Membrane curvature sensing and stabilization by the autophagic LC3 lipidation machinery

Membrane atg8ylation in Canonical and Noncanonical Autophagy

Membrane atg8ylation is a homeostatic process responding to membrane remodeling and stress signals. Membranes are atg8ylated by mammalian ATG8 ubiquitin-like proteins through a ubiquitylation-like cascade. A model has recently been put forward which posits that atg8ylation of membranes is conceptually equivalent to ubiquitylation of proteins. Like ubiquitylation, membrane atg8ylation involves E1, E2 and E3 enzymes. The E3 ligases catalyze the final step of atg8ylation of aminophospholipids in membranes. Until recently, the only known E3 ligase for membrane atg8ylation was ATG16L1 in a noncovalent complex with the ATG12-ATG5 conjugate. ATG16L1 was first identified as a factor in canonical autophagy. During canonical autophagy, the ATG16L1-based E3 ligase complex includes WIPI2, which in turn recognizes phosphatidylinositiol 3-phosphate and directs atg8ylation of autophagic phagophores. As an alternative to WIPIs, binding of ATG16L1 to the proton pump V-ATPase guides atg8ylation of endolysosomal and phagosomal membranes in response to lumenal pH changes. Recently, a new E3 complex containing TECPR1 instead of ATG16L1, has been identified that responds to sphingomyelin's presence on the cytofacial side of perturbed endolysosomal membranes. In present review, we cover the principles of membrane atg8ylation, catalog its various presentations, and provide a perspective on the growing repertoire of E3 ligase complexes directing membrane atg8ylation at diverse locations.

SigmaR1 shapes rough endoplasmic reticulum membrane sheets

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) sheets are a fundamental domain of the ER and the gateway into the secretory pathway. Although reticulon proteins stabilize high-curvature ER tubules, it is unclear whether other proteins scaffold the flat membranes of rough ER sheets. Through a proteomics screen using ER sheet-localized RNA-binding proteins as bait, we identify the sigma-1 receptor (SigmaR1) as an ER sheet-shaping factor. High-resolution live cell imaging and electron tomography assign SigmaR1 as an ER sheet-localized factor whose levels determine the amount of rough ER sheets in cells. Structure-guided mutagenesis and in vitro reconstitution on giant unilamellar vesicles further support a mechanism whereby SigmaR1 oligomers use their extended arrays of amphipathic helices to bind and flatten the lumenal leaflet of ER membranes to oppose membrane curvature and stabilize rough ER sheets.

Assessing the Martini 3 protein model: A review of its path and potential

Coarse-grained (CG) protein models have become indispensable tools for studying many biological protein details, from conformational dynamics to the organization of protein macro-complexes, and even the interaction of proteins with other molecules. The Martini force field is one of the most widely used CG models for bio-molecular simulations, partly because of the enormous success of its protein model. With the recent release of a new and improved version of the Martini force field - Martini 3 - a new iteration of its protein model was also made available. The Martini 3 protein force field is an evolution of its Martini 2 counterpart, aimed at improving many of the shortcomings that had been previously identified. In this mini-review, we first provide a general overview of the model and then focus on the successful advances made in the short time since its release, many of which would not have been possible before. Furthermore, we discuss reported limitations, potential directions for model improvement and comment on what the likely future development and application avenues are.

ATG16L1 induces the formation of phagophore-like membrane cups

The hallmark of non-selective autophagy is the formation of cup-shaped phagophores that capture bulk cytoplasm. The process is accompanied by the conjugation of LC3B to phagophores by an E3 ligase complex comprising ATG12-ATG5 and ATG16L1. Here we combined two complementary reconstitution approaches to reveal the function of LC3B and its ligase complex during phagophore expansion. We found that LC3B forms together with ATG12-ATG5-ATG16L1 a membrane coat that remodels flat membranes into cups that closely resemble phagophores. Mechanistically, we revealed that cup formation strictly depends on a close collaboration between LC3B and ATG16L1. Moreover, only LC3B, but no other member of the ATG8 protein family, promotes cup formation. ATG16L1 truncates that lacked the C-terminal membrane binding domain catalyzed LC3B lipidation but failed to assemble coats, did not promote cup formation and inhibited the biogenesis of non-selective autophagosomes. Our results thus demonstrate that ATG16L1 and LC3B induce and stabilize the characteristic cup-like shape of phagophores.

