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Sanjuan Hernández C, Curini-Galletti M, Monnens M, Artois T, Diez YL. First record of a proseriate flatworm predating on a rhabdocoel (Platyhelminthes: Proseriata and Rhabdocoela). Biodivers Data J 2024; 12:e116039. [PMID: 38774572 PMCID: PMC11106565 DOI: 10.3897/bdj.12.e116039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Microturbellarian flatworms comprise a diverse assemblage amongst meiofauna. These animals primarily exhibit carnivorous feeding habits, preying on various organisms, such as crustaceans, annelids and even other microturbellarians. However, details of their diet are poorly known. This study represents the first documentation of a proseriate preying upon a rhabdocoel. The proseriate was extracted from the sediment and studied alive. Within its digestive tract, structures of the reproductive systems of its prey were observed and identified as belonging to Phonorhynchopsishaegheni, a predatory turbellarian as well. No remains of any other organisms were detected. This finding underscores the relevance of Proseriata as top-level predators within the meiofaunal trophic web, a role that warrants further consideration beyond what has been previously acknowledged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Sanjuan Hernández
- Universidad de Oriente, Biology & Geography Department, Ave. Patricio Lumumba s/n, CP 90500, Santiago de Cuba, CubaUniversidad de Oriente, Biology & Geography Department, Ave. Patricio Lumumba s/n, CP 90500Santiago de CubaCuba
- Hasselt University, Centre for Environmental Sciences, Research Group Zoology: Biodiversity and Toxicology, Universitaire Campus Gebouw D, B-3590, Diepenbeek, BelgiumHasselt University, Centre for Environmental Sciences, Research Group Zoology: Biodiversity and Toxicology, Universitaire Campus Gebouw D, B-3590DiepenbeekBelgium
| | - Marco Curini-Galletti
- Università di Sassari, Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Sardinia, ItalyUniversità di Sassari, Dipartimento di Medicina VeterinariaSardiniaItaly
| | - Marlies Monnens
- Hasselt University, Centre for Environmental Sciences, Research Group Zoology: Biodiversity and Toxicology, Universitaire Campus Gebouw D, B-3590, Diepenbeek, BelgiumHasselt University, Centre for Environmental Sciences, Research Group Zoology: Biodiversity and Toxicology, Universitaire Campus Gebouw D, B-3590DiepenbeekBelgium
- 4Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, OD Taxonomy and Phylogeny, Vautierstraat 29, B-1000, Brussels, Belgium4Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, OD Taxonomy and Phylogeny, Vautierstraat 29, B-1000BrusselsBelgium
| | - Tom Artois
- 2Hasselt University, Centre for Environmental Sciences, Research Group Zoology: Biodiversity and Toxicology, Universitaire Campus Gebouw D, B-3590, Diepenbeek, Belgium2Hasselt University, Centre for Environmental Sciences, Research Group Zoology: Biodiversity and Toxicology, Universitaire Campus Gebouw D, B-3590DiepenbeekBelgium
| | - Yander L. Diez
- Museum of Nature Hamburg, Leibniz Institute for the Analyses of the Biodiversity Change, Hamburg, GermanyMuseum of Nature Hamburg, Leibniz Institute for the Analyses of the Biodiversity ChangeHamburgGermany
- 2Hasselt University, Centre for Environmental Sciences, Research Group Zoology: Biodiversity and Toxicology, Universitaire Campus Gebouw D, B-3590, Hasselt, Belgium2Hasselt University, Centre for Environmental Sciences, Research Group Zoology: Biodiversity and Toxicology, Universitaire Campus Gebouw D, B-3590HasseltBelgium
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2
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Lopes D, Aveiro SS, Cruz S, Cartaxana P, Domingues P. Proteomic analysis of the mucus of the photosynthetic sea slug Elysia crispata. J Proteomics 2024; 294:105087. [PMID: 38237665 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2024.105087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Elysia crispata is a tropical sea slug that can retain intracellular functional chloroplasts from its algae prey, a mechanism termed kleptoplasty. This sea slug, like other gastropods, secretes mucus, a viscous secretion with multiple functions, including lubrication, protection, and locomotion. This study presents the first comprehensive analysis of the mucus proteome of the sea slug E. crispata using gel electrophoresis and HPLC-MS/MS. We identified 306 proteins in the mucus secretions of this animal, despite the limited entries for E. crispata in the Uniprot database. The functional annotation of the mucus proteome using Gene Ontology identified proteins involved in different functions such as hydrolase activity (molecular function), carbohydrate-derived metabolic processes (biological processes) and cytoskeletal organization (cell component). Moreover, a high proportion of proteins with enzymatic activity in the mucus of E. crispata suggests potential biotechnological applications including antimicrobial and antitumor activities. Putative antimicrobial properties are reinforced by the high abundance of hydrolases. This study also identified proteins common in mucus samples from various species, supporting a common mechanism of mucus in protecting cells and tissues while facilitating animal movement. SIGNIFICANCE: Marine species are increasingly drawing the interest of researchers for their role in discovering new bioactive compounds. The study "Proteomic Analysis of the Mucus of the Photosynthetic Sea Slug Elysia crispata" is a pioneering effort that uncovers the complex protein content in this fascinating sea slug's mucus. This detailed proteomic study has revealed proteins with potential use in biotechnology, particularly for antimicrobial and antitumor purposes. This research is a first step in exploring the possibilities within the mucus of Elysia crispata, suggesting the potential for new drug discoveries. These findings could be crucial in developing treatments for severe diseases, especially those caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria, and may lead to significant advances in medical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Lopes
- ECOMARE - Laboratory for Innovation and Sustainability of Marine Biological Resources, CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Susana S Aveiro
- GreenCoLab - Associação Oceano Verde, University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Sónia Cruz
- ECOMARE, CESAM, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Paulo Cartaxana
- ECOMARE, CESAM, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Pedro Domingues
- Mass Spectrometry Centre, LAQV-REQUIMTE - Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry of the Network of Chemistry and Technology, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
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3
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Eastman KE, Pendleton AL, Shaikh MA, Suttiyut T, Ogas R, Tomko P, Gavelis G, Widhalm JR, Wisecaver JH. A reference genome for the long-term kleptoplast-retaining sea slug Elysia crispata morphotype clarki. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2023; 13:jkad234. [PMID: 37816307 PMCID: PMC10700116 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkad234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023]
