CD8+ T cell immunity blocks the metastasis of carcinogen-exposed breast cancer

CD8+ T cell‑related KCTD5 contributes to malignant progression and unfavorable clinical outcome of patients with triple‑negative breast cancer

Triple‑negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly aggressive and heterogeneous subtype of breast cancer that lacks expression of estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and HER2, making it more challenging to treat with targeted therapies. The present study aimed to identify CD8+ T cell‑associated genes, which could provide insight into the mechanisms underlying TNBC to facilitate developing novel immunotherapies. TNBC datasets were downloaded from public databases including The Cancer Genome Atlas, Molecular Taxonomy of Breast Cancer International Consortium, and Gene Expression Omnibus. Candidate genes were identified integrating weighted gene co‑expression network analysis (WGCNA), differential gene expression, protein‑protein‑interaction network construction and univariate Cox regression analysis. Kaplan‑Meier survival, multivariate Cox regression and receiver operating characteristic analysis were performed to evaluate the prognostic value of hub genes. Knockdown experiments, alongside wound healing, Cell Counting Kit‑8 and Transwell migration and invasion assays were performed. In total, seven gene modules were associated with CD8+ T cells using WGCNA, among which potassium channel tetramerization domain 5 (KCTD5) was significantly upregulated in TNBC samples and was associated with poor prognosis. KCTD5 expression inversely associated with infiltration ratios of 'Macrophages M1', 'Plasma cells', and 'γδ T cells', but positively with 'activated Mast cells', 'Macrophages M0', and 'Macrophages M2'. As an independent prognostic indicator for TNBC, KCTD5 was also associated with drug sensitivity and the expression of programmed cell death protein 1, Cytotoxic T‑Lymphocyte‑Associated Protein 4 (CTLA4), CD274), Cluster of Differentiation 86 (CD86), Lymphocyte‑Activation Gene 3 (LAG3), T Cell Immunoreceptor with Ig and ITIM Domains (TIGIT). Knockdown of KCTD5 significantly inhibited viability, migration and invasion of TNBC cells in vitro. KCTD5 was suggested to impact the tumor immune microenvironment by influencing the infiltration of immune cells and may serve as a potential therapeutic target for TNBC.

Oligandrin from Croton oligandrus (Euphorbiaceae) exhibits anti-breast cancer activity through immune-boosting mechanisms: In vitro and in vivo study

Aim

Recent developments in cancer research indicate that cancer is a manifestation of immune system dysfunction. Many natural anticancer agents developed recently possess immune-modulatory properties. In our ongoing pursuit of anticancer alternatives, we evaluated the immune-modulatory potential of oligandrin, an ent-pimarane type diterpenoid from Croton oligatrus.

Methods

we assessed on Breast cancer patients' peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated to assess the effect of oligandrin (0.5, 1, 10, 100, 200 mg/mL) in vitro using the Ficoll-histopaque density centrifugation method. The parameters that were assessed included, PBMC viability and cytokine (IL-6, IL-12, IL-10, EGF, TNF-α, INF-γ) production. In vivo, we chemically induced breast cancer using DMBA (50 mg/kg BW) in Wistar rats, then treated them with oligandrin (1 mg/kg BW) or standards (tamoxifen 3.3 mg/kg; letrozole 1 mg/kg) for 20 weeks. The parameters that were evaluated included, tumor burden, volume, incidence, histopathology, antioxidant, and inflammatory status.

Results

Oligandrin (1, 10, 100 and 200 μg/mL) significantly increased (p < 0.05) PBMC cell number 24 h after incubation. In vivo, it induced 62.5 % tumor incidence reduction compared to DMBA rats (100 %). Oligandrin significantly protected (p < 0.001) rats against increased tumor burden, mass and volume, which was accompanied by a significant antioxidant effect [increment of GSH (p < 0.01) and SOD (p < 0.001)]. Oligandrin prevented high-grade adenocarcinomas according to SBR stratification and significantly reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine levels (IL-6, IL-12) while increasing anti-inflammatory cytokine levels (INF-γ).

Conclusion

Oligandrin is reported for the first time to protect against breast cancer onset and this effect seems to be at least in part attributable to its immune-boosting capacity.

Identifying SLC2A6 as the novel protective factor in breast cancer by TP53-related genes affecting M1 macrophage infiltration

The high heterogeneity of breast cancer (BC) caused by pathogenic gene mutations poses a challenge to immunotherapy, but the underlying mechanism remains unknown. The difference in the infiltration of M1 macrophages induced by TP53 mutations has a significant impact on BC immunotherapy. The aim of this study was to develop a TP53-related M1 macrophage infiltration molecular typing risk signature in BC and evaluate the biological functions of the key gene to find new immunotherapy biomarkers. Weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA) and negative matrix factorization (NMF) were used for distinguishing BC subtypes. The signature and the nomogram were both constructed and evaluated. Biological functions of the novel signature gene SLC2A6 were confirmed through in vitro and in vivo experiments. RNA-Sequencing and protein profiling were used for detecting the possible mechanism of SLC2A6. The results suggested that four BC subtypes were distinguished by TP53-related genes that affect M1 macrophage infiltration. The signature constructed by molecular typing characteristics could evaluate BC's clinical features and tumor microenvironment. The nomogram could accurately predict the prognosis. The signature gene SLC2A6 was found to have an abnormally low expression in tumor tissues. Overexpression of SLC2A6 could inhibit proliferation, promote mitochondrial damage, and result in apoptosis of tumor cells. The HSP70 family member protein HSPA6 could bind with SLC2A6 and increase with the increased expression of SLC2A6. In summary, the risk signature provides a reference for BC risk assessment, and the signature gene SLC2A6 could act as a tumor suppressor in BC.