Hypoxia-associated autophagy flux dysregulation in human cancers

A general feature of cancer is hypoxia, determined as low oxygen levels. Low oxygen levels may cause cells to alter in ways that contribute to tumor growth and resistance to treatment. Hypoxia leads to variations in cancer cell metabolism, angiogenesis and metastasis. Furthermore, a hypoxic tumor microenvironment might induce immunosuppression. Moreover, hypoxia has the potential to impact cellular processes, such as autophagy. Autophagy refers to the catabolic process by which damaged organelles and toxic macromolecules are broken down. The abnormal activation of autophagy has been extensively recorded in human tumors and it serves as a regulator of cell growth, spread to other parts of the body, and resistance to treatment. There is a correlation between hypoxia and autophagy in human malignancies. Hypoxia can regulate the activity of AMPK, mTOR, Beclin-1, and ATGs to govern autophagy in human malignancies. Furthermore, HIF-1α, serving as an indicator of low oxygen levels, controls the process of autophagy. Hypoxia-induced autophagy has a crucial role in regulating the growth, spread, and resistance to treatment in human malignancies. Hypoxia-induced regulation of autophagy can impact other mechanisms of cell death, such as apoptosis. Chemoresistance and radioresistance have become significant challenges in recent years. Hypoxia-mediated autophagy plays a crucial role in determining the response to these therapeutic treatments.

Autophagy in Its (Proper) Context: Molecular Basis, Biological Relevance, Pharmacological Modulation, and Lifestyle Medicine

Autophagy plays a critical role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and responding to various stress conditions by the degradation of intracellular components. In this narrative review, we provide a comprehensive overview of autophagy's cellular and molecular basis, biological significance, pharmacological modulation, and its relevance in lifestyle medicine. We delve into the intricate molecular mechanisms that govern autophagy, including macroautophagy, microautophagy and chaperone-mediated autophagy. Moreover, we highlight the biological significance of autophagy in aging, immunity, metabolism, apoptosis, tissue differentiation and systemic diseases, such as neurodegenerative or cardiovascular diseases and cancer. We also discuss the latest advancements in pharmacological modulation of autophagy and their potential implications in clinical settings. Finally, we explore the intimate connection between lifestyle factors and autophagy, emphasizing how nutrition, exercise, sleep patterns and environmental factors can significantly impact the autophagic process. The integration of lifestyle medicine into autophagy research opens new avenues for promoting health and longevity through personalized interventions.

The N-terminal region of the ATG8 autophagy protein LC3C is essential for its membrane fusion properties

Autophagy is a catabolic process in which a double-membrane organelle, the autophagosome (AP), engulfs cellular components that will be degraded in the lysosomes. ATG8 protein family members participate at various stages of AP formation. The present study compares the capacity to induce lipid-vesicle tethering and fusion of two ATG8 family members, LC3B and LC3C, with model membranes. LC3B is the most thoroughly studied ATG8 protein. It is generally considered as an autophagosomal marker and a canonical representative of the LC3 subfamily. LC3C is less studied, but recent data have reported its implication in various processes, crucial to cellular homeostasis. The results in this paper show that LC3C induces higher levels of tethering and of intervesicular lipid mixing than LC3B. As the N-terminus of LC3C is different from that of the other family members, various mutants of the N-terminal region of both LC3B and LC3C were designed, and their activities compared. It was concluded that the N-terminal region of LC3C was responsible for the enhanced vesicle tethering, membrane perturbation and vesicle-vesicle fusion activities of LC3C as compared to LC3B. The results suggest a specialized function of LC3C in the AP expansion process.

