-sur-Yvette, 91191, France
- Laboratoire de Physique des Matériaux et Surfaces, CY Cergy Paris Université, Cergy-Pontoise, 95 031, France
| | - Jannik C Meyer
- Eberhard Karls University of Tuebingen, Institute for Applied Physics, 72076, Tuebingen, Germany
- NMI Natural and Medical Sciences Institute at the University of Tuebingen, Markwiesenstr. 55, D-72770, Reutlingen, Germany
| | - Jani Kotakoski
- Faculty of Physics, University of Vienna, Vienna, 1090, Austria
| | - Viera Skákalová
- Faculty of Physics, University of Vienna, Vienna, 1090, Austria
- Danubia NanoTech s.r.o., Bratislava, Slovakia
- Institute of Electrical Engineering, SAS, Bratislava, Slovakia
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13
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Lungerich D, Hoelzel H, Harano K, Jux N, Amsharov KY, Nakamura E. A Singular Molecule-to-Molecule Transformation on Video: The Bottom-Up Synthesis of Fullerene C 60 from Truxene Derivative C 60H 30. ACS NANO 2021; 15:12804-12814. [PMID: 34018713 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c02222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Singular reaction events of small molecules and their dynamics remain a hardly understood territory in chemical sciences since spectroscopy relies on ensemble-averaged data, and microscopic scanning probe techniques show snapshots of frozen scenes. Herein, we report on continuous high-resolution transmission electron microscopic video imaging of the electron-beam-induced bottom-up synthesis of fullerene C60 through cyclodehydrogenation of tailor-made truxene derivative 1 (C60H30), which was deposited on graphene as substrate. During the reaction, C60H30 transformed in a multistep process to fullerene C60. Hereby, the precursor, metastable intermediates, and the product were identified by correlations with electron dose-corrected molecular simulations and single-molecule statistical analysis, which were substantiated with extensive density functional theory calculations. Our observations revealed that the initial cyclodehydrogenation pathway leads to thermodynamically favored intermediates through seemingly classical organic reaction mechanisms. However, dynamic interactions of the intermediates with the substrate render graphene as a non-innocent participant in the dehydrogenation process, which leads to a deviation from the classical reaction pathway. Our precise visual comprehension of the dynamic transformation implies that the outcome of electron-beam-initiated reactions can be controlled with careful molecular precursor design, which is important for the development and design of materials by electron beam lithography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Lungerich
- Center for Nanomedicine (CNM), Institute for Basic Science (IBS), IBS Hall, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, South Korea
- Graduate Program of Nano Biomedical Engineering (NanoBME), Advanced Science Institute, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, South Korea
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Helen Hoelzel
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Organic Chemistry II, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuernberg (FAU), Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Str. 10, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Koji Harano
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Norbert Jux
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Organic Chemistry II, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuernberg (FAU), Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Str. 10, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Konstantin Yu Amsharov
- Department of Chemistry, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Kurt-Mothes-Str. 2, 06120 Halle, Germany
| | - Eiichi Nakamura
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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14
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Li J, Wu R. Bias-tunable two-dimensional magnetic and topological materials. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:12513-12520. [PMID: 34259696 DOI: 10.1039/d1nr02641k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The search for novel two-dimensional (2D) materials is crucial for the development of next generation technologies such as electronics, optoelectronics, electrochemistry and biomedicine. In this work, we designed a series of 2D materials based on endohedral fullerenes and revealed that many of them integrate different functions in a single system, such as ferroelectricity with large electric dipole moments, multiple magnetic phases with both strong magnetic anisotropy and high Curie temperature, and quantum spin Hall effect or quantum anomalous Hall effect with robust topologically protected edge states. We further proposed a new type of topological field-effect transistor. These findings provide a strategy for using fullerenes as building blocks for the synthesis of novel 2D materials which can be easily controlled with a local electric field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Li
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-4575, USA.