Breast Cancer Immune Landscape: Interplay Between Systemic and Local Immunity

Breast cancer (BC) is one of the most common malignancies in women worldwide. Numerous studies in immuno-oncology and successful trials of immunotherapy have demonstrated the causal role of the immune system in cancer pathogenesis. The interaction between the tumor and the immune system is known to have a dual nature. Despite cytotoxic lymphocyte activity against transformed cells, a tumor can escape immune surveillance and leverage chronic inflammation to maintain its own development. Research on antitumor immunity primarily focuses on the role of the tumor microenvironment, whereas the systemic immune response beyond the tumor site is described less thoroughly. Here, a comprehensive review of the formation of the immune profile in breast cancer patients is offered. The interplay between systemic and local immune reactions as self-sustaining mechanism of tumor progression is described and the functional activity of the main cell populations related to innate and adaptive immunity is discussed. Additionally, the interaction between different functional levels of the immune system and their contribution to the development of the pro- or anti-tumor immune response in BC is highlighted. The presented data can potentially inform the development of new immunotherapy strategies in the treatment of patients with BC.

A Role of Effector CD 8 + T Cells Against Circulating Tumor Cells Cloaked with Platelets: Insights from a Mathematical Model

Cancer metastasis accounts for a majority of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Metastasis occurs when the primary tumor sheds cells into the blood and lymphatic circulation, thereby becoming circulating tumor cells (CTCs) that transverse through the circulatory system, extravasate the circulation and establish a secondary distant tumor. Accumulating evidence suggests that circulating effector CD 8 + T cells are able to recognize and attack arrested or extravasating CTCs, but this important antitumoral effect remains largely undefined. Recent studies highlighted the supporting role of activated platelets in CTCs's extravasation from the bloodstream, contributing to metastatic progression. In this work, a simple mathematical model describes how the primary tumor, CTCs, activated platelets and effector CD 8 + T cells participate in metastasis. The stability analysis reveals that for early dissemination of CTCs, effector CD 8 + T cells can present or keep secondary metastatic tumor burden at low equilibrium state. In contrast, for late dissemination of CTCs, effector CD 8 + T cells are unlikely to inhibit secondary tumor growth. Moreover, global sensitivity analysis demonstrates that the rate of the primary tumor growth, intravascular CTC proliferation, as well as the CD 8 + T cell proliferation, strongly affects the number of the secondary tumor cells. Additionally, model simulations indicate that an increase in CTC proliferation greatly contributes to tumor metastasis. Our simulations further illustrate that the higher the number of activated platelets on CTCs, the higher the probability of secondary tumor establishment. Intriguingly, from a mathematical immunology perspective, our simulations indicate that if the rate of effector CD 8 + T cell proliferation is high, then the secondary tumor formation can be considerably delayed, providing a window for adjuvant tumor control strategies. Collectively, our results suggest that the earlier the effector CD 8 + T cell response is enhanced the higher is the probability of preventing or delaying secondary tumor metastases.

Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells promoted tumor cell growth associated with increased interleukin-18 in hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is experiencing a concerning rise in both incidence and mortality rates. Current therapeutic strategies are limited in their effectiveness, largely due to the complex causes of the disease and significant levels of drug resistance. Given the latest developments in human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUC-MSCs) research, there is a debate over the continued use of stem cell transplantation for treating tumors. Consequently, this study seeks to explore the role of hUC-MSCs in the management of HCC.

METHODS AND RESULTS

HUC-MSCs increased the number (10.75 ± 1.50) in the DEN/TCPOBOP-induced mice hepatoma model, compared with DMSO group (7.25 ± 1.71). Moreover, the liver index in hUC-MSCs group (0.21 ± 0.06) was greater than that in DMSO group (0.09 ± 0.01). Immunohistochemical (IHC) analysis revealed that while hUC-MSCs did not alter Foxp3 expression, they significantly stimulated Ki67 expression, indicative of increased tumor cellular proliferation. Additionally, immunofluorescence (IF) studies showed that hUC-MSCs increased CD8+ T cell counts without affecting macrophage numbers. Notably, granzyme B expression remained nearly undetectable. We observed that serum IL-18 levels were higher in the hUC-MSCs group (109.66 ± 0.38 pg/ml) compared to the DMSO group (91.14 ± 4.37 pg/ml). Conversely, IL-1β levels decreased in the hUC-MSCs group (63.00 ± 0.53 pg/ml) relative to the DMSO group (97.38 ± 9.08 pg/ml).