Three-step docking by WIPI2, ATG16L1, and ATG3 delivers LC3 to the phagophore

The covalent attachment of ubiquitin-like LC3 proteins (microtubule-associated proteins 1A/1B light chain 3) prepares the autophagic membrane for cargo recruitment. We resolve key steps in LC3 lipidation by combining molecular dynamics simulations and experiments in vitro and in cellulo. We show how the E3-like ligaseautophagy-related 12 (ATG12)-ATG5-ATG16L1 in complex with the E2-like conjugase ATG3 docks LC3 onto the membrane in three steps by (i) the phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate effector protein WD repeat domain phosphoinositide-interacting protein 2 (WIPI2), (ii) helix α2 of ATG16L1, and (iii) a membrane-interacting surface of ATG3. Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) lipids concentrate in a region around the thioester bond between ATG3 and LC3, highlighting residues with a possible role in the catalytic transfer of LC3 to PE, including two conserved histidines. In a near-complete pathway from the initial membrane recruitment to the LC3 lipidation reaction, the three-step targeting of the ATG12-ATG5-ATG16L1 machinery establishes a high level of regulatory control.

Mesoscale simulation of biomembranes with FreeDTS

We present FreeDTS software for performing computational research on biomembranes at the mesoscale. In this software, a membrane is represented by a dynamically triangulated surface equipped with vertex-based inclusions to integrate the effects of integral and peripheral membrane proteins. Several algorithms are included in the software to simulate complex membranes at different conditions such as framed membranes with constant tension, vesicles and high-genus membranes with various fixed volumes or constant pressure differences and applying external forces to membrane regions. Furthermore, the software allows the user to turn off the shape evolution of the membrane and focus solely on the organization of proteins. As a result, we can take realistic membrane shapes obtained from, for example, cryo-electron tomography and backmap them into a finer simulation model. In addition to many biomembrane applications, this software brings us a step closer to simulating realistic biomembranes with molecular resolution. Here we provide several interesting showcases of the power of the software but leave a wide range of potential applications for interested users.

Amphipathic Helices Can Sense Both Positive and Negative Curvatures of Lipid Membranes

Curvature sensing is an essential ability of biomolecules to preferentially localize to membrane regions of a specific curvature. It has been shown that amphipathic helices (AHs), helical peptides with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions, could sense a positive membrane curvature. The origin of this AH sensing has been attributed to their ability to exploit lipid-packing defects that are enhanced in regions of positive curvature. In this study, we revisit an alternative framework where AHs act as sensors of local internal stress within the membrane, suggesting the possibility of an AH sensing a negative membrane curvature. Using molecular dynamics simulations, we gradually tuned the hydrophobicity of AHs, thereby adjusting their insertion depth so that the curvature preference of AHs is switched from positive to negative. This study suggests that highly hydrophobic AHs could preferentially localize proteins to regions of a negative membrane curvature.

Human WIPI β-propeller function in autophagy and neurodegeneration

The four human WIPI β-propellers, WIPI1 through WIPI4, belong to the ancient PROPPIN family and fulfill scaffold functions in the control of autophagy. In this context, WIPI β-propellers function as PI3P effectors during autophagosome formation and loss of WIPI function negatively impacts autophagy and contributes to neurodegeneration. Of particular interest are mutations in WDR45, the human gene that encodes WIPI4. Sporadic WDR45 mutations are the cause of a rare human neurodegenerative disease called BPAN, hallmarked by high brain iron accumulation. Here, we discuss the current understanding of the functions of human WIPI β-propellers and address unanswered questions with a particular focus on the role of WIPI4 in autophagy and BPAN.

Coiled-coil-mediated dimerization of Atg16 is required for binding to the PROPPIN Atg21

PROPPINs/WIPIs are β-propeller proteins that bind phosphoinositides and contribute to the recruitment of protein complexes involved in membrane remodelling processes such as autophagosome formation and endosomal trafficking. Yeast Atg21 and mammalian WIPI2 interact with Atg16/ATG16L1 to mediate recruitment of the lipidation machinery to the autophagosomal membrane. Here, we used the reverse double two-hybrid method (RD2H) to identify residues in Atg21 and Atg16 critical for protein-protein binding. Although our results are generally consistent with the crystal structure of the Atg21-Atg16 complex reported previously, they also reveal that dimerization of the Atg16 coiled-coil domain is required for Atg21 binding. Furthermore, most of the residues identified in Atg21 are conserved in WIPI2 and we showed that these residues also mediate ATG16L1 binding. Strikingly, these residues occupy the same position in the β-propeller structure as residues in PROPPINs/WIPIs Hsv2 and WIPI4 that mediate Atg2/ATG2A binding, supporting the idea that these proteins use different amino acids at the same position to interact with different autophagic proteins. Finally, our findings demonstrate the effectiveness of the RD2H system to identify critical residues for protein-protein interactions and the utility of this method to generate combinatory mutants with a complete loss of binding capacity.