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15
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Gover RKE, Chamberlain TW, Sarre PJ, Khlobystov AN. Piecing Together Large Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Fullerenes: A Combined ChemTEM Imaging and MALDI-ToF Mass Spectrometry Approach. Front Chem 2021; 9:700562. [PMID: 34195176 PMCID: PMC8238087 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.700562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Motivated by their importance in chemistry, physics, astronomy and materials science, we investigate routes to the formation of large polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) molecules and the fullerene C60 from specific smaller PAH building blocks. The behaviour of selected PAH molecules under electron (using transmission electron microscopy, TEM) and laser irradiation is examined, where four specific PAHs—anthracene, pyrene, perylene and coronene—are assembling into larger structures and fullerenes. This contrasts with earlier TEM studies in which large graphene flakes were shown to transform into fullerenes via a top-down route. A new combined approach is presented in which spectrometric and microscopic experimental techniques exploit the stabilisation of adsorbed molecules through supramolecular interactions with a graphene substrate and enable the molecules to be characterised and irradiated sequentially. Thereby allowing initiation of transformation and characterisation of the resultant species by both mass spectrometry and direct-space imaging. We investigate the types of large PAH molecule that can form from smaller PAHs, and discuss the potential of a “bottom-up” followed by “top-down” mechanism for forming C60.
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Affiliation(s)
- R K E Gover
- School of Chemistry, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - T W Chamberlain
- School of Chemistry, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom.,Institute of Process Research and Development, School of Chemistry, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - P J Sarre
- School of Chemistry, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - A N Khlobystov
- School of Chemistry, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
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16
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Hao D, Tang X, An Y, Sun L, Li J, Dong A, Shan X, Lu X. Orientation Switching of Single Molecules on Surface Excited by Tunneling Electrons and Ultrafast Laser Pulses. J Phys Chem Lett 2021; 12:2011-2016. [PMID: 33600173 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.0c03838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We investigate the orientation switching of individual azobenzene molecules adsorbed on a Au(111) surface using a laser-assisted scanning tunneling microscope (STM). It is found that the rotational motion of the molecule can be regulated by both sample bias and laser wavelength. By measuring the switching rate and state occupation as a function of both bias voltage and photon energy, the threshold in sample bias and the minimal photon energy are derived. It has been revealed that the tip-induced local electrostatic potential remarkably contributes to the reduction in hopping barrier. We also find that the tunneling electrons and photons play distinct roles in controlling rotational dynamics of single azobenzene molecules on the surface, which are useful for understanding dynamic behaviors in similar molecular systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Hao
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Xiangqian Tang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Yang An
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Lihuan Sun
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Jianmei Li
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Anning Dong
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Xinyan Shan
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Xinghua Lu
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- Center for Excellence in Topological Quantum Computation, Beijing 100190, China
- Songshan Lake Laboratory for Materials Laboratory, Dongguan, Guangdong 523808, China
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17
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Cao Q, Grote F, Huβmann M, Eigler S. Emerging field of few-layered intercalated 2D materials. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2021; 3:963-982. [PMID: 36133283 PMCID: PMC9417328 DOI: 10.1039/d0na00987c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The chemistry and physics of intercalated layered 2D materials (2DMs) are the focus of this review article. Special attention is given to intercalated bilayer and few-layer systems. Thereby, intercalated few-layers of graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides play the major role; however, also other intercalated 2DMs develop fascinating properties with thinning down. Here, we briefly introduce the historical background of intercalation and explain concepts, which become relevent with intercalating few-layers. Then, we describe various synthetic methods to yield intercalated 2DMs and focus next on current research directions, which are superconductivity, band gap tuning, magnetism, optical properties, energy storage and chemical reactions. We focus on major breakthroughs in all introduced sections and give an outlook to this emerging field of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Cao
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin Takustraβe 3 14195 Berlin Germany
| | - Fabian Grote
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin Takustraβe 3 14195 Berlin Germany
| | - Marleen Huβmann
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin Takustraβe 3 14195 Berlin Germany
| | - Siegfried Eigler
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin Takustraβe 3 14195 Berlin Germany
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18
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Puente Santiago AR, Fernandez‐Delgado O, Gomez A, Ahsan MA, Echegoyen L. Fullerenes as Key Components for Low‐Dimensional (Photo)electrocatalytic Nanohybrid Materials. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202009449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alain R. Puente Santiago
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at El Paso 500 West University Avenue El Paso Texas 79968 USA
| | - Olivia Fernandez‐Delgado
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at El Paso 500 West University Avenue El Paso Texas 79968 USA