CONCLUSIONS

According to this study, hUC-MSCs promoted the growth of liver tumors. Therefore, we proposed that hUC-MSCs are not suitable for treating HCC, as they exhibit clinically prohibited abnormalities.

Role of cancer stem cell ecosystem on breast cancer metastasis and related mouse models

Breast cancer metastasis is responsible for most breast cancer-related deaths and is influenced by many factors within the tumor ecosystem, including tumor cells and microenvironment. Breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) constitute a small population of cancer cells with unique characteristics, including their capacity for self-renewal and differentiation. Studies have shown that BCSCs not only drive tumorigenesis but also play a crucial role in promoting metastasis in breast cancer. The tumor microenvironment (TME), composed of stromal cells, immune cells, blood vessel cells, fibroblasts, and microbes in proximity to cancer cells, is increasingly recognized for its crosstalk with BCSCs and role in BCSC survival, growth, and dissemination, thereby influencing metastatic ability. Hence, a thorough understanding of BCSCs and the TME is critical for unraveling the mechanisms underlying breast cancer metastasis. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on the roles of BCSCs and the TME in breast cancer metastasis, as well as the underlying regulatory mechanisms. Furthermore, we provide an overview of relevant mouse models used to study breast cancer metastasis, as well as treatment strategies and clinical trials addressing BCSC-TME interactions during metastasis. Overall, this study provides valuable insights for the development of effective therapeutic strategies to reduce breast cancer metastasis.

Neutrophils Expressing Programmed Death-Ligand 1 Play an Indispensable Role in Effective Bacterial Elimination and Resolving Inflammation in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection

Programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) is a co-inhibitory molecule expressed on the surface of various cell types and known for its suppressive effect on T cells through its interaction with PD-1. Neutrophils also express PD-L1, and its expression is elevated in specific situations; however, the immunobiological role of PD-L1+ neutrophils has not been fully characterized. Here, we report that PD-L1-expressing neutrophils increased in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection are highly functional in bacterial elimination and supporting inflammatory resolution. The frequency of PD-L1+ neutrophils was dramatically increased in MRSA-infected mice, and this population exhibited enhanced activity in bacterial elimination compared to PD-L1- neutrophils. The administration of PD-L1 monoclonal antibody did not impair PD-L1+ neutrophil function, suggesting that PD-L1 expression itself does not influence neutrophil activity. However, PD-1/PD-L1 blockade significantly delayed liver inflammation resolution in MRSA-infected mice, as indicated by their increased plasma alanine transaminase (ALT) levels and frequencies of inflammatory leukocytes in the liver, implying that neutrophil PD-L1 suppresses the inflammatory response of these cells during the acute phase of MRSA infection. Our results reveal that elevated PD-L1 expression can be a marker for the enhanced anti-bacterial function of neutrophils. Moreover, PD-L1+ neutrophils are an indispensable population attenuating inflammatory leukocyte activities, assisting in a smooth transition into the resolution phase in MRSA infection.

A dietary commensal microbe enhances antitumor immunity by activating tumor macrophages to sequester iron

Innate immune cells generate a multifaceted antitumor immune response, including the conservation of essential nutrients such as iron. These cells can be modulated by commensal bacteria; however, identifying and understanding how this occurs is a challenge. Here we show that the food commensal Lactiplantibacillus plantarum IMB19 augments antitumor immunity in syngeneic and xenograft mouse tumor models. Its capsular heteropolysaccharide is the major effector molecule, functioning as a ligand for TLR2. In a two-pronged manner, it skews tumor-associated macrophages to a classically active phenotype, leading to generation of a sustained CD8+ T cell response, and triggers macrophage 'nutritional immunity' to deploy the high-affinity iron transporter lipocalin-2 for capturing and sequestering iron in the tumor microenvironment. This process induces a cycle of tumor cell death, epitope expansion and subsequent tumor clearance. Together these data indicate that food commensals might be identified and developed into 'oncobiotics' for a multi-layered approach to cancer therapy.

Extracellular Matrix-Trapped Bioinspired Lipoprotein Prolongs Tumor Retention to Potentiate Antitumor Immunity

The immunomodulatory effects of many therapeutic agents are significantly challenged by their insufficient delivery efficiency and short retention time in tumors. Regarding the distinctively upregulated fibronectin (FN1) and tenascin C (TNC) in tumor stroma, herein a protease-activated FN1 and/or TNC binding peptide (FTF) is designed and an extracellular matrix (ECM)-trapped bioinspired lipoprotein (BL) (FTF-BL-CP) is proposed that can be preferentially captured by the TNC and/or FN1 for tumor retention, and then be responsively dissociated from the matrix to potentiate the antitumor immunity. The FTF-BL-CP treatment produces a 6.96-, 9.24-, 6.72-, 7.32-, and 6.73-fold increase of CD3+CD8+ T cells and their interferon-γ-, granzyme B-, perforin-, and Ki67-expressing subtypes versus the negative control, thereby profoundly eliciting the antitumor immunity. In orthotopic and lung metastatic breast cancer models, FTF-BL-CP produces notable therapeutic benefits of retarding tumor growth, extending survivals, and inhibiting lung metastasis. Therefore, this ECM-trapping strategy provides an encouraging possibility of prolonging tumor retention to potentiate the antitumor immunity for anticancer immunotherapy.