Abstract
Several species of sacoglossan sea slugs possess the incredible ability to sequester chloroplasts from the algae they consume. These "photosynthetic animals" incorporate stolen chloroplasts, called kleptoplasts, into the epithelial cells of tubules that extend from their digestive tracts throughout their bodies. The mechanism by which these slugs maintain functioning kleptoplasts in the absence of an algal nuclear genome is unknown. Here, we report a draft genome of the sacoglossan slug Elysia crispata morphotype clarki, a morphotype native to the Florida Keys that can retain photosynthetically active kleptoplasts for several months without feeding. We used a combination of Oxford Nanopore Technologies long reads and Illumina short reads to produce a 786-Mb assembly (N50 = 0.459 Mb) containing 68,514 predicted protein-coding genes. A phylogenetic analysis found no evidence of horizontal acquisition of genes from algae. We performed gene family and gene expression analyses to identify E. crispata genes unique to kleptoplast-containing slugs that were more highly expressed in fed versus unfed developmental life stages. Consistent with analyses in other kleptoplastic slugs, our investigation suggests that genes encoding lectin carbohydrate-binding proteins and those involved in regulation of reactive oxygen species and immunity may play a role in kleptoplast retention. Lastly, we identified four polyketide synthase genes that could potentially encode proteins producing UV- and oxidation-blocking compounds in slug cell membranes. The genome of E. crispata is a quality resource that provides potential targets for functional analyses and enables further investigation into the evolution and mechanisms of kleptoplasty in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharine E Eastman
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Amanda L Pendleton
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Mearaj A Shaikh
- Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Thiti Suttiyut
- Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Raeya Ogas
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Paxton Tomko
- Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Gregory Gavelis
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Joshua R Widhalm
- Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Jennifer H Wisecaver
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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Pinko D, Abramovich S, Rahav E, Belkin N, Rubin-Blum M, Kucera M, Morard R, Holzmann M, Abdu U. Shared ancestry of algal symbiosis and chloroplast sequestration in foraminifera. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadi3401. [PMID: 37824622 PMCID: PMC10569721 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adi3401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
Foraminifera are unicellular organisms that established the most diverse algal symbioses in the marine realm. Endosymbiosis repeatedly evolved in several lineages, while some engaged in the sequestration of chloroplasts, known as kleptoplasty. So far, kleptoplasty has been documented exclusively in the rotaliid clade. Here, we report the discovery of kleptoplasty in the species Hauerina diversa that belongs to the miliolid clade. The existence of kleptoplasty in the two main clades suggests that it is more widespread than previously documented. We observed chloroplasts in clustered structures within the foraminiferal cytoplasm and confirmed their functionality. Phylogenetic analysis of 18S ribosomal RNA gene sequences showed that H. diversa branches next to symbiont-bearing Alveolinidae. This finding represents evidence of of a relationship between kleptoplastic and symbiotic foraminifera.. Analysis of ribosomal genes and metagenomics revealed that alveolinid symbionts and kleptoplasts belong to the same clade, which suggests a common ancestry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doron Pinko
- Department of Earth and Environmental Science, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Sigal Abramovich
- Department of Earth and Environmental Science, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Eyal Rahav
- National Institute of Oceanography, Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, Haifa, Israel
| | - Natalia Belkin
- National Institute of Oceanography, Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, Haifa, Israel
| | - Maxim Rubin-Blum
- National Institute of Oceanography, Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, Haifa, Israel
| | - Michal Kucera
- MARUM-Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Raphaël Morard
- MARUM-Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Maria Holzmann
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest Ansermet 30, Geneva 4 1211, Switzerland
| | - Uri Abdu
- Department of Life Science, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
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5
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Yamada N, Lepetit B, Mann DG, Sprecher BN, Buck JM, Bergmann P, Kroth PG, Bolton JJ, Dąbek P, Witkowski A, Kim SY, Trobajo R. Prey preference in a kleptoplastic dinoflagellate is linked to photosynthetic performance. THE ISME JOURNAL 2023; 17:1578-1588. [PMID: 37391621 PMCID: PMC10504301 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-023-01464-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2023]
Abstract
Dinoflagellates of the family Kryptoperidiniaceae, known as "dinotoms", possess diatom-derived endosymbionts and contain individuals at three successive evolutionary stages: a transiently maintained kleptoplastic stage; a stage containing multiple permanently maintained diatom endosymbionts; and a further permanent stage containing a single diatom endosymbiont. Kleptoplastic dinotoms were discovered only recently, in Durinskia capensis; until now it has not been investigated kleptoplastic behavior and the metabolic and genetic integration of host and prey. Here, we show D. capensis is able to use various diatom species as kleptoplastids and exhibits different photosynthetic capacities depending on the diatom species. This is in contrast with the prey diatoms in their free-living stage, as there are no differences in their photosynthetic capacities. Complete photosynthesis including both the light reactions and the Calvin cycle remain active only when D. capensis feeds on its habitual associate, the "essential" diatom Nitzschia captiva. The organelles of another edible diatom, N. inconspicua, are preserved intact after ingestion by D. capensis and expresses the psbC gene of the photosynthetic light reaction, while RuBisCO gene expression is lost. Our results indicate that edible but non-essential, "supplemental" diatoms are used by D. capensis for producing ATP and NADPH, but not for carbon fixation. D. capensis has established a species-specifically designed metabolic system allowing carbon fixation to be performed only by its essential diatoms. The ability of D. capensis to ingest supplemental diatoms as kleptoplastids may be a flexible ecological strategy, to use these diatoms as "emergency supplies" while no essential diatoms are available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norico Yamada
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany.
