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Tagen M, Klumpers LE. Review of delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 8 -THC): Comparative pharmacology with Δ 9 -THC. Br J Pharmacol 2022; 179:3915-3933. [PMID: 35523678 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of the intoxicating cannabinoid delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8 -THC) has grown rapidly over the last several years. There have been dozens of Δ8 -THC studies dating back over many decades, yet no review articles have comprehensively covered these findings. In this review, we summarize the pharmacological studies of Δ8 -THC, including receptor binding, cell signalling, in vivo cannabimimetic activity, clinical activity and pharmacokinetics. We give special focus to studies that directly compared Δ8 -THC to its more commonly studied isomer, Δ9 -THC. Overall, the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of Δ8 -THC and Δ9 -THC are very similar. Δ8 -THC is a partial agonist of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor and has cannabimimetic activity in both animals and humans. The reduced potency of Δ8 -THC in clinical studies compared with Δ9 -THC can be explained by weaker cannabinoid CB1 receptor affinity, although there are other plausible mechanisms that may contribute. We highlight the gaps in our knowledge of Δ8 -THC pharmacology where further studies are needed, particularly in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Linda E Klumpers
- Verdient Science LLC, Denver, Colorado.,Tomori Pharmacology Inc., Denver, Colorado, USA.,Department of Pharmacology, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, USA.,Anebulo Pharmaceuticals Inc., Austin, Texas, USA
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DeVuono MV, La Caprara O, Petrie GN, Limebeer CL, Rock EM, Hill MN, Parker LA. Cannabidiol Interferes with Establishment of Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol-Induced Nausea Through a 5-HT 1A Mechanism. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2022; 7:58-64. [PMID: 33998876 PMCID: PMC8864431 DOI: 10.1089/can.2020.0083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) is characterized by intense nausea and vomiting brought on by the use of high-dose Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main psychotropic compound in cannabis. Cannabidiol (CBD), a nonpsychotropic compound found in cannabis, has been shown to interfere with some acute aversive effects of THC. In this study, we evaluated if CBD would interfere with THC-induced nausea through a 5-HT1A receptor mechanism as it has been shown to interfere with nausea produced by lithium chloride (LiCl). Since CHS has been attributed to a dysregulated stress response, we also evaluated if CBD would interfere with THC-induced increase in corticosterone (CORT). Materials and Methods: The potential of CBD (5 mg/kg, ip) to suppress THC-induced conditioned gaping (a measure of nausea) was evaluated in rats, as well as the potential of the 5-HT1A receptor antagonist, WAY-100635 (WAY; 0.1 mg/kg, ip), to reverse the suppression of THC-induced conditioned gaping by CBD. Last, the effect of CBD (5 mg/kg, ip) on THC-induced increase in serum CORT concentration was evaluated. Results: Pretreatment with CBD (5 mg/kg, ip) interfered with the establishment of THC-induced conditioned gaping (p=0.007, relative to vehicle [VEH] pretreatment), and this was reversed by pretreatment with 0.1 mg/kg WAY. This dose of WAY had no effect on gaping on its own. THC (10 mg/kg, ip) significantly increased serum CORT compared with VEH-treated rats (p=0.04). CBD (5 mg/kg, ip) pretreatment reversed the THC-induced increase in CORT. Conclusions: CBD attenuated THC-induced nausea as well as THC-induced elevation in CORT. The attenuation of THC-induced conditioned gaping by CBD was mediated by its action on 5-HT1A receptors, similar to that of LiCl-induced nausea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieka V. DeVuono
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Olivia La Caprara
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Gavin N. Petrie
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Cheryl L. Limebeer
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Erin M. Rock
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Matthew N. Hill
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Linda A. Parker
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada.,*Address correspondence to: Linda A. Parker, PhD, Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada,
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Tahir MN, Shahbazi F, Rondeau-Gagné S, Trant JF. The biosynthesis of the cannabinoids. J Cannabis Res 2021; 3:7. [PMID: 33722296 PMCID: PMC7962319 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-021-00062-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract Cannabis has been integral to Eurasian civilization for millennia, but a century of prohibition has limited investigation. With spreading legalization, science is pivoting to study the pharmacopeia of the cannabinoids, and a thorough understanding of their biosynthesis is required to engineer strains with specific cannabinoid profiles. This review surveys the biosynthesis and biochemistry of cannabinoids. The pathways and the enzymes’ mechanisms of action are discussed as is the non-enzymatic decarboxylation of the cannabinoic acids. There are still many gaps in our knowledge about the biosynthesis of the cannabinoids, especially for the minor components, and this review highlights the tools and approaches that will be applied to generate an improved understanding and consequent access to these potentially biomedically-relevant materials. Graphical abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s42238-021-00062-4.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Nazir Tahir
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada
| | - Fred Shahbazi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada
| | - Simon Rondeau-Gagné
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada.
| | - John F Trant
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada.