| | - Ashley Gomez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at El Paso 500 West University Avenue El Paso Texas 79968 USA
| | - Md Ariful Ahsan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at El Paso 500 West University Avenue El Paso Texas 79968 USA
| | - Luis Echegoyen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at El Paso 500 West University Avenue El Paso Texas 79968 USA
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19
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Puente Santiago AR, Fernandez‐Delgado O, Gomez A, Ahsan MA, Echegoyen L. Fullerenes as Key Components for Low‐Dimensional (Photo)electrocatalytic Nanohybrid Materials. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 60:122-141. [PMID: 33090642 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202009449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alain R. Puente Santiago
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at El Paso 500 West University Avenue El Paso Texas 79968 USA
| | - Olivia Fernandez‐Delgado
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at El Paso 500 West University Avenue El Paso Texas 79968 USA
| | - Ashley Gomez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at El Paso 500 West University Avenue El Paso Texas 79968 USA
| | - Md Ariful Ahsan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at El Paso 500 West University Avenue El Paso Texas 79968 USA
| | - Luis Echegoyen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at El Paso 500 West University Avenue El Paso Texas 79968 USA
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20
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Rowe P, Deringer VL, Gasparotto P, Csányi G, Michaelides A. An accurate and transferable machine learning potential for carbon. J Chem Phys 2020; 153:034702. [DOI: 10.1063/5.0005084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Rowe
- Thomas Young Centre, London Centre for Nanotechnology, and Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Volker L. Deringer
- Department of Chemistry, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QR, United Kingdom
| | - Piero Gasparotto
- Thomas Young Centre, London Centre for Nanotechnology, and Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Gábor Csányi
- Engineering Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, United Kingdom
| | - Angelos Michaelides
- Thomas Young Centre, London Centre for Nanotechnology, and Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
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21
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Mo J, Li M, Chen X, Li Q. Calixarene-mediated assembly of water-soluble C 60-attached ultrathin graphite hybrids for efficient activation of reactive oxygen species to treat neuroblastoma cells. Chem Commun (Camb) 2020; 56:7325-7328. [PMID: 32478761 DOI: 10.1039/d0cc01921f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Unprecedented nano-carbon hybrids consisting of exfoliated ultrathin graphite (or single-walled carbon nanotubes) with pristine C60 molecules attached on the surfaces have been produced in water in the presence of p-phosphonic acid calix[8]arene. The amphiphilic calixarene plays multiple roles in these processes to provide water dispersibility and π-π interactions with flexible conformations complementing curvatures of the carbon surfaces. The significantly increased water solubility and area of exposure of C60 enable efficient activation of reactive oxygen species for enhanced phototoxicity to SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cell line under laser irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingxin Mo
- Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases of Guangxi Province, The Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin 541001, China.
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22
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Nguyen NN, Lee HC, Yoo MS, Lee E, Lee H, Lee SB, Cho K. Charge-Transfer-Controlled Growth of Organic Semiconductor Crystals on Graphene. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2020; 7:1902315. [PMID: 32195079 PMCID: PMC7080519 DOI: 10.1002/advs.201902315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 11/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Controlling the growth behavior of organic semiconductors (OSCs) is essential because it determines their optoelectronic properties. In order to accomplish this, graphene templates with electronic-state tunability are used to affect the growth of OSCs by controlling the van der Waals interaction between OSC ad-molecules and graphene. However, in many graphene-molecule systems, the charge transfer between an ad-molecule and a graphene template causes another important interaction. This charge-transfer-induced interaction is never considered in the growth scheme of OSCs. Here, the effects of charge transfer on the formation of graphene-OSC heterostructures are investigated, using fullerene (C60) as a model compound. By in situ electrical doping of a graphene template to suppress the charge transfer between C60 ad-molecules and graphene, the layer-by-layer growth of a C60 film on graphene can be achieved. Under this condition, the graphene-C60 interface is free of Fermi-level pinning; thus, barristors fabricated on the graphene-C60 interface show a nearly ideal Schottky-Mott limit with efficient modulation of the charge-injection barrier. Moreover, the optimized C60 film exhibits a high field-effect electron mobility of 2.5 cm2 V-1 s-1. These results provide an efficient route to engineering highly efficient optoelectronic graphene-OSC hybrid material applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyen Ngan Nguyen
- Department of Chemical EngineeringPohang University of Science and TechnologyPohang37673Republic of Korea
| | - Hyo Chan Lee
- Department of Chemical EngineeringPohang University of Science and TechnologyPohang37673Republic of Korea
| | - Min Seok Yoo
- Department of Chemical EngineeringPohang University of Science and TechnologyPohang37673Republic of Korea
| | - Eunho Lee
- Department of Chemical EngineeringPohang University of Science and TechnologyPohang37673Republic of Korea
| | - Hansol Lee
- Department of Chemical EngineeringPohang University of Science and TechnologyPohang37673Republic of Korea
| | - Seon Baek Lee
- Department of Chemical EngineeringPohang University of Science and TechnologyPohang37673Republic of Korea
| | - Kilwon Cho
- Department of Chemical EngineeringPohang University of Science and TechnologyPohang37673Republic of Korea
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23