Atg8ylation as a host-protective mechanism against Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Nearly two decades have passed since the first report on autophagy acting as a cell-autonomous defense against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This helped usher a new area of research within the field of host-pathogen interactions and led to the recognition of autophagy as an immunological mechanism. Interest grew in the fundamental mechanisms of antimicrobial autophagy and in the prophylactic and therapeutic potential for tuberculosis. However, puzzling in vivo data have begun to emerge in murine models of M. tuberculosis infection. The control of infection in mice affirmed the effects of certain autophagy genes, specifically ATG5, but not of other ATGs. Recent studies with a more complete inactivation of ATG genes now show that multiple ATG genes are indeed necessary for protection against M. tuberculosis. These particular ATG genes are involved in the process of membrane atg8ylation. Atg8ylation in mammalian cells is a broad response to membrane stress, damage and remodeling of which canonical autophagy is one of the multiple downstream outputs. The current developments clarify the controversies and open new avenues for both fundamental and translational studies.

Sensing their plasma membrane curvature allows migrating cells to circumvent obstacles

To navigate through diverse tissues, migrating cells must balance persistent self-propelled motion with adaptive behaviors to circumvent obstacles. We identify a curvature-sensing mechanism underlying obstacle evasion in immune-like cells. Specifically, we propose that actin polymerization at the advancing edge of migrating cells is inhibited by the curvature-sensitive BAR domain protein Snx33 in regions with inward plasma membrane curvature. The genetic perturbation of this machinery reduces the cells' capacity to evade obstructions combined with faster and more persistent cell migration in obstacle-free environments. Our results show how cells can read out their surface topography and utilize actin and plasma membrane biophysics to interpret their environment, allowing them to adaptively decide if they should move ahead or turn away. On the basis of our findings, we propose that the natural diversity of BAR domain proteins may allow cells to tune their curvature sensing machinery to match the shape characteristics in their environment.

Autophagy Modulation as a Potential Therapeutic Strategy in Osteosarcoma: Current Insights and Future Perspectives

Autophagy, the process that enables the recycling and degradation of cellular components, is essential for homeostasis, which occurs in response to various types of stress. Autophagy plays an important role in the genesis and evolution of osteosarcoma (OS). The conventional treatment of OS has limitations and is not always effective at controlling the disease. Therefore, numerous researchers have analyzed how controlling autophagy could be used as a treatment or strategy to reverse resistance to therapy in OS. They highlight how the inhibition of autophagy improves the efficacy of chemotherapeutic treatments and how the promotion of autophagy could prove positive in OS therapy. The modulation of autophagy can also be directed against OS stem cells, improving treatment efficacy and preventing cancer recurrence. Despite promising findings, future studies are needed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of autophagy and its relationship to OS, as well as the mechanisms underlying the functioning of autophagic modulators. Careful evaluation is required as autophagy modulation may have adverse effects on normal cells, and the optimization of autophagic modulators for use as drugs in OS is imperative.

TECPR1 is activated by damage-induced sphingomyelin exposure to mediate noncanonical autophagy