| | - Bernard Lepetit
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - David G Mann
- Marine and Continental Waters Program, Institute for Food and Agricultural Research and Technology, La Ràpita, Spain
- Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | | | - Jochen M Buck
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Paavo Bergmann
- Electron Microscopy Centre, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Peter G Kroth
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - John J Bolton
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Przemysław Dąbek
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Sciences, University of Szczecin, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Andrzej Witkowski
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Sciences, University of Szczecin, Szczecin, Poland
| | - So-Yeon Kim
- Department of Oceanography, Kunsan National University, Gunsan, Republic of Korea
| | - Rosa Trobajo
- Marine and Continental Waters Program, Institute for Food and Agricultural Research and Technology, La Ràpita, Spain
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6
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Sørensen MES, Zlatogursky VV, Onuţ-Brännström I, Walraven A, Foster RA, Burki F. A novel kleptoplastidic symbiosis revealed in the marine centrohelid Meringosphaera with evidence of genetic integration. Curr Biol 2023; 33:3571-3584.e6. [PMID: 37536342 PMCID: PMC7615077 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Plastid symbioses between heterotrophic hosts and algae are widespread and abundant in surface oceans. They are critically important both for extant ecological systems and for understanding the evolution of plastids. Kleptoplastidy, where the plastids of prey are temporarily retained and continuously re-acquired, provides opportunities to study the transitional states of plastid establishment. Here, we investigated the poorly studied marine centrohelid Meringosphaera and its previously unidentified symbionts using culture-independent methods from environmental samples. Investigations of the 18S rDNA from single-cell assembled genomes (SAGs) revealed uncharacterized genetic diversity within Meringosphaera that likely represents multiple species. We found that Meringosphaera harbors plastids of Dictyochophyceae origin (stramenopiles), for which we recovered six full plastid genomes and found evidence of two distinct subgroups that are congruent with host identity. Environmental monitoring by qPCR and catalyzed reporter deposition-fluorescence in situ hybridization (CARD-FISH) revealed seasonal dynamics of both host and plastid. In particular, we did not detect the plastids for 6 months of the year, which, combined with the lack of plastids in some SAGs, suggests that the plastids are temporary and the relationship is kleptoplastidic. Importantly, we found evidence of genetic integration of the kleptoplasts as we identified host-encoded plastid-associated genes, with evolutionary origins likely from the plastid source as well as from other alga sources. This is only the second case where host-encoded kleptoplast-targeted genes have been predicted in an ancestrally plastid-lacking group. Our results provide evidence for gene transfers and protein re-targeting as relatively early events in the evolution of plastid symbioses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan E S Sørensen
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden; Institute of Microbial Cell Biology, Heinrich Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Vasily V Zlatogursky
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4 Vancouver, BC, Canada; Department of Organismal Biology, Program in Systematic Biology, Uppsala University, 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ioana Onuţ-Brännström
- Department of Organismal Biology, Program in Systematic Biology, Uppsala University, 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden; Department of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala University, 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden; Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, 0562 Oslo, Norway
| | - Anne Walraven
- Department of Organismal Biology, Program in Systematic Biology, Uppsala University, 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Rachel A Foster
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Fabien Burki
- Department of Organismal Biology, Program in Systematic Biology, Uppsala University, 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden; Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, 752 37 Uppsala, Sweden.
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7
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Cartaxana P, Morelli L, Cassin E, Havurinne V, Cabral M, Cruz S. Prey species and abundance affect growth and photosynthetic performance of the polyphagous sea slug Elysia crispata. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:230810. [PMID: 37650060 PMCID: PMC10465201 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.230810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
Some sacoglossan sea slugs steal functional macroalgal chloroplasts (kleptoplasts). In this study, we investigated the effects of algal prey species and abundance on the growth and photosynthetic capacity of the tropical polyphagous sea slug Elysia crispata. Recently hatched sea slugs fed and acquired chloroplasts from the macroalga Bryopsis plumosa, but not from Acetabularia acetabulum. However, adult sea slugs were able to switch diet to A. acetabulum, rapidly replacing the great majority of the original kleptoplasts. When fed with B. plumosa, higher feeding frequency resulted in significantly higher growth and kleptoplast photosynthetic yield, as well as a slower relative decrease in these parameters upon starvation. Longevity of A. acetabulum-derived chloroplasts in E. crispata was over twofold that of B. plumosa. Furthermore, significantly lower relative weight loss under starvation was observed in sea slugs previously fed on A. acetabulum than on B. plumosa. This study shows that functionality and longevity of kleptoplasts in photosynthetic sea slugs depend on the origin of the plastids. Furthermore, we have identified A. acetabulum as a donor of photosynthetically efficient chloroplasts common to highly specialized monophagous and polyphagous sea slugs capable of long-term retention, which opens new experimental routes to unravel the unsolved mysteries of kleptoplasty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Cartaxana
- ECOMARE – Laboratory for Innovation and Sustainability of Marine Biological Resources, CESAM – Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Luca Morelli
- ECOMARE – Laboratory for Innovation and Sustainability of Marine Biological Resources, CESAM – Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Elena Cassin
- ECOMARE – Laboratory for Innovation and Sustainability of Marine Biological Resources, CESAM – Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Vesa Havurinne
- ECOMARE – Laboratory for Innovation and Sustainability of Marine Biological Resources, CESAM – Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Miguel Cabral
- ECOMARE – Laboratory for Innovation and Sustainability of Marine Biological Resources, CESAM – Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Sónia Cruz
- ECOMARE – Laboratory for Innovation and Sustainability of Marine Biological Resources, CESAM – Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
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8
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Paight C, Johnson MD, Lasek-Nesselquist E, Moeller HV. Cascading effects of prey identity on gene expression in a kleptoplastidic ciliate. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2023; 70:e12940. [PMID: 35975609 PMCID: PMC10087830 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Kleptoplastidic, or chloroplast stealing, lineages transiently retain functional photosynthetic machinery from algal prey. This machinery, and its photosynthetic outputs, must be integrated into the host's metabolism, but the details of this integration are poorly understood. Here, we study this metabolic integration in the ciliate Mesodinium chamaeleon, a coastal marine species capable of retaining chloroplasts from at least six distinct genera of cryptophyte algae. To assess the effects of feeding history on ciliate physiology and gene expression, we acclimated M. chamaeleon to four different types of prey and contrasted well-fed and starved treatments. Consistent with previous physiological work on the ciliate, we found that starved ciliates had lower chlorophyll content, photosynthetic rates, and growth rates than their well-fed counterparts. However, ciliate gene expression mirrored prey phylogenetic relationships rather than physiological status, suggesting that, even as M. chamaeleon cells were starved of prey, their overarching regulatory systems remained tuned to the prey type to which they had been acclimated. Collectively, our results indicate a surprising degree of prey-specific host transcriptional adjustments, implying varied integration of prey metabolic potential into many aspects of ciliate physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Paight
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, USA
| | - Matthew D Johnson
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Erica Lasek-Nesselquist
- Wadsworth Center, NYSDOH, Albany, New York, USA.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Albany School of Public Health, Rensselaer, New York, USA
| | - Holly V Moeller
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, USA
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9
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Abstract
Kleptoplasty, the process by which a host organism sequesters and retains algal chloroplasts, is relatively common in protists. The origin of the plastid varies, as do the length of time it is retained in the host and the functionality of the association. In metazoa, the capacity for long-term (several weeks to months) maintenance of photosynthetically active chloroplasts is a unique characteristic of a handful of sacoglossan sea slugs. This capability has earned these slugs the epithets "crawling leaves" and "solar-powered sea slugs." This Unsolved Mystery explores the basis of chloroplast maintenance and function and attempts to clarify contradictory results in the published literature. We address some of the mysteries of this remarkable association. Why are functional chloroplasts retained? And how is the function of stolen chloroplasts maintained without the support of the algal nucleus?