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Thawarkar S, Nagarjuna P, Bagui A, Narayan R, Panicker JS, Nair VC, Singh SP. Trifluoromethyl‐Directed Supramolecular Self‐Assembly of Fullerenes: Synthesis, Characterization and Photovoltaic Applications. ChemistrySelect 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.201902974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sachin Thawarkar
- Polymers and Functional Materials DivisionCSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology Hyderabad 500007
| | - Puvvala Nagarjuna
- Polymers and Functional Materials DivisionCSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology Hyderabad 500007
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)
| | - Anirban Bagui
- Polymers and Functional Materials DivisionCSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology Hyderabad 500007
| | - Ramanuj Narayan
- Polymers and Functional Materials DivisionCSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology Hyderabad 500007
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)
| | - Jayanthy S. Panicker
- Photosciences and Photonics SectionCSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST) Thiruvananthapuram 695019, Kerala India
| | - Vijayakumar C. Nair
- Photosciences and Photonics SectionCSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST) Thiruvananthapuram 695019, Kerala India
| | - Surya Prakash Singh
- Polymers and Functional Materials DivisionCSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology Hyderabad 500007
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)
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24
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Fonseca AF, Dantas SO, Galvão DS, Zhang D, Sinnott SB. The structure of graphene on graphene/C 60/Cu interfaces: a molecular dynamics study. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2019; 30:505707. [PMID: 31519001 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ab4431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Two experimental studies reported the spontaneous formation of amorphous and crystalline structures of C60 molecules intercalated between graphene and a surface. The findings observed included interesting phenomena ranging from reaction between fullerene C60s ('C60s' stands for plural of C60) under graphene to graphene sheets sagging between C60s and control of strain in these sheets. Motivated by this work, we performed fully atomistic reactive molecular dynamics simulations to investigate the formation and thermal stability of graphene sheet wrinkles as well as graphene attachment to and detachment from a surface when the sheet is laid over a previously distributed array of C60 molecules on a copper surface at different temperatures. As graphene compresses the C60s against the surface, and graphene attachment to the surface in between C60s depends on the height of the wrinkles in the graphene sheet, configurations with both frozen and non-frozen fullerenes were investigated in the simulations in order to examine the experimental result of stable, sagged graphene sheets when the distance between C60s is about 4 nm and the height of the wrinkles in the sheet is about 0.8 nm. Below a distance of 4 nm between fullerenes, the graphene is predicted to become locally suspended and less strained. The simulations predict that this happens when the fullerenes can deform under the compressive action of the graphene sheet. If the fullerenes are kept frozen, spontaneous 'blanketing' of graphene is predicted only when the distance between neighbouring C60s is equal to or great than about 7 nm. These predictions agree with a mechanical model relating the rigidity of a graphene sheet to the energy of graphene-surface adhesion. This work further reveals the structure of intercalated molecules and the role of stability and sheet wrinkling on the preferred configuration of graphene. This study thus might assist in the development of two-dimensional confined nanoreactors for chemical reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre F Fonseca
- Applied Physics Department, Institute of Physics 'Gleb Wataghin', State University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, 13083-970, Brazil
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25
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Choe J, Lee Y, Park J, Kim Y, Kim CU, Kim K. Direct imaging of structural disordering and heterogeneous dynamics of fullerene molecular liquid. Nat Commun 2019; 10:4395. [PMID: 31562310 PMCID: PMC6765016 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-12320-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Structural rearrangements govern the various properties of disordered systems and visualization of these dynamical processes can provide critical information on structural deformation and phase transformation of the systems. However, direct imaging of individual atoms or molecules in a disordered state is quite challenging. Here, we prepare a model molecular system of C70 molecules on graphene and directly visualize the structural and dynamical evolution using aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy. E-beam irradiation stimulates dynamics of fullerene molecules, which results in the first-order like structural transformation from the molecular crystal to molecular liquid. The real-time tracking of individual molecules using an automatic molecular identification process elucidates the relaxation behavior of a stretched exponential functional form. Moreover, the directly observed heterogeneous dynamics bear similarity to the dynamical heterogeneity in supercooled liquids near the glass transition. Fullerenes on graphene can serve as a new model system, which allows investigation of molecular dynamics in disordered phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeongheon Choe
- Department of Physics, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Korea.,Department of Physics, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 44919, Korea
| | - Yangjin Lee
- Department of Physics, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Korea.,Center for Nanomedicine, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul, 03722, Korea
| | - Jungwon Park
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Process, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea.,Center for Nanoparticle Research, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Yunho Kim
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 44919, Korea
| | - Chae Un Kim
- Department of Physics, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 44919, Korea.