Anti-metastatic effects of AGS-30 on breast cancer through the inhibition of M2-like macrophage polarization

AGS-30, a new andrographolide derivative, showed significant anticancer and anti-angiogenic characteristics. However, its role in controlling macrophage polarization and tumor immune response is unknown. Thus, the main goals of this study are to investigate how AGS-30 regulates macrophage polarization and how it suppresses breast cancer metastasis. AGS-30 inhibited IL-4 and IL-13-induced RAW 264.7 and THP-1 macrophages into M2-like phenotype. However, AGS-30 did not affect the LPS and IFN-γ-induced polarization of M1-like macrophages. AGS-30 reduced the mRNA expressions of CD206, Arg-1, Fizz-1, Ym-1, VEGF, IL-10, MMP2, and MMP9 in M2-like macrophages in a concentration-dependent manner. In contrast, andrographolide treatment at 5 μM did not affect M1-like and M2-like macrophage polarization. The conditioned medium from M2-like macrophages increased 4T1 breast cancer cell migration and invasion, whereas AGS-30 inhibited these effects. In the 4T1 breast tumor xenograft mice, the tumor volume and weight were reduced without affecting body weight after receiving AGS-30. AGS-30 treatment also reduced lung and liver metastasis, with reduced STAT6, CD31, VEGF, and Ki67 protein expressions. Moreover, the tumors had considerably fewer M2-like macrophages and Arg-1 expression, but the proportion of M1-like macrophages and iNOS expression increased after AGS-30 treatment. Same results were found in the tail vein metastasis model. In conclusion, this study shows that AGS-30 inhibits breast cancer growth and metastasis, probably through inhibiting M2-like macrophage polarization. Our findings suggest that AGS-30 may be a potential immunotherapeutic alternative for metastatic breast cancer.

Breast Cancer Immunity: It is TIME for the Next Chapter

Our ability to interrogate the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) at an ever-increasing granularity has uncovered critical determinants of disease progression. Not only do we now have a better understanding of the immune response in breast cancer, but it is becoming possible to leverage key mechanisms to effectively combat this disease. Almost every component of the immune system plays a role in enabling or inhibiting breast tumor growth. Building on early seminal work showing the involvement of T cells and macrophages in controlling breast cancer progression and metastasis, single-cell genomics and spatial proteomics approaches have recently expanded our view of the TIME. In this article, we provide a detailed description of the immune response against breast cancer and examine its heterogeneity in disease subtypes. We discuss preclinical models that enable dissecting the mechanisms responsible for tumor clearance or immune evasion and draw parallels and distinctions between human disease and murine counterparts. Last, as the cancer immunology field is moving toward the analysis of the TIME at the cellular and spatial levels, we highlight key studies that revealed previously unappreciated complexity in breast cancer using these technologies. Taken together, this article summarizes what is known in breast cancer immunology through the lens of translational research and identifies future directions to improve clinical outcomes.

Research progress of exosomes in drug resistance of breast cancer

Since breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease, there are currently a variety of treatment methods available, including chemotherapy, endocrine therapy, molecular targeted therapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy, etc. Breast cancer recurrence and metastasis, despite many treatment modalities, constitute a considerable threat to patients' survival time and pose a clinical challenge that is difficult to tackle precisely. Exosomes have a very special and crucial role in the treatment of drug resistance in breast cancer as a carrier of intercellular communication in the tumor microenvironment. Exosomes and breast cancer treatment resistance have been linked in a growing number of clinical investigations in recent years. This paper covers the status of research on exosomes in the treatment of breast cancer drug resistance and offers theoretical guidance for investigating new strategies to treat breast cancer drug resistance.

Nanotechnology Applications in Breast Cancer Immunotherapy

Next-generation cancer treatments are expected not only to target cancer cells but also to simultaneously train immune cells to combat cancer while modulating the immune-suppressive environment of tumors and hosts to ensure a robust and lasting response. Achieving this requires carriers that can codeliver multiple therapeutics to the right cancer and/or immune cells while ensuring patient safety. Nanotechnology holds great potential for addressing these challenges. This article highlights the recent advances in nanoimmunotherapeutic development, with a focus on breast cancer. While immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have achieved remarkable success and lead to cures in some cancers, their response rate in breast cancer is low. The poor response rate in solid tumors is often associated with the low infiltration of anti-cancer T cells and an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). To enhance anti-cancer T-cell responses, nanoparticles are employed to deliver ICIs, bispecific antibodies, cytokines, and agents that induce immunogenic cancer cell death (ICD). Additionally, nanoparticles are used to manipulate various components of the TME, such as immunosuppressive myeloid cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and fibroblasts to improve T-cell activities. Finally, this article discusses the outlook, challenges, and future directions of nanoimmunotherapeutics.