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4
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Effects of Cannabinoid Agonists and Antagonists on Sleep in Laboratory Animals. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1297:97-109. [PMID: 33537939 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-61663-2_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The cannabinoids are a family of chemical compounds that can be either synthesized or naturally derived. These compounds have been shown to modulate a wide variety of biological processes. In this chapter, the studies detailing the effects of cannabinoids on sleep in laboratory animals are reviewed. Both exogenous and endogenous cannabinoids generally appear to decrease wakefulness and alter rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM sleep in animal models. In addition, cannabinoids potentiate the effects of sedative-hypnotic drugs. However, the individual contributions of each cannabinoid on sleep processes is more nuanced and may depend on the site of action in the central nervous system. Many studies investigating the mechanism of cannabinoid effects on sleep suggest that the effects of cannabinoids on sleep are mediated via cannabinoid receptors; however, some evidence suggests that some sleep effects may be elicited via non-cannabinoid receptor-dependent mechanisms. More research is necessary to fully elucidate the role of each compound in modulating sleep processes.
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DeVuono MV, Hrelja KM, Petrie GN, Limebeer CL, Rock EM, Hill MN, Parker LA. Nausea-Induced Conditioned Gaping Reactions in Rats Produced by High-Dose Synthetic Cannabinoid, JWH-018. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2020; 5:298-304. [PMID: 33381644 DOI: 10.1089/can.2019.0103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome is becoming a more prominently reported side effect of cannabis containing high-dose Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and designer cannabinoid drugs such as "Spice." One active ingredient that has been found in "Spice" is 1-pentyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-018), a synthetic full agonist of the cannabinoid 1 (CB1) receptor. In this study, we evaluated the potential of different doses of JWH-018 to produce conditioned gaping in rats, an index of nausea. Materials and Methods: Rats received 3 daily conditioning trials in which saccharin was paired with JWH-018 (0.0, 0.1, 1, and 3 mg/kg, intraperitoneal [i.p.]). Then the potential of pretreatment with the CB1 antagonist, rimonabant (SR), to prevent JWH-018-induced conditioned gaping was determined. To begin to understand the potential mechanism underlying JWH-018-induced nausea, serum collected from trunk blood was subjected to a corticosterone (CORT) analysis in rats receiving three daily injections with vehicle (VEH) or JWH-018 (3 mg/kg). Results: At doses of 1 and 3 mg/kg (i.p.), JWH-018 produced nausea-like conditioned gaping reactions. The conditioned gaping produced by 3 mg/kg JWH-018 was reversed by pretreatment with rimonabant, which did not modify gaping on its own. Treatment with JWH-018 elevated serum CORT levels compared to vehicle-treated rats. Conclusions: As we have previously reported with high-dose THC, JWH-018 produced conditioned gaping in rats, reflective of a nausea effect mediated by its action on CB1 receptors and accompanied by elevated CORT, reflective of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieka V DeVuono
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Kelly M Hrelja
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Gavin N Petrie
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Cheryl L Limebeer
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Erin M Rock
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Matthew N Hill
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Linda A Parker
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
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6
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DeVuono MV, La Caprara O, Sullivan MT, Bath A, Petrie GN, Limebeer CL, Rock EM, Hill MN, Parker LA. Role of the stress response and the endocannabinoid system in Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-induced nausea. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:2187-2199. [PMID: 32399633 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05529-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Dysregulation of the endocannabinoid (eCB) system by high doses of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is hypothesized to generate a dysfunctional hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis contributing to cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS). OBJECTIVES AND METHODS Using the conditioned gaping model of nausea, we aimed to determine if pre-treatments that interfere with stress, or an anti-emetic drug, interfere with THC-induced nausea in male rats. The corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) antagonist, antalarmin, was given to inhibit the HPA axis during conditioning. Since eCBs inhibit stress, MJN110 (which elevates 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG)) and URB597 (which elevates anandamide (AEA)) were also tested. Propranolol (β-adrenergic antagonist) and WAY-100635 (5-HT1A antagonist) attenuate HPA activation by cannabinoids and, therefore, were assessed. In humans, CHS symptoms are not alleviated by anti-emetic drugs, such as ondansetron (5-HT3 antagonist); however, benzodiazepines are effective. Therefore, ondansetron and chlordiazepoxide were tested. To determine if HPA activation by THC is dose-dependent, corticosterone (CORT) was analyzed from serum of rats treated with 0.0, 0.5, or 10 mg/kg THC. RESULTS Antalarmin (10 and 20 mg/kg), MJN110 (10 mg/kg), URB597 (0.3 mg/kg), propranolol (2.5 and 5 mg/kg), WAY-100635 (0.5 mg/kg), and chlordiazepoxide (5 mg/kg) interfered with THC-induced conditioned gaping, but the anti-emetic ondansetron (0.1 and 0.01 mg/kg) did not. THC produced significantly higher CORT levels at 10 mg/kg than at 0.0 and 0.5 mg/kg THC. CONCLUSIONS Treatments that interfere with the stress response also inhibit THC-induced conditioned gaping, but a typical anti-emetic drug does not, supporting the hypothesis that THC-induced nausea, and CHS, is a result of a dysregulated stress response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieka V DeVuono
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Olivia La Caprara
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Megan T Sullivan
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Alexandra Bath
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Gavin N Petrie
- Departments of Cell Biology and, Anatomy and Psychiatry, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Cheryl L Limebeer
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Erin M Rock
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Matthew N Hill
- Departments of Cell Biology and, Anatomy and Psychiatry, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Linda A Parker
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada.