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10
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Holt CC, Boscaro V, Van Steenkiste NWL, Herranz M, Mathur V, Irwin NAT, Buckholtz G, Leander BS, Keeling PJ. Microscopic marine invertebrates are reservoirs for cryptic and diverse protists and fungi. MICROBIOME 2022; 10:161. [PMID: 36180959 PMCID: PMC9523941 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-022-01363-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microbial symbioses in marine invertebrates are commonplace. However, characterizations of invertebrate microbiomes are vastly outnumbered by those of vertebrates. Protists and fungi run the gamut of symbiosis, yet eukaryotic microbiome sequencing is rarely undertaken, with much of the focus on bacteria. To explore the importance of microscopic marine invertebrates as potential symbiont reservoirs, we used a phylogenetic-focused approach to analyze the host-associated eukaryotic microbiomes of 220 animal specimens spanning nine different animal phyla. RESULTS Our data expanded the traditional host range of several microbial taxa and identified numerous undescribed lineages. A lack of comparable reference sequences resulted in several cryptic clades within the Apicomplexa and Ciliophora and emphasized the potential for microbial invertebrates to harbor novel protistan and fungal diversity. CONCLUSIONS Microscopic marine invertebrates, spanning a wide range of animal phyla, host various protist and fungal sequences and may therefore serve as a useful resource in the detection and characterization of undescribed symbioses. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corey C Holt
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
- Hakai Institute, Heriot Bay, Canada.
| | - Vittorio Boscaro
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
- Hakai Institute, Heriot Bay, Canada
| | - Niels W L Van Steenkiste
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
- Hakai Institute, Heriot Bay, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Maria Herranz
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
- Hakai Institute, Heriot Bay, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Varsha Mathur
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | | | - Gracy Buckholtz
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Brian S Leander
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Patrick J Keeling
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
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11
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Lee H, Park J, Kim N, Youn W, Yun G, Han SY, Nguyen DT, Choi IS. Cell-in-Catalytic-Shell Nanoarchitectonics: Catalytic Empowerment of Individual Living Cells by Single-Cell Nanoencapsulation. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2201247. [PMID: 35641454 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202201247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Cell-in-shell biohybrid structures, synthesized by encapsulating individual living cells with exogenous materials, have emerged as exciting functional entities for engineered living materials, with emergent properties outside the scope of biochemical modifications. Artificial exoskeletons have, to date, provided physicochemical shelters to the cells inside in the first stage of technological development, and further advances in the field demand catalytically empowered, cellular hybrid systems that augment the biological functions of cells and even introduce completely new functions to the cells. This work describes a facile and generalizable strategy for empowering living cells with extrinsic catalytic capability through nanoencapsulation of living cells with a supramolecular metal-organic complex of Fe3+ and benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylic acid (BTC). A series of enzymes are embedded in situ, without loss of catalytic activity, in the Fe3+ -BTC shells, not to mention the superior characteristics of cytocompatible and rapid shell-forming processes. The nanoshell enhances the catalytic efficiency of multienzymatic cascade reactions by confining reaction intermediates to its internal voids and the nanoencapsulated cells acquire exogenous biochemical functions, including enzymatic cleavage of lethal octyl-β-d-glucopyranoside into d-glucose, with autonomous cytoprotection. The system will provide a versatile, nanoarchitectonic tool for interfacing biological cells with functional materials, especially for catalytic bioempowerment of living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hojae Lee
- Center for Cell-Encapsulation Research, Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, South Korea
| | - Joohyouck Park
- Center for Cell-Encapsulation Research, Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, South Korea
| | - Nayoung Kim
- Center for Cell-Encapsulation Research, Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, South Korea
| | - Wongu Youn
- Center for Cell-Encapsulation Research, Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, South Korea
| | - Gyeongwon Yun
- Center for Cell-Encapsulation Research, Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, South Korea
| | - Sang Yeong Han
- Center for Cell-Encapsulation Research, Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, South Korea
| | - Duc Tai Nguyen
- Center for Cell-Encapsulation Research, Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, South Korea
| | - Insung S Choi
- Center for Cell-Encapsulation Research, Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, South Korea
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12
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Havurinne V, Aitokari R, Mattila H, Käpylä V, Tyystjärvi E. Ultraviolet screening by slug tissue and tight packing of plastids protect photosynthetic sea slugs from photoinhibition. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2022; 152:373-387. [PMID: 34826025 PMCID: PMC9458594 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-021-00883-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
One of the main mysteries regarding photosynthetic sea slugs is how the slug plastids handle photoinhibition, the constant light-induced damage to Photosystem II of photosynthesis. Recovery from photoinhibition involves proteins encoded by both the nuclear and plastid genomes, and slugs with plastids isolated from the algal nucleus are therefore expected to be incapable of constantly repairing the damage as the plastids inside the slugs grow old. We studied photoinhibition-related properties of the sea slug Elysia timida that ingests its plastids from the green alga Acetabularia acetabulum. Spectral analysis of both the slugs and the algae revealed that there are two ways the slugs use to avoid major photoinhibition of their plastids. Firstly, highly photoinhibitory UV radiation is screened by the slug tissue or mucus before it reaches the plastids. Secondly, the slugs pack the plastids tightly in their thick bodies, and therefore plastids in the outer layers protect the inner ones from photoinhibition. Both properties are expected to greatly improve the longevity of the plastids inside the slugs, as the plastids do not need to repair excessive amounts of damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vesa Havurinne
- Department of Life Technologies/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Riina Aitokari
- Department of Life Technologies/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Heta Mattila
- Department of Life Technologies/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Ville Käpylä
- Department of Life Technologies/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Esa Tyystjärvi
- Department of Life Technologies/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
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13
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Multi-scale Chimerism: An experimental window on the algorithms of anatomical control. Cells Dev 2022; 169:203764. [PMID: 34974205 DOI: 10.1016/j.cdev.2021.203764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 12/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Despite the immense progress in genetics and cell biology, major knowledge gaps remain with respect to prediction and control of the global morphologies that will result from the cooperation of cells with known genomes. The understanding of cooperativity, competition, and synergy across diverse biological scales has been obscured by a focus on standard model systems that exhibit invariant species-specific anatomies. Morphogenesis of chimeric biological material is an especially instructive window on the control of biological growth and form because it emphasizes the need for prediction without reliance on familiar, standard outcomes. Here, we review an important and fascinating body of data from experiments utilizing DNA transfer, cell transplantation, organ grafting, and parabiosis. We suggest that these are all instances (at different levels of organization) of one general phenomenon: chimerism. Multi-scale chimeras are a powerful conceptual and experimental tool with which to probe the mapping between properties of components and large-scale anatomy: the laws of morphogenesis. The existing data and future advances in this field will impact not only the understanding of cooperation and the evolution of body forms, but also the design of strategies for system-level outcomes in regenerative medicine and swarm robotics.