Carcinogen exposure enhances cancer immunogenicity by blocking the development of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment

Carcinogen exposure is strongly associated with enhanced cancer immunogenicity. Increased tumor mutational burden and resulting neoantigen generation have been proposed to link carcinogen exposure and cancer immunogenicity. However, the neoantigen-independent immunological impact of carcinogen exposure on cancer is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that chemical carcinogen-exposed cancer cells fail to establish an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), resulting in their T cell-mediated rejection in vivo. A chemical carcinogen-treated breast cancer cell clone that lacked any additional coding region mutations (i.e., neoantigen) was rejected in mice in a T cell-dependent manner. Strikingly, the coinjection of carcinogen- and control-treated cancer cells prevented this rejection, suggesting that the loss of immunosuppressive TME was the dominant cause of rejection. Reduced M-CSF expression by carcinogen-treated cancer cells significantly suppressed tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and resulted in the loss of an immunosuppressive TME. Single-cell analysis of human lung cancers revealed a significant reduction in the immunosuppressive TAMs in former smokers compared with individuals who had never smoked. These findings demonstrate that carcinogen exposure impairs the development of an immunosuppressive TME and indicate a novel link between carcinogens and cancer immunogenicity.

LOCATOR: feature extraction and spatial analysis of the cancer tissue microenvironment using mass cytometry imaging technologies

Motivation

Recent advances in highly multiplexed imaging have provided unprecedented insights into the complex cellular organization of tissues, with many applications in translational medicine. However, downstream analyses of multiplexed imaging data face several technical limitations, and although some computational methods and bioinformatics tools are available, deciphering the complex spatial organization of cellular ecosystems remains a challenging problem.

Results

To mitigate this problem, we develop a novel computational tool, LOCATOR (anaLysis Of CAncer Tissue micrOenviRonment), for spatial analysis of cancer tissue microenvironments using data acquired from mass cytometry imaging technologies. LOCATOR introduces a graph-based representation of tissue images to describe features of the cellular organization and deploys downstream analysis and visualization utilities that can be used for data-driven patient-risk stratification. Our case studies using mass cytometry imaging data from two well-annotated breast cancer cohorts re-confirmed that the spatial organization of the tumour-immune microenvironment is strongly associated with the clinical outcome in breast cancer. In addition, we report interesting potential associations between the spatial organization of macrophages and patients' survival. Our work introduces an automated and versatile analysis tool for mass cytometry imaging data with many applications in future cancer research projects.

Availability and implementation

Datasets and codes of LOCATOR are publicly available at https://github.com/RezvanEhsani/LOCATOR.

Prognosis stratification of patients with breast invasive carcinoma based on cysteine metabolism-disulfidptosis affinity

PURPOSE

The rise of female breast cancer has created a significant global public health issue that requires effective solutions. Disulfidptosis, a recently identified form of cell death characterized by an excessive accumulation of disulfides, has unique initiatory and regulatory mechanisms. The formation of disulfide bonds is a metabolic event typically associated with cysteines. This study aims to explore the potential of the affinity between cysteine metabolism and disulfidptosis in risk stratification for breast invasive carcinoma (BRCA).

METHODS

We used correlation analysis to decipher co-relation genes between cysteine metabolism and disulfidptosis (CMDCRGs). Both LASSO regression analysis and multivariate Cox regression analysis were employed to construct the prognostic signature. Additionally, we conducted investigations concerning subtype identification, functional enhancement, mutation landscape, immune infiltration, drug prioritization, and single-cell analysis.

RESULTS

We developed and validated a six-gene prognostic signature as an independent prognostic predictor for BRCA. The prognostic nomogram, based on risk score, demonstrated a favorable capability in predicting survival outcomes. We identified distinct gene mutations, functional enhancements, and immune infiltration patterns between the two risk groups. Four clusters of drugs were predicted as potentially effective for patients in the low-risk group. We identified seven cell clusters within the tumor microenvironment of breast cancer, and RPL27A was found to be widely expressed in this environment.

CONCLUSION

Multidimensional analyses confirmed the clinical utility of the cysteine metabolism-disulfidptosis affinity-based signature in risk stratification and guiding personalized treatment for patients with BRCA.

Dual Functions of T Lymphocytes in Breast Carcinoma: From Immune Protection to Orchestrating Tumor Progression and Metastasis

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common cancer type in women and the second leading cause of death. Despite recent advances, the mortality rate of BC is still high, highlighting a need to develop new treatment strategies including the modulation of the immune system and immunotherapies. In this regard, understanding the complex function of the involved immune cells and their crosstalk with tumor cells is of great importance. T-cells are recognized as the most important cells in the tumor microenvironment and are divided into several subtypes including helper, cytotoxic, and regulatory T-cells according to their transcription factors, markers, and functions. This article attempts to provide a comprehensive review of the role of T-cell subsets in the prognosis and treatment of patients with BC, and crosstalk between tumor cells and T-cells. The literature overwhelmingly contains controversial findings mainly due to the plasticity of T-cell subsets within the inflammatory conditions and the use of different panels for their phenotyping. However, investigating the role of T-cells in BC immunity depends on a variety of factors including tumor types or subtypes, the stage of the disease, the localization of the cells in the tumor tissue and the presence of different cells or cytokines.