Cells use noncanonical autophagy, also called conjugation of ATG8 to single membranes (CASM), to label damaged intracellular compartments with ubiquitin-like ATG8 family proteins in order to signal danger caused by pathogens or toxic compounds. CASM relies on E3 complexes to sense membrane damage, but so far, only the mechanism to activate ATG16L1-containing E3 complexes, associated with proton gradient loss, has been described. Here, we show that TECPR1-containing E3 complexes are key mediators of CASM in cells treated with a variety of pharmacological drugs, including clinically relevant nanoparticles, transfection reagents, antihistamines, lysosomotropic compounds, and detergents. Interestingly, TECPR1 retains E3 activity when ATG16L1 CASM activity is obstructed by the Salmonella Typhimurium pathogenicity factor SopF. Mechanistically, TECPR1 is recruited by damage-induced sphingomyelin (SM) exposure using two DysF domains, resulting in its activation and ATG8 lipidation. In vitro assays using purified human TECPR1-ATG5-ATG12 complex show direct activation of its E3 activity by SM, whereas SM has no effect on ATG16L1-ATG5-ATG12. We conclude that TECPR1 is a key activator of CASM downstream of SM exposure.

Membrane free-energy landscapes derived from atomistic dynamics explain nonuniversal cholesterol-induced stiffening

All lipid membranes have inherent morphological preferences and resist deformation. Yet adaptations in membrane shape can and do occur at multiple length scales. While this plasticity is crucial for cellular physiology, the factors controlling the morphological energetics of lipid bilayers and the dominant mechanisms of membrane remodeling remain to be fully understood. An ongoing debate regarding the universality of the stiffening effect of cholesterol underscores the challenges facing this field, both experimentally and theoretically, even for simple lipid mixtures. On the computational side, we have argued that enhanced-sampling all-atom molecular dynamics simulations are uniquely suited for the quantification of membrane conformational energetics, as they minimize a priori assumptions and permit analysis of bilayers in deformed states. To showcase this approach, we examine reported inconsistencies between alternative experimental measurements of bending moduli for cholesterol-enriched membranes. Specifically, we analyze lipid bilayers with different chain saturation and compute free-energy landscapes for curvature deformations distributed over areas from ∼5 to ∼60 nm2 . These enhanced simulations, totaling over 100 μs of sampling time, enable us to directly quantify both bending and tilt moduli and to dissect the contributing factors and molecular mechanisms of curvature generation at each length scale. Our results show that the effects of cholesterol on bending rigidity are lipid-specific and suggest that this specificity arises from differences in the torsional dynamics of the acyl chains. In summary, we demonstrate that quantitative relationships can now be established between lipid structure and bending energetics, paving the way for addressing open fundamental questions in cell membrane mechanics.

Computational modeling of membrane trafficking processes: From large molecular assemblies to chemical specificity

In the last decade, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have become an essential tool to investigate the molecular properties of membrane trafficking processes, often in conjunction with experimental approaches. The combination of MD simulations with recent developments in structural biology, such as cryo-electron microscopy and artificial intelligence-based structure determination, opens new, exciting possibilities for future investigations. However, the full potential of MD simulations to provide a molecular view of the complex and dynamic processes involving membrane trafficking can only be realized if certain limitations are addressed, and especially those concerning the quality of coarse-grain models, which, despite recent successes in describing large-scale systems, still suffer from far-from-ideal chemical accuracy. In this review, we will highlight recent success stories of MD simulations in the investigation of membrane trafficking processes, their implications for future research, and the challenges that lie ahead in this specific research domain.

Role of Mitochondria-ER Contact Sites in Mitophagy

Mitochondria are often referred to as the "powerhouse" of the cell. However, this organelle has many more functions than simply satisfying the cells' metabolic needs. Mitochondria are involved in calcium homeostasis and lipid metabolism, and they also regulate apoptotic processes. Many of these functions require contact with the ER, which is mediated by several tether proteins located on the respective organellar surfaces, enabling the formation of mitochondria-ER contact sites (MERCS). Upon damage, mitochondria produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can harm the surrounding cell. To circumvent toxicity and to maintain a functional pool of healthy organelles, damaged and excess mitochondria can be targeted for degradation via mitophagy, a form of selective autophagy. Defects in mitochondria-ER tethers and the accumulation of damaged mitochondria are found in several neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, which argues that the interplay between the two organelles is vital for neuronal health. This review provides an overview of the different mechanisms of mitochondrial quality control that are implicated with the different mitochondria-ER tether proteins, and also provides a novel perspective on how MERCS are involved in mediating mitophagy upon mitochondrial damage.