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14
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Kawanishi Y, Matsunaga S. Synthetic Carbon Fixation: Conversion of Heterotrophs into Autotrophs by Calvin-Benson-Bassham Cycle Induction. CYTOLOGIA 2021. [DOI: 10.1508/cytologia.86.277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Kawanishi
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science
| | - Sachihiro Matsunaga
- Laboratory of Integrated Biology, Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences
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15
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Phylogeny and evolution of functional chloroplast retention in sacoglossan sea slugs (Gastropoda: Heterobranchia). ORG DIVERS EVOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13127-021-00532-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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16
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Pigment and Fatty Acid Heterogeneity in the Sea Slug Elysia crispata Is Not Shaped by Habitat Depth. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11113157. [PMID: 34827889 PMCID: PMC8614334 DOI: 10.3390/ani11113157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Some species of sacoglossan sea slugs are able to steal chloroplasts from the algae they feed on and maintain them functional for several months, a process termed “kleptoplasty”. One of these photosynthetic slugs is Elysia crispata, found in coral reefs of the Gulf of Mexico. This sacoglossan inhabits different depths (0–25 m), being exposed to different food sources and contrasting light conditions. In this work, we characterized the pigment and fatty acid (FA) profiles, and quantified the total lipid, glycolipid and phospholipid contents of E. crispata from shallow (0–4 m) and deeper (8–12 m) waters, after a month of starvation to determine the longest and more stable retention of chloroplasts and its relation to habitat depth. Biochemical analyses allowed the identification of 12 photosynthetic pigments and 27 FAs. Heterogeneity in the composition of pigments confirmed the long-term retention of functional chloroplasts ingested from different algae. However, the differences found in pigment profile, total lipid content, and FA composition on individuals of E. crispata were not related to habitat depth. High amounts of glycolipids, exclusive chloroplast lipids, suggest a good condition of these photosynthetic organelles in animal cells. These results contribute baseline physiological data that may help explain evolutionary associations such as endosymbiosis. Abstract Long-term retention of functional chloroplasts in animal cells occurs only in sacoglossan sea slugs. Analysis of molecules related to the maintenance of these organelles can provide valuable information on this trait (kleptoplasty). The goal of our research was to characterize the pigment and fatty acid (FA) composition of the sea slug Elysia crispata and their associated chloroplasts that are kept functional for a long time, and to quantify total lipid, glycolipid and phospholipid contents, identifying differences between habitats: shallow (0–4 m) and deeper (8–12 m) waters. Specimens were sampled and analyzed after a month of food deprivation, through HPLC, GC-MS and colorimetric methods, to ensure an assessment of long-term kleptoplasty in relation to depth. Pigment signatures indicate that individuals retain chloroplasts from different macroalgal sources. FA classes, phospholipid and glycolipid contents displayed dissimilarities between depths. However, heterogeneities in pigment and FA profiles, as well as total lipid, glycolipid and phospholipid amounts in E. crispata were not related to habitat depth. The high content of chloroplast origin molecules, such as Chl a and glycolipids after a month of starvation, confirms that E. crispata retains chloroplasts in good biochemical condition. This characterization fills a knowledge gap of an animal model commonly employed to study kleptoplasty.