The tryptophan-kynurenine pathway in immunomodulation and cancer metastasis

INTRODUCTION

The activation of the kynurenine pathway in cancer progression and metastasis through immunomodulatory pathways has drawn attention to the potential for kynurenine pathway inhibition. The activation of the kynurenine pathway, which results in the production of kynurenine metabolites through the degradation of tryptophan, promotes the development of intrinsically malignant properties in cancer cells while facilitating tumour immune escape. In addition, kynurenine metabolites act as biologically active substances to promote cancer development and metastasis.

METHODS

A literature review was conducted to investigate the role of the tryptophan-kynurenine pathway in immunomodulation and cancer metastasis.

RESULTS

Evidence suggests that several enzymes and metabolites implicated in the kynurenine pathway are overexpressed in various cancers. As such, the tryptophan pathway represents a promising target for cancer treatment. However, downstream signalling pathways, including aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation, have previously induced diverse biological effects in various malignancies, which resulted in either the promotion or the inhibition of metastasis.

CONCLUSION

As a result, a thorough investigation of the kynurenine pathway and its regulatory mechanisms is necessary in order to properly comprehend the effects of kynurenine pathway activation involved in cancer development and metastasis.

Co-infusion of CAR T cells with aAPCs expressing chemokines and costimulatory ligands enhances the anti-tumor efficacy in mice

Chimeric antigen receptor-modified T (CAR-T) cell therapy has shown curable efficacy for treating hematological malignancies, while in solid tumors, the immunosuppressive microenvironment causes poor activation, expansion and survival of CAR-T cells, accounting mainly for the unsatisfactory efficacy. The artificial antigen-presenting cells (aAPCs) have been used for ex vivo expansion and manufacturing of CAR-T cells. Here, we constructed a K562 cell-based aAPCs expressing human epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM), chemokines (CCL19 and CCL21) and co-stimulatory molecular ligands (CD80 and 4-1BBL). Our data demonstrated that the novel aAPCs enhanced the expansion, and increased the immune memory phenotype and cytotoxicity of CAR-T cells recognizing EpCAM, in vitro. Of note, co-infusion CAR-T and aAPC enhances the infiltration of CAR-T cells in solid tumors, which has certain potential for the treatment of solid tumors Moreover, IL-2-9-21, a cytokine cocktail, prevents CAR-T cells from entering the state of exhaustion prematurely following continuous antigen engagement and boosts the anti-tumor activity of CAR-T cells co-infused with aAPCs. These data provide a new strategy to enhance the therapeutic potential of CAR-T cell therapy for the treatment of solid tumors.

The association between pan-immune-inflammation value and survival in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

PURPOSE

A significant portion of patients with locally advanced head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) relapse despite multimodality treatment denoting the need for biomarkers. The pan-immune-inflammation value (PIV) is a recently developed blood count-based prognostic biomarker. We evaluated the relationship between PIV and survival in locally advanced HNSCC patients treated with chemoradiotherapy (CRT).

METHODS

A total of 199 patients who underwent CRT at Hacettepe University Oncology Hospital were included. The relationship between clinical and laboratory parameters with overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) was analyzed by multivariate analyses.

RESULTS

The median age was 59 years and 90.5% of the patients were male. 66.8% of the patients had laryngeal primaries, and 78.9% had T3-T4 disease. 84.9% of the patients received CRT with cisplatin. The optimal PIV threshold value was calculated as 404 in ROC analyses. This PIV value had 75.8% sensitivity and 70.4% specificity for OS prediction (AUC 0.781; 95% CI 0.715-0.846; p < 0.001). In multivariate analyses, high PIV levels (≤ 404 vs. > 404, HR 2.862; 95% CI 1.553-5.276; p = 0.001), higher NLR (≤ 2.5 vs. > 2.5, HR 1.827; 95% CI 1.017-3.281; p = 0.044) levels and ECOG performance score of 2 (HR 2.267; 95% CI 1.385-3.711; p = 0.001) were associated with shorter OS. These factors were associated with shorter DFS also (HR for PIV 2.485, 95% CI 1.383-4.467, p = 0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

We observed shorter OS and DFS in locally advanced HNSCC patients with high PIV levels. If prospective studies support our findings, the PIV score could be a prognostic biomarker in HNSCC.