Unique amphipathic α helix drives membrane insertion and enzymatic activity of ATG3

Autophagosome biogenesis requires a localized perturbation of lipid membrane dynamics and a unique protein-lipid conjugate. Autophagy-related (ATG) proteins catalyze this biogenesis on cellular membranes, but the underlying molecular mechanism remains unclear. Focusing on the final step of the protein-lipid conjugation reaction, the ATG8/LC3 lipidation, we show how the membrane association of the conjugation machinery is organized and fine-tuned at the atomistic level. Amphipathic α helices in ATG3 proteins (AHATG3) have low hydrophobicity and contain less bulky residues. Molecular dynamics simulations reveal that AHATG3 regulates the dynamics and accessibility of the thioester bond of the ATG3~LC3 conjugate to lipids, enabling the covalent lipidation of LC3. Live-cell imaging shows that the transient membrane association of ATG3 with autophagic membranes is governed by the less bulky-hydrophobic feature of AHATG3. The unique properties of AHATG3 facilitate protein-lipid bilayer association, leading to the remodeling of the lipid bilayer required for the formation of autophagosomes.

Autophagy, innate immunity, and cardiac disease

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism of cell adaptation to metabolic and environmental stress. It mediates the disposal of protein aggregates and dysfunctional organelles, although non-conventional features have recently emerged to broadly extend the pathophysiological relevance of autophagy. In baseline conditions, basal autophagy critically regulates cardiac homeostasis to preserve structural and functional integrity and protect against cell damage and genomic instability occurring with aging. Moreover, autophagy is stimulated by multiple cardiac injuries and contributes to mechanisms of response and remodeling following ischemia, pressure overload, and metabolic stress. Besides cardiac cells, autophagy orchestrates the maturation of neutrophils and other immune cells, influencing their function. In this review, we will discuss the evidence supporting the role of autophagy in cardiac homeostasis, aging, and cardioimmunological response to cardiac injury. Finally, we highlight possible translational perspectives of modulating autophagy for therapeutic purposes to improve the care of patients with acute and chronic cardiac disease.

Membrane Curvature: The Inseparable Companion of Autophagy

Autophagy is a highly conserved recycling process of eukaryotic cells that degrades protein aggregates or damaged organelles with the participation of autophagy-related proteins. Membrane bending is a key step in autophagosome membrane formation and nucleation. A variety of autophagy-related proteins (ATGs) are needed to sense and generate membrane curvature, which then complete the membrane remodeling process. The Atg1 complex, Atg2-Atg18 complex, Vps34 complex, Atg12-Atg5 conjugation system, Atg8-phosphatidylethanolamine conjugation system, and transmembrane protein Atg9 promote the production of autophagosomal membranes directly or indirectly through their specific structures to alter membrane curvature. There are three common mechanisms to explain the change in membrane curvature. For example, the BAR domain of Bif-1 senses and tethers Atg9 vesicles to change the membrane curvature of the isolation membrane (IM), and the Atg9 vesicles are reported as a source of the IM in the autophagy process. The amphiphilic helix of Bif-1 inserts directly into the phospholipid bilayer, causing membrane asymmetry, and thus changing the membrane curvature of the IM. Atg2 forms a pathway for lipid transport from the endoplasmic reticulum to the IM, and this pathway also contributes to the formation of the IM. In this review, we introduce the phenomena and causes of membrane curvature changes in the process of macroautophagy, and the mechanisms of ATGs in membrane curvature and autophagosome membrane formation.

Orexin A, an amphipathic α-helical neuropeptide involved in pleiotropic functions in the nervous and immune systems: Synthetic approach and biophysical studies of the membrane-bound state