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Cartaxana P, Rey F, LeKieffre C, Lopes D, Hubas C, Spangenberg JE, Escrig S, Jesus B, Calado G, Domingues R, Kühl M, Calado R, Meibom A, Cruz S. Photosynthesis from stolen chloroplasts can support sea slug reproductive fitness. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20211779. [PMID: 34583582 PMCID: PMC8479339 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.1779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Some sea slugs are able to steal functional chloroplasts (kleptoplasts) from their algal food sources, but the role and relevance of photosynthesis to the animal host remain controversial. While some researchers claim that kleptoplasts are slowly digestible 'snacks', others advocate that they enhance the overall fitness of sea slugs much more profoundly. Our analysis shows light-dependent incorporation of 13C and 15N in the albumen gland and gonadal follicles of the sea slug Elysia timida, representing translocation of photosynthates to kleptoplast-free reproductive organs. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids with reported roles in reproduction were produced in the sea slug cells using labelled precursors translocated from the kleptoplasts. Finally, we report reduced fecundity of E. timida by limiting kleptoplast photosynthesis. The present study indicates that photosynthesis enhances the reproductive fitness of kleptoplast-bearing sea slugs, confirming the biological relevance of this remarkable association between a metazoan and an algal-derived organelle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Cartaxana
- CESAM—Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
- Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Felisa Rey
- CESAM—Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
- Mass Spectrometry Centre, LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Charlotte LeKieffre
- Cell and Plant Physiology Laboratory, University of Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, INRAE, Grenoble Cedex, France
| | - Diana Lopes
- CESAM—Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Cédric Hubas
- Biologie des Organismes et Écosystèmes Aquatiques (UMR BOREA 8067), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Université, Université de Caen Normandie, Université des Antilles, CNRS, IRD, Station Marine de Concarneau, Place de la croix, Concarneau 29900, France
| | - Jorge E. Spangenberg
- Institute of Earth Surface Dynamics (IDYST), University of Lausanne, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland
| | - Stéphane Escrig
- Laboratory for Biological Geochemistry, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland
| | - Bruno Jesus
- Laboratoire Mer Molécules Santé, Faculté des Sciences et des Techniques, Université de Nantes, Nantes 44322, France
| | - Gonçalo Calado
- Department of Life Sciences, Lusófona University, Campo Grande 376, Lisbon 1749-024, Portugal
- NOVA School of Science and Technology, MARE—Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Campus de Caparica, Caparica 2829-516, Portugal
| | - Rosário Domingues
- Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
- Mass Spectrometry Centre, LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Michael Kühl
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, Helsingør 3000, Denmark
| | - Ricardo Calado
- CESAM—Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Anders Meibom
- Laboratory for Biological Geochemistry, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland
- Center for Advanced Surface Analysis, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland
| | - Sónia Cruz
- CESAM—Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
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Abstract
The origin of plastids (chloroplasts) by endosymbiosis stands as one of the most important events in the history of eukaryotic life. The genetic, biochemical, and cell biological integration of a cyanobacterial endosymbiont into a heterotrophic host eukaryote approximately a billion years ago paved the way for the evolution of diverse algal groups in a wide range of aquatic and, eventually, terrestrial environments. Plastids have on multiple occasions also moved horizontally from eukaryote to eukaryote by secondary and tertiary endosymbiotic events. The overall picture of extant photosynthetic diversity can best be described as “patchy”: Plastid-bearing lineages are spread far and wide across the eukaryotic tree of life, nested within heterotrophic groups. The algae do not constitute a monophyletic entity, and understanding how, and how often, plastids have moved from branch to branch on the eukaryotic tree remains one of the most fundamental unsolved problems in the field of cell evolution. In this review, we provide an overview of recent advances in our understanding of the origin and spread of plastids from the perspective of comparative genomics. Recent years have seen significant improvements in genomic sampling from photosynthetic and nonphotosynthetic lineages, both of which have added important pieces to the puzzle of plastid evolution. Comparative genomics has also allowed us to better understand how endosymbionts become organelles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon J Sibbald
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.,Centre for Comparative Genomics and Evolutionary Bioinformatics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - John M Archibald
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.,Centre for Comparative Genomics and Evolutionary Bioinformatics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
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19
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Aoki R, Matsunaga S. A Photosynthetic Animal: A Sacoglossan Sea Slug that Steals Chloroplasts. CYTOLOGIA 2021. [DOI: 10.1508/cytologia.86.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryota Aoki
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science
| | - Sachihiro Matsunaga
- Laboratory of Integrated Biology, Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences
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20
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Melo Clavijo J, Frankenbach S, Fidalgo C, Serôdio J, Donath A, Preisfeld A, Christa G. Identification of scavenger receptors and thrombospondin-type-1 repeat proteins potentially relevant for plastid recognition in Sacoglossa. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:12348-12363. [PMID: 33209293 PMCID: PMC7663992 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional kleptoplasty is a photosymbiotic relationship, in which photosynthetically active chloroplasts serve as an intracellular symbiont for a heterotrophic host. Among Metazoa, functional kleptoplasty is only found in marine sea slugs belonging to the Sacoglossa and recently described in Rhabdocoela worms. Although functional kleptoplasty has been intensively studied in Sacoglossa, the fundamentals of the specific recognition of the chloroplasts and their subsequent incorporation are unknown. The key to ensure the initiation of any symbiosis is the ability to specifically recognize the symbiont and to differentiate a symbiont from a pathogen. For instance, in photosymbiotic cnidarians, several studies have shown that the host innate immune system, in particular scavenger receptors (SRs) and thrombospondin-type-1 repeat (TSR) protein superfamily, is playing a major role in the process of recognizing and differentiating symbionts from pathogens. In the present study, SRs and TSRs of three Sacoglossa sea slugs, Elysia cornigera, Elysia timida, and Elysia chlorotica, were identified by translating available transcriptomes into potential proteins and searching for receptor specific protein and/or transmembrane domains. Both receptors classes are highly diverse in the slugs, and many new domain arrangements for each receptor class were found. The analyses of the gene expression of these three species provided a set of species-specific candidate genes, that is, SR-Bs, SR-Es, C-type lectins, and TSRs, that are potentially relevant for the recognition of kleptoplasts. The results set the base for future experimental studies to understand if and how these candidate receptors are indeed involved in chloroplast recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny Melo Clavijo