Comprehensive evaluation of breast cancer immunotherapy and tumor microenvironment characterization based on interleukin genes-related risk model

Breast cancer (BRCA) is the most prevalent malignancy and the leading cause of death in women. Interleukin (IL) genes are critical in tumor initiation and control. Nevertheless, the prognosis value of the IL in BRCA remains unclear. We collected data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), and 94 IL genes were identified from GeneCard. Based on the random forest (RF), least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) analysis, and multivariate Cox regression analysis, we constructed an IL signature. GSE22219, GSE25065, and GSE21653 were derived as validation sets. The expression differences in the tumor microenvironment (TME), immunotherapy, and chemosensitivity of BRCA between the high- and low-risk groups were evaluated. Overall, 21 IL genes were selected to construct an IL risk model, of which IL18BP, IL17D, and IL23A were the first time identified as prognostic genes in BRCA. IL score could distinguish BRCA patients with inferior outcomes, and AUC of it was 0.70, 0.76, and 0.72 for 1-,3- and 5- years, respectively, which was also verified in GSE22219, GSE25065, and GSE21653 cohorts. Meanwhile, compared to luminal A and luminal B, HER2-positive and TNBC had significantly higher IL score. Besides, the high-risk group had a significantly higher prevalence of TP53 and TTN but a lower prevalence of PIK3CA, as well as higher tumor mutation burden (TMB) and neoantigen level. High- and low-risk groups exhibited notable differences in immunomodulators and tumor infiltrates immune cells (TIICs), and the high-risk group had significantly lower Tumor Immune Dysfunction and Exclusion (TIDE) score. Additionally, the high-risk group has more responders to immune or anti-HER2 combination therapy, whereas the low-risk group has higher sensitivity to docetaxel and paclitaxel. Consequently, we constructed a reliable risk model based on the IL genes, which can provide more information on both the risk stratification and personalizing management strategies for BRCA.

The role of IL-35 and IL-37 in breast cancer - potential therapeutic targets for precision medicine

Breast cancer is still a major concern due to its relatively poor prognosis in women, although there are many approaches being developed for the management of breast cancer. Extensive studies demonstrate that the development of breast cancer is determined by pro versus anti tumorigenesis factors, which are closely related to host immunity. IL-35 and IL-37, anti-inflammatory cytokines, play an important role in the maintenance of immune homeostasis. The current review focuses on the correlation between clinical presentations and the expression of IL-35 and IL-37, as well as the potential underlying mechanism during the development of breast cancer in vitro and in vivo. IL-35 is inversely correlated the differentiation and prognosis in breast cancer patients; whereas IL-37 shows dual roles during the development of breast cancer, and may be breast cancer stage dependent. Such information might be useful for both basic scientists and medical practitioners in the management of breast cancer patients.

Compromised T Cell Immunity Links Increased Cutaneous Papillomavirus Activity to Squamous Cell Carcinoma Risk

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is the second most common cancer, with increased incidence in immunosuppressed patients. β-Human papillomavirus has been proposed as a contributor to cSCC risk partly on the basis of increased β-human papillomavirus viral load and seropositivity observed among patients with cSCC. Experimental data in mice colonized with mouse papillomavirus type 1 suggest that T cell immunity against β-human papillomavirus suppresses skin cancer in immunocompetent hosts, and the loss of this immunity leads to the increased risk of cSCC. In this study, we show that CD8⁺ T cell depletion in mouse papillomavirus type 1‒colonized mice that underwent skin carcinogenesis protocol led to increased viral load in the skin and seropositivity for anti‒mouse papillomavirus type 1 antibodies. These findings provide evidence that compromised T cell immunity can be the link that connects increased β-human papillomavirus detection to cSCC risk.

Clinical implications of immune checkpoint markers and immune infiltrates in patients with thymic neuroendocrine neoplasms

The potential response of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) in thymic neuroendocrine neoplasms (T-NEN) is largely unknown and full of great expectations. The expression of immune checkpoint molecules and immune infiltrates greatly determine the response to ICB. However, studies regarding the immune landscape in T-NEN are scarce. This work was aimed to characterize the immune landscape and its association with clinical characteristics in T-NEN. The expression of programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) and its ligand, programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1), and the density of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), monocytes, and granulocytes were determined by immunohistochemical (IHC) staining on tumor tissues from T-NEN. Immune landscapes were delineated and correlated with clinicopathological factors. We found that T-NEN with increased immune cell infiltration and enhanced expression of PD-1/PD-L1 tended to have restricted tumor size and less metastases. A higher density of CD8+ TILs was associated with a significantly lower rate of bone metastasis. In addition, we presented three cases of T-NEN who progressed after multiple lines of therapies and received ICB for alternative treatment. ICB elicited durable partial responses with satisfactory safety in two patients with atypical carcinoid, but showed resistance in 1 patient with large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma. This innovative study delineated for the first time the heterogeneous immune landscape in T-NEN and identified CD8+ TILs as a potential marker to predict bone metastasis. An “immune-inflamed” landscape with the presence of TILs predominated in T-NEN, making T-NEN a potentially favorable target for ICB treatment. Further judicious designs of “tailor-made” clinical trials of ICB in T-NEN are urgently needed.