| | - Kwanpyo Kim
- Department of Physics, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Korea. .,Center for Nanomedicine, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul, 03722, Korea.
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26
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Lee JK, Bulut I, Rickhaus M, Sheng Y, Li X, Han GGD, Briggs GAD, Anderson HL, Warner JH. Metal Atom Markers for Imaging Epitaxial Molecular Self-Assembly on Graphene by Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy. ACS NANO 2019; 13:7252-7260. [PMID: 31117373 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b02906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Direct imaging of single molecules has to date been primarily achieved using scanning probe microscopy, with limited success using transmission electron microscopy due to electron beam damage and low contrast from the light elements that make up the majority of molecules. Here, we show single complex molecule interactions can be imaged using annular dark field scanning TEM (ADF-STEM) by inserting heavy metal markers of Pt atoms and detecting their positions. Using the high angle ADF-STEM Z1.7 contrast, combined with graphene as an electron transparent support, we track the 2D monolayer self-assembly of solution-deposited individual linear porphyrin hexamer (Pt-L6) molecules and reveal preferential alignment along the graphene zigzag direction. The epitaxial interactions between graphene and Pt-L6 drive a reduction in the interporphyrin distance to allow perfect commensuration with the graphene. These results demonstrate how single metal atom markers in complex molecules can be used to study large scale packing and chain bending at the single molecule level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ja Kyung Lee
- Department of Materials , University of Oxford , Parks Road , Oxford OX1 3PH , United Kingdom
| | - Ibrahim Bulut
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry , University of Oxford , Oxford OX1 3TA , United Kingdom
| | - Michel Rickhaus
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry , University of Oxford , Oxford OX1 3TA , United Kingdom
| | - Yuewen Sheng
- Department of Materials , University of Oxford , Parks Road , Oxford OX1 3PH , United Kingdom
| | - Xiang Li
- Department of Chemistry , Brandeis University , Waltham , Massachusetts 02453 , United States
| | - Grace G D Han
- Department of Chemistry , Brandeis University , Waltham , Massachusetts 02453 , United States
| | - G Andrew D Briggs
- Department of Materials , University of Oxford , Parks Road , Oxford OX1 3PH , United Kingdom
| | - Harry L Anderson
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry , University of Oxford , Oxford OX1 3TA , United Kingdom
| | - Jamie H Warner
- Department of Materials , University of Oxford , Parks Road , Oxford OX1 3PH , United Kingdom
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27
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Duan Y, Li J, Zhang X, Li T, Arandiyan H, Jiang Y, Li H. Crystallization behavior of a confined CuZr metallic liquid film with a sandwich-like structure. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2019; 21:13738-13745. [PMID: 31206114 DOI: 10.1039/c9cp02254f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Despite the fact that its crystal state is thermodynamically stable, Cu64Zr36 alloy is prone to form metastable glass at a high cooling rate. However, the confinement can induce nano-crystallization with a novel sandwich-like hierarchical structure consisting of pure Cu layers, pure Zr layers and mixed layers by conducting molecular dynamics simulations. The liquid-to-crystal transition temperature and interatomic repulsion softness display abnormal oscillations, instead of monotonous variation, as the wall-wall separation increases. When the confinement size is 10 Å and 12 Å, the transition temperature reaches a maximum, resulting from the pending new sandwich layer. The atomic movement and dynamical heterogeneity are demonstrated to play a vital role in the abnormal oscillation behavior of physical properties of the nano confined metallic glass. The sandwich-like structure can alter the Cu-Zr bond fraction, which eventually influences the liquid-to-crystal transition temperature and interatomic repulsion softness. Our findings provide a deep insight into the hierarchical nanostructures and its liquid-to-crystal transition characteristics under confinement at the atomic level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunrui Duan
- Key Laboratory for Liquid-Solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jie Li
- Key Laboratory for Liquid-Solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xingfan Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Liquid-Solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, People's Republic of China.