- Fakultät für Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften, Zoologie und BiologiedidaktikBergische Universität WuppertalWuppertalGermany
| | - Silja Frankenbach
- Department of Biology and CESAM – Center for Environmental and Marine StudiesUniversity of AveiroAveiroPortugal
| | - Cátia Fidalgo
- Department of Biology and CESAM – Center for Environmental and Marine StudiesUniversity of AveiroAveiroPortugal
| | - João Serôdio
- Department of Biology and CESAM – Center for Environmental and Marine StudiesUniversity of AveiroAveiroPortugal
| | - Alexander Donath
- Center for Molecular Biodiversity ResearchZoological Research Museum Alexander KoenigBonnGermany
| | - Angelika Preisfeld
- Fakultät für Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften, Zoologie und BiologiedidaktikBergische Universität WuppertalWuppertalGermany
| | - Gregor Christa
- Fakultät für Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften, Zoologie und BiologiedidaktikBergische Universität WuppertalWuppertalGermany
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Havurinne V, Tyystjärvi E. Photosynthetic sea slugs induce protective changes to the light reactions of the chloroplasts they steal from algae. eLife 2020; 9:57389. [PMID: 33077025 PMCID: PMC7679141 DOI: 10.7554/elife.57389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sacoglossan sea slugs are able to maintain functional chloroplasts inside their own cells, and mechanisms that allow preservation of the chloroplasts are unknown. We found that the slug Elysia timida induces changes to the photosynthetic light reactions of the chloroplasts it steals from the alga Acetabularia acetabulum. Working with a large continuous laboratory culture of both the slugs (>500 individuals) and their prey algae, we show that the plastoquinone pool of slug chloroplasts remains oxidized, which can suppress reactive oxygen species formation. Slug chloroplasts also rapidly build up a strong proton-motive force upon a dark-to-light transition, which helps them to rapidly switch on photoprotective non-photochemical quenching of excitation energy. Finally, our results suggest that chloroplasts inside E. timida rely on oxygen-dependent electron sinks during rapid changes in light intensity. These photoprotective mechanisms are expected to contribute to the long-term functionality of the chloroplasts inside the slugs. Plants, algae and a few other organisms rely on a process known as photosynthesis to fuel themselves, as they can harness cellular structures called chloroplasts to convert light into usable energy. Animals typically lack chloroplasts, making them unable to use photosynthesis to power themselves. The sea slug Elysia timida, however, can steal whole chloroplasts from the cells of the algae it consumes: the stolen structures then become part of the cells in the gut of the slug, allowing the animal to gain energy from sunlight. Once they are in the digestive system of the slug, the chloroplasts survive and keep working for longer than expected. Indeed, these structures are often harmed as a side effect of photosynthesis, but the sea slug does not have the right genes to help repair this damage. In addition, conditions inside animal cells are widely different to the ones found inside algae and plants. It is not clear then how the sea slug extends the lifespan of its chloroplasts by preventing damage caused by sunlight. To investigate this question, Havurinne and Tyystjärvi compared photosynthesis in sea slugs and the algae they eat. A range of methods, including measuring fluorescence from the chloroplasts, was used: this revealed that the slug changes the inside of the stolen chloroplasts, making them more resistant to damage. First, when exposed to light the stolen chloroplasts can quickly switch on a mechanism that dissipates light energy to heat, which is less damaging. Second, a molecule that serves as an intermediate during photosynthesis is kept in a ‘safe’ state which prevents it from creating harmful compounds. And finally, additional safeguard molecules ‘deactivate’ compounds that could otherwise mediate damaging reactions. Overall, these measures may reduce the efficiency of the chloroplasts but allow them to keep working for much longer. Early chloroplasts were probably independent bacteria that were captured and ‘domesticated’ by other cells for their ability to extract energy from the sun. Photosynthesizing sea slugs therefore provide an interesting way to understand some of the challenges of early life. The work by Havurinne and Tyystjärvi may also reveal new ways to harness biological processes such as photosynthesis for energy production in other contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vesa Havurinne
- University of Turku, Department of Biochemistry / Molecular Plant Biology, Turku, Finland
| | - Esa Tyystjärvi
- University of Turku, Department of Biochemistry / Molecular Plant Biology, Turku, Finland
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22
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Shiroyama H, Mitoh S, Ida TY, Yusa Y. Adaptive significance of light and food for a kleptoplastic sea slug: implications for photosynthesis. Oecologia 2020; 194:455-463. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-020-04779-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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23
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Onuma R, Hirooka S, Kanesaki Y, Fujiwara T, Yoshikawa H, Miyagishima SY. Changes in the transcriptome, ploidy, and optimal light intensity of a cryptomonad upon integration into a kleptoplastic dinoflagellate. THE ISME JOURNAL 2020; 14:2407-2423. [PMID: 32514116 PMCID: PMC7490267 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-020-0693-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Endosymbiosis of unicellular eukaryotic algae into previously nonphotosynthetic eukaryotes has established chloroplasts in several eukaryotic lineages. In addition, certain unicellular organisms in several different lineages ingest algae and utilize them as temporal chloroplasts (kleptoplasts) for weeks to months before digesting them. Among these organisms, the dinoflagellate Nusuttodinium aeruginosum ingests the cryptomonad Chroomonas sp. and enlarges the kleptoplast with the aid of the cryptomonad nucleus. To understand how the cryptomonad nucleus is remodeled in the dinoflagellate, here we examined changes in the transcriptome and ploidy of the ingested nucleus. We show that, after ingestion, genes involved in metabolism, translation, and DNA replication are upregulated while those involved in sensory systems and cell motility are downregulated. In the dinoflagellate cell, the cryptomonad nucleus undergoes polyploidization that correlates with an increase in the mRNA levels of upregulated genes. In addition, the ingested nucleus almost loses transcriptional responses to light. Because polyploidization and loss of transcriptional regulation are also known to have occurred during the establishment of endosymbiotic organelles, these changes are probably a common trend in endosymbiotic evolution. Furthermore, we show that the kleptoplast and dinoflagellate are more susceptible to high light than the free-living cryptomonad but that the ingested nucleus reduces this damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Onuma
- Department of Gene Function and Phenomics, National Institute of Genetics, Yata 1111, Mishima, Shizuoka, 411-8540, Japan.
| | - Shunsuke Hirooka
- Department of Gene Function and Phenomics, National Institute of Genetics, Yata 1111, Mishima, Shizuoka, 411-8540, Japan
| | - Yu Kanesaki
- Research Institute of Green Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga, Shizuoka, 422-8529, Japan
| | - Takayuki Fujiwara
- Department of Gene Function and Phenomics, National Institute of Genetics, Yata 1111, Mishima, Shizuoka, 411-8540, Japan
- Department of Genetics, Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), Yata 1111, Mishima, Shizuoka, 411-8540, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Yoshikawa
- Department of Bioscience, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya, Tokyo, 156-8502, Japan
| | - Shin-Ya Miyagishima
- Department of Gene Function and Phenomics, National Institute of Genetics, Yata 1111, Mishima, Shizuoka, 411-8540, Japan.
- Department of Genetics, Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), Yata 1111, Mishima, Shizuoka, 411-8540, Japan.