CD8+ T Cells in SARS-CoV-2 Induced Disease and Cancer-Clinical Perspectives

Dysregulated innate and adaptive immunity is a sign of SARS-CoV-2-induced disease and cancer. CD8+ T cells are important cells of the immune system. The cells belong to the adaptive immunity and take a front-line defense against viral infections and cancer. Extreme CD8+ T-cell activities in the lung of patients with a SARS-CoV-2-induced disease and within the tumor microenvironment (TME) will change their functionality into exhausted state and undergo apoptosis. Such diminished immunity will put cancer cases at a high-risk group for SARS-CoV-2-induced disease, rendering viral sepsis and a more severe condition which will finally cause a higher rate of mortality. Recovering responses from CD8+ T cells is a purpose of vaccination against SARS-CoV-2. The aim of this review is to discuss the CD8+ T cellular state in SARS-CoV-2-induced disease and in cancer and to present some strategies for recovering the functionality of these critical cells.

Positive Correlation Between LTA Expression and Overall Immune Activity Suggests an Increased Probability of Survival in Uterine Corpus Endometrial Carcinoma

Mounting evidence indicates that immune status plays a crucial role in tumor progress and metastasis, while there are no effective and easily assayed biomarkers to reflect it in uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma (UCEC) patients. Here, we attempted to identify the potential biomarkers that were differentially expressed between normal and tumor tissues and involved in prognosis and immune microenvironment of UCEC patients. RNA-seq data with relevant clinical information were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). ssGSEA algorithm was applied to calculate the enrichment scores of every tumor infiltration lymphocyte (TIL) set in each sample, and patients were then divided into three clusters using multiple R packages. Cox analysis, ESTIMATE, and CIBERSORT were utilized to determine the differentially expressed immune-related genes (DEIGs) with overall survival, and to explore their roles in prognosis, immune microenvironment, and immunotherapeutic response. The TIMER and TISIDB databases were utilized to predict the effectiveness of immunotherapy in UCEC patients. LTA was finally identified to be significantly upregulated in tumor tissues and closely associated with prognosis and immunological status, which was then verified in GSE17025. In multivariate analysis, the hazard ratio of LTA was 0.42 with 95% CI (0.22–0.80) (p = 0.008). Patients with high LTA expression had better survival and apparently immune-activated phenotypes, such as more tumor mutation burden (TMB), stronger immune cell infiltrations, higher expression of immunosuppressive points, and higher immunophenoscore, meaning they had an immunotherapeutic advantage over those with low LTA expression. TIMER and TISIDB indicated that LTA was highly expressed in UCEC, and its expression was negatively correlated with stages and positively related to prognosis. Additionally, we found that LTA ectopic expression weakened the proliferation ability of RL95-2 cells. All these findings indicated that LTA could act as a novel and easily assayed biomarker to predict immunological status and clinical outcomes and even as an antioncogene to explore UCEC in depth.

Novel Insights into the Prognosis and Immunological Value of the SLC35A (Solute Carrier 35A) Family Genes in Human Breast Cancer

According to statistics 2020, female breast cancer (BRCA) became the most commonly diagnosed malignancy worldwide. Prognosis of BRCA patients is still poor, especially in population with advanced or metastatic. Particular functions of each members of the solute carrier 35A (SLC35A) gene family in human BRCA are still unknown regardless of awareness that they play critical roles in tumorigenesis and progression. Using integrated bioinformatics analyses to identify therapeutic targets for specific cancers based on transcriptomics, proteomics, and high-throughput sequencing, we obtained new information and a better understanding of potential underlying molecular mechanisms. Leveraging BRCA dataset that belongs to The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), which were employed to clarify SLC35A gene expression levels. Then we used a bioinformatics approach to investigate biological processes connected to SLC35A family genes in BRCA development. Beside that, the Kaplan-Meier estimator was leveraged to explore predictive values of SLC35A family genes in BCRA patients. Among individuals of this family gene, expression levels of SLC35A2 were substantially related to poor prognostic values, result from a hazard ratio of 1.3 (with 95 percent confidence interval (95% CI: 1.18-1.44), the p for trend (ptrend) is 3.1 × 10-7). Furthermore, a functional enrichment analysis showed that SLC35A2 was correlated with hypoxia-inducible factor 1A (HIF1A), heat shock protein (HSP), E2 transcription factor (E2F), DNA damage, and cell cycle-related signaling. Infiltration levels observed in specific types of immune cell, especially the cluster of differentiation found on macrophages and neutrophils, were positively linked with SLC35A2 expression in multiple BRCA subclasses (luminal A, luminal B, basal, and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2). Collectively, SLC35A2 expression was associated with a lower recurrence-free survival rate, suggesting that it could be used as a biomarker in treating BRCA.

Antimetastatic defense by CD8+ T cells

Metastasis is an intricate process whereby tumor cells migrate from the primary tumor, survive in the circulation, seed distal organs, and proliferate to create metastatic foci. CD8⁺ T cells can detect and eliminate tumor cells. Research on CD8⁺ T cell-dependent antitumor immunity has classically focused on its role in the primary tumor. There is increasing evidence, however, that CD8⁺ T cells have unique antimetastatic functions in various steps of the metastatic cascade. Here, we review the mechanisms whereby CD8⁺ T cells control metastatic lesions. We discuss their role in each step of metastasis, metastatic dormancy, and metastatic clonal evolution as well as the consequent clinical repercussions.