| | - Tao Li
- Key Laboratory for Liquid-Solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, People's Republic of China.
| | - Hamidreza Arandiyan
- Laboratory of Advanced Catalysis for Sustainability, School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, Australia
| | - Yanyan Jiang
- Key Laboratory for Liquid-Solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, People's Republic of China.
| | - Hui Li
- Key Laboratory for Liquid-Solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, People's Republic of China.
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28
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Chen M, Guan R, Yang S. Hybrids of Fullerenes and 2D Nanomaterials. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2019; 6:1800941. [PMID: 30643712 PMCID: PMC6325629 DOI: 10.1002/advs.201800941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Fullerene has a definite 0D closed-cage molecular structure composed of merely sp2-hybridized carbon atoms, enabling it to serve as an important building block that is useful for constructing supramolecular assemblies and micro/nanofunctional materials. Conversely, graphene has a 2D layered structure, possessing an exceptionally large specific surface area and high carrier mobility. Likewise, other emerging graphene-analogous 2D nanomaterials, such as graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4), transition-metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), and black phosphorus (BP), show unique electronic, physical, and chemical properties, which, however, exist only in the form of a monolayer and are typically anisotropic, limiting their applications. Upon hybridization with fullerenes, noncovalently or covalently, the physical/chemical properties of 2D nanomaterials can be tailored and, in most cases, improved, significantly extending their functionalities and applications. Here, an exhaustive review of all types of hybrids of fullerenes and 2D nanomaterials, such as graphene, g-C3N4, TMDs, h-BN, and BP, including their preparations, structures, properties, and applications, is presented. Finally, the prospects of fullerene-2D nanomaterial hybrids, especially the opportunity of creating unknown functional materials by means of hybridization, are envisioned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muqing Chen
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at MicroscaleCAS Key Laboratory of Materials for Energy ConversionDepartment of Materials Science and EngineeringSynergetic Innovation Center of Quantum Information and Quantum PhysicsUniversity of Science and Technology of ChinaHefei230026China
| | - Runnan Guan
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at MicroscaleCAS Key Laboratory of Materials for Energy ConversionDepartment of Materials Science and EngineeringSynergetic Innovation Center of Quantum Information and Quantum PhysicsUniversity of Science and Technology of ChinaHefei230026China
| | - Shangfeng Yang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at MicroscaleCAS Key Laboratory of Materials for Energy ConversionDepartment of Materials Science and EngineeringSynergetic Innovation Center of Quantum Information and Quantum PhysicsUniversity of Science and Technology of ChinaHefei230026China
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29
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Sinha S, Sheng Y, Griffiths I, Young NP, Zhou S, Kirkland AI, Porfyrakis K, Warner JH. In Situ Atomic-Level Studies of Gd Atom Release and Migration on Graphene from a Metallofullerene Precursor. ACS NANO 2018; 12:10439-10451. [PMID: 30256088 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b06057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We show how gadolinium (Gd)-based metallofullerene (Gd3N@C80) molecules can be used to create single adatoms and nanoclusters on a graphene surface. An in situ heating holder within an aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscope is used to track the adhesion of endohedral metallofullerenes (MFs) to the surface of graphene, followed by Gd metal ejection and diffusion across the surface. Heating to 900 °C is used to promote adatom migration and metal nanocluster formation, enabling direct imaging of the assembly of nanoclusters of Gd. We show that hydrogen can be used to reduce the temperature of MF fragmentation and metal ejection, enabling Gd nanocluster formation on graphene surfaces at temperatures as low as 300 °C. The process of MF fragmentation and metal ejection is captured in situ and reveals that after metal release, the C80 cage opens further and fuses with the surface monolayer carbon glass on graphene, creating a highly stable carbon layer for further Gd adatom adhesion. Small voids and defects (∼1 nm) in the surface carbon glass act as trapping sites for Gd atoms, leading to atomic self-assembly of 2D monolayer Gd clusters. These results show that MFs can adhere to graphene surfaces at temperatures well above their bulk sublimation point, indicating that the surface bound MFs have strong adhesion to dangling bonds on graphene surfaces. The ability to create dispersed single Gd adatoms and Gd nanoclusters on graphene may have impact in spintronics and magnetism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sapna Sinha