This research reports on the membrane interactions of orexin A (OXA), an α-helical and amphipathic neuropeptide that contains 33 residues and two disulfide bonds in the N-terminal region. OXA, which activates the orexins 1 and 2 receptors in neural and immune cell membranes, has essential pleiotropic physiological effects, including at the levels of arousal, sleep/wakefulness, energy balance, neuroprotection, lipid signaling, the inflammatory response, and pain. As a result, the orexin system has become a prominent target to treat diseases such as sleep disorders, drug addiction, and inflammation. While the high-resolution structure of OXA has been investigated in water and bound to micelles, there is a lack of information about its conformation bound to phospholipid membranes and its receptors. NMR is a powerful method to investigate peptide structures in a membrane environment. To facilitate the NMR structural studies of OXA exposed to membranes, we present a novel synthetic scheme, leading to the production of isotopically-labeled material at high purity. A receptor activation assay shows that the ¹⁵N-labeled peptide is biologically active. Biophysical studies are performed using surface plasmon resonance, circular dichroism, and NMR to investigate the interactions of OXA with phospholipid bilayers. The results demonstrate a strong interaction between the peptide and phospholipids, an increase in α-helical content upon membrane binding, and an in-plane orientation of the C-terminal region critical to function. This new knowledge about structure-activity relationships in OXA could inspire the design of novel therapeutics that leverage the anti-inflammatory and neuro-protective functions of OXA, and therefore could help address neuroinflammation, a major issue associated with neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease.

Autophagosome Biogenesis

Autophagy-the lysosomal degradation of cytoplasm-plays a central role in cellular homeostasis and protects cells from potentially harmful agents that may accumulate in the cytoplasm, including pathogens, protein aggregates, and dysfunctional organelles. This process is initiated by the formation of a phagophore membrane, which wraps around a portion of cytoplasm or cargo and closes to form a double-membrane autophagosome. Upon the fusion of the autophagosome with a lysosome, the sequestered material is degraded by lysosomal hydrolases in the resulting autolysosome. Several alternative membrane sources of autophagosomes have been proposed, including the plasma membrane, endosomes, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, lipid droplets, hybrid organelles, and de novo synthesis. Here, we review recent progress in our understanding of how the autophagosome is formed and highlight the proposed role of vesicles that contain the lipid scramblase ATG9 as potential seeds for phagophore biogenesis. We also discuss how the phagophore is sealed by the action of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) proteins.

Membrane free-energy landscapes derived from atomistic dynamics explain nonuniversal cholesterol-induced stiffening

All lipid membranes have inherent morphological preferences and resist deformation. Yet adaptations in membrane shape can and do occur at multiple length scales. While this plasticity is crucial for cellular physiology, the factors controlling the morphological energetics of lipid bilayers and the dominant mechanisms of membrane remodeling remain unclear. An ongoing debate regarding the universality of the stiffening effect of cholesterol underscores the challenges facing this field, both experimentally and theoretically, even for simple lipid mixtures. On the computational side, we have argued that enhanced- sampling all-atom molecular dynamics simulations are uniquely suited for quantification of membrane conformational energetics, not only because they minimize a-priori assumptions, but also because they permit analysis of bilayers in deformed states. To showcase this approach, we examine reported inconsistencies between alternative experimental measurements of bending moduli for cholesterol-enriched membranes. Specifically, we analyze lipid bilayers with different chain saturation, and compute free-energy landscapes for curvature deformations distributed over areas from ∼5 to ∼60 nm 2 . These enhanced simulations, totaling over 100 microseconds of sampling time, enable us to directly quantify both bending and tilt moduli, and to dissect the contributing factors and molecular mechanisms of curvature generation at each length scale. Our results show that cholesterol effects are lipid-specific, in agreement with giantvesicle measurements, and explain why experiments probing nanometer scale lipid dynamics diverge. In summary, we demonstrate that quantitative structure-mechanics relationships can now be established for heterogenous membranes, paving the way for addressing open fundamental questions in cell membrane mechanics.

Significance

Elucidating the energetics and mechanisms of membrane remodeling is an essential step towards understanding cell physiology. This problem is challenging, however, because membrane bending involves both large-scale and atomic-level dynamics, which are difficult to measure simultaneously. A recent controversy regarding the stiffening effect of cholesterol, which is ubiquitous in animal cells, illustrates this challenge. We show how enhanced molecular-dynamics simulations can bridge this length-scale gap and reconcile seemingly incongruent observations. This approach facilitates a conceptual connection between lipid chemistry and membrane mechanics, thereby providing a solid basis for future research on remodeling phenomena, such as in membrane trafficking or viral infection.