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24
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Rey F, Melo T, Cartaxana P, Calado R, Domingues P, Cruz S, Domingues MRM. Coping with Starvation: Contrasting Lipidomic Dynamics in the Cells of Two Sacoglossan Sea Slugs Incorporating Stolen Plastids from the Same Macroalga. Integr Comp Biol 2020; 60:43-56. [PMID: 32294176 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icaa019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Several species of sacoglossan sea slugs are able to sequester chloroplasts from algae and incorporate them into their cells. However, the ability to maintain functional "stolen" plastids (kleptoplasts) can vary significantly within the Sacoglossa, giving species different capacities to withstand periods of food shortage. The present study provides an insight on the comparative shifts experienced by the lipidome of two sacoglossan sea slug species, Elysia viridis (long-term retention of functional chloroplasts) and Placida dendritica (retention of non-functional chloroplasts). A hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry approach was employed to screen the lipidome of specimens from both species feeding on the macroalga Codium tomentosum and after 1-week of starvation. The lipidome of E. viridis was generally unaffected by the absence of food, while that of P. dendritica varied significantly. The retention of functional chloroplasts by E. viridis cells allows this species to endure periods of food shortage, while in P. dendritica a significant reduction in the amount of main lipids was the consequence of the consumption of its own mass to endure starvation. The large proportion of ether phospholipids (plasmalogens) in both sea slug species suggests that these compounds may play a key role in chloroplast incorporation in sea slug cells and/or be involved in the reduction of the oxidative stress resulting from the presence of kleptoplasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felisa Rey
- CESAM, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal.,Mass Spectrometry Centre & QOPNA & LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Tânia Melo
- CESAM, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal.,Mass Spectrometry Centre & QOPNA & LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Paulo Cartaxana
- ECOMARE, CESAM, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Calado
- ECOMARE, CESAM, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Pedro Domingues
- Mass Spectrometry Centre & QOPNA & LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Sónia Cruz
- ECOMARE, CESAM, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
| | - M Rosário M Domingues
- CESAM, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal.,Mass Spectrometry Centre & QOPNA & LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal
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25
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Balsamo M, Artois T, Smith JPS, Todaro MA, Guidi L, Leander BS, Van Steenkiste NWL. The curious and neglected soft-bodied meiofauna: Rouphozoa (Gastrotricha and Platyhelminthes). HYDROBIOLOGIA 2020; 847:2613-2644. [PMID: 33551466 PMCID: PMC7864459 DOI: 10.1007/s10750-020-04287-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Gastrotricha and Platyhelminthes form a clade called Rouphozoa. Representatives of both taxa are main components of meiofaunal communities, but their role in the trophic ecology of marine and freshwater communities is not sufficiently studied. Traditional collection methods for meiofauna are optimized for Ecdysozoa, and include the use of fixatives or flotation techniques that are unsuitable for the preservation and identification of soft-bodied meiofauna. As a result, rouphozoans are usually underestimated in conventional biodiversity surveys and ecological studies. Here, we give an updated outline of their diversity and taxonomy, with some phylogenetic considerations. We describe successfully tested techniques for their recovery and study, and emphasize current knowledge on the ecology, distribution and dispersal of freshwater gastrotrichs and microturbellarians. We also discuss the opportunities and pitfalls of (meta)barcoding studies as a means of overcoming the taxonomic impediment. Finally, we discuss the importance of rouphozoans in aquatic ecosystems and provide future research directions to fill in crucial gaps in the biology of these organisms needed for understanding their basic role in the ecology of benthos and their place in the trophic networks linking micro-, meio- and macrofauna of freshwater ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Balsamo
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino, Urbino, Italy
| | - Tom Artois
- Centre for Environmental Sciences, Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | | | - M Antonio Todaro
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena-Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Loretta Guidi
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino, Urbino, Italy
| | - Brian S Leander
- Departments of Botany and Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Cruz S, LeKieffre C, Cartaxana P, Hubas C, Thiney N, Jakobsen S, Escrig S, Jesus B, Kühl M, Calado R, Meibom A. Functional kleptoplasts intermediate incorporation of carbon and nitrogen in cells of the Sacoglossa sea slug Elysia viridis. Sci Rep 2020; 10:10548. [PMID: 32601288 PMCID: PMC7324368 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-66909-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Some sacoglossan sea slugs incorporate intracellular functional algal chloroplasts, a process termed kleptoplasty. “Stolen” chloroplasts (kleptoplasts) can remain photosynthetically active up to several months, contributing to animal nutrition. Whether this contribution occurs by means of translocation of photosynthesis-derived metabolites from functional kleptoplasts to the animal host or by simple digestion of such organelles remains controversial. Imaging of 13C and 15N assimilation over a 12-h incubation period of Elysia viridis sea slugs showed a light-dependent incorporation of carbon and nitrogen, observed first in digestive tubules and followed by a rapid accumulation into chloroplast-free organs. Furthermore, this work revealed the presence of 13C-labeled long-chain fatty acids (FA) typical of marine invertebrates, such as arachidonic (20:4n-6) and adrenic (22:4n-6) acids. The time frame and level of 13C- and 15N-labeling in chloroplast-free organs indicate that photosynthesis-derived primary metabolites were made available to the host through functional kleptoplasts. The presence of specific 13C-labeled long-chain FA, absent from E. viridis algal food, indicates animal based-elongation using kleptoplast-derived FA precursors. Finally, carbon and nitrogen were incorporated in organs and tissues involved in reproductive functions (albumin gland and gonadal follicles), implying a putative role of kleptoplast photosynthesis in the reproductive fitness of the animal host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sónia Cruz
- ECOMARE, CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Charlotte LeKieffre
- ECOMARE, CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal.,UMR CNRS 6112 LPG-BIAF, Université d'Angers, 2 Boulevard Lavoisier, 49045, Angers, Cedex 1, France.,Cell & Plant Physiology Laboratory, University of Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, INRA, Grenoble, France
| | - Paulo Cartaxana
- ECOMARE, CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Cédric Hubas
- Biologie des Organismes et Ecosystèmes Aquatiques (BOREA), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Université, Université de Caen Normandie, Université des Antilles, CNRS, IRD, Station Marine de Concarneau, Place de la croix, 29900, Concarneau, France
| | - Najet Thiney
- Biologie des Organismes et Ecosystèmes Aquatiques (BOREA), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Université, Université de Caen Normandie, Université des Antilles, CNRS, IRD, Station Marine de Concarneau, Place de la croix, 29900, Concarneau, France
| | - Sofie Jakobsen
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, 3000, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Stéphane Escrig
- Laboratory for Biological Geochemistry, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Bruno Jesus
- Laboratoire Mer Molécules Santé, Faculté des Sciences et des Techniques, Université de Nantes, 44322, Nantes, France
| | - Michael Kühl
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, 3000, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Ricardo Calado
- ECOMARE, CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Anders Meibom
- Laboratory for Biological Geochemistry, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Center for Advanced Surface Analysis, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
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