- Department of Materials , University of Oxford , 16 Parks Road , Oxford OX1 3PH , United Kingdom
| | - Yuewen Sheng
- Department of Materials , University of Oxford , 16 Parks Road , Oxford OX1 3PH , United Kingdom
| | - Ian Griffiths
- Department of Materials , University of Oxford , 16 Parks Road , Oxford OX1 3PH , United Kingdom
| | - Neil P Young
- Department of Materials , University of Oxford , 16 Parks Road , Oxford OX1 3PH , United Kingdom
| | - Si Zhou
- Department of Materials , University of Oxford , 16 Parks Road , Oxford OX1 3PH , United Kingdom
| | - Angus I Kirkland
- Department of Materials , University of Oxford , 16 Parks Road , Oxford OX1 3PH , United Kingdom
- Electron Physical Sciences Imaging Center , Diamond Light Source Ltd , Didcot OX11 0DE , United Kingdom
| | - Kyriakos Porfyrakis
- Department of Materials , University of Oxford , 16 Parks Road , Oxford OX1 3PH , United Kingdom
| | - Jamie H Warner
- Department of Materials , University of Oxford , 16 Parks Road , Oxford OX1 3PH , United Kingdom
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30
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Mustonen K, Hussain A, Hofer C, Monazam MRA, Mirzayev R, Elibol K, Laiho P, Mangler C, Jiang H, Susi T, Kauppinen EI, Kotakoski J, Meyer JC. Atomic-Scale Deformations at the Interface of a Mixed-Dimensional van der Waals Heterostructure. ACS NANO 2018; 12:8512-8519. [PMID: 30016070 PMCID: PMC6117744 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b04050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Molecular self-assembly due to chemical interactions is the basis of bottom-up nanofabrication, whereas weaker intermolecular forces dominate on the scale of macromolecules. Recent advances in synthesis and characterization have brought increasing attention to two- and mixed-dimensional heterostructures, and it has been recognized that van der Waals (vdW) forces within the structure may have a significant impact on their morphology. Here, we suspend single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) on graphene to create a model system for the study of a 1D-2D molecular interface through atomic-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy observations. When brought into contact, the radial deformation of SWCNTs and the emergence of long-range linear grooves in graphene revealed by the three-dimensional reconstruction of the heterostructure are observed. These topographic features are strain-correlated but show no sensitivity to carbon nanotube helicity, electronic structure, or stacking order. Finally, despite the random deposition of the nanotubes, we show that the competition between strain and vdW forces results in aligned carbon-carbon interfaces spanning hundreds of nanometers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimmo Mustonen
- University
of Vienna, Faculty of Physics, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Aqeel Hussain
- Aalto
University School of Science, Department of Applied Physics, P.O. Box
15100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
| | - Christoph Hofer
- University
of Vienna, Faculty of Physics, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Rasim Mirzayev
- University
of Vienna, Faculty of Physics, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Kenan Elibol
- University
of Vienna, Faculty of Physics, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Patrik Laiho
- Aalto
University School of Science, Department of Applied Physics, P.O. Box
15100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
| | - Clemens Mangler
- University
of Vienna, Faculty of Physics, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Hua Jiang
- Aalto
University School of Science, Department of Applied Physics, P.O. Box
15100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
| | - Toma Susi
- University
of Vienna, Faculty of Physics, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Esko I. Kauppinen
- Aalto
University School of Science, Department of Applied Physics, P.O. Box
15100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
| | - Jani Kotakoski
- University
of Vienna, Faculty of Physics, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jannik C. Meyer
- University
of Vienna, Faculty of Physics, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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