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7
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DeVuono MV, Parker LA. Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome: A Review of Potential Mechanisms. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2020; 5:132-144. [PMID: 32656345 PMCID: PMC7347072 DOI: 10.1089/can.2019.0059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Cannabinoids have long been known for their ability to treat nausea and vomiting. Recent reports, however, have highlighted the paradoxical proemetic effects of cannabinoids. Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) is characterized by cyclical episodes of nausea and vomiting, accompanied by abdominal pain following prolonged, high-dose cannabis use, which is alleviated by hot baths and showers. Little is known about the cause of this syndrome. Discussion: Cannabinoids produce a biphasic effect on nausea and vomiting, with low doses having an antiemetic effect and high doses producing emesis. Presentation and treatment of CHS are similar to cyclical vomiting syndrome as well as chemotherapy-related anticipatory nausea and vomiting, suggesting that these phenomena may share mechanisms. The prevalence of CHS is not known because of the symptomatic overlap with other disorders and the lack of knowledge of the syndrome by the public and physicians. Treatment with typical antiemetic drugs is ineffective for CHS, but anxiolytic and sedative drugs, along with hot showers, seem to be consistently effective at reducing symptoms. The only known way to permanently end CHS, however, is abstinence from cannabinoids. Case studies and limited pre-clinical data on CHS indicate that prolonged high doses of the main psychotropic compound in cannabis, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), result in changes to the endocannabinoid system by acting on the cannabinoid 1 (CB1) receptor. These endocannabinoid system changes can dysregulate stress and anxiety responses, thermoregulation, the transient receptor potential vanilloid system, and several neurotransmitters systems, and are thus potential candidates for mediating the pathophysiology of CHS. Conclusions: Excessive cannabinoid administration disrupts the normal functioning of the endocannabinoid system, which may cause CHS. More clinical and pre-clinical research is needed to fully understand the underlying pathophysiology of this disorder and the negative consequences of prolonged high-dose cannabis use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieka V. DeVuono
- Department of Psychology and Collabortive Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Linda A. Parker
- Department of Psychology and Collabortive Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
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8
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The effects of a marijuana extract on the general motor activity of the squirrel monkey. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.3758/bf03335876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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9
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Ribeiro do Valle J. Pharmacological Approaches to the Study of the Cannabis Problem. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.3109/10826086909062039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Lemberger L, Axelrod J, Kopin IJ. METABOLISM AND DISPOSITION OF TETRAHYDROCANNABINOLS IN NÄIVE SUBJECTS AND CHRONIC MARIJUANA USERS. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1971.tb13994.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Pagotto U, Marsicano G, Cota D, Lutz B, Pasquali R. The emerging role of the endocannabinoid system in endocrine regulation and energy balance. Endocr Rev 2006; 27:73-100. [PMID: 16306385 DOI: 10.1210/er.2005-0009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 578] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
During the last few years, the endocannabinoid system has emerged as a highly relevant topic in the scientific community. Many different regulatory actions have been attributed to endocannabinoids, and their involvement in several pathophysiological conditions is under intense scrutiny. Cannabinoid receptors, named CB1 receptor and CB2 receptor, first discovered as the molecular targets of the psychotropic component of the plant Cannabis sativa, participate in the physiological modulation of many central and peripheral functions. CB2 receptor is mainly expressed in immune cells, whereas CB1 receptor is the most abundant G protein-coupled receptor expressed in the brain. CB1 receptor is expressed in the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, and its activation is known to modulate all the endocrine hypothalamic-peripheral endocrine axes. An increasing amount of data highlights the role of the system in the stress response by influencing the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and in the control of reproduction by modifying gonadotropin release, fertility, and sexual behavior. The ability of the endocannabinoid system to control appetite, food intake, and energy balance has recently received great attention, particularly in the light of the different modes of action underlying these functions. The endocannabinoid system modulates rewarding properties of food by acting at specific mesolimbic areas in the brain. In the hypothalamus, CB1 receptor and endocannabinoids are integrated components of the networks controlling appetite and food intake. Interestingly, the endocannabinoid system was recently shown to control metabolic functions by acting on peripheral tissues, such as adipocytes, hepatocytes, the gastrointestinal tract, and, possibly, skeletal muscle. The relevance of the system is further strenghtened by the notion that drugs interfering with the activity of the endocannabinoid system are considered as promising candidates for the treatment of various diseases, including obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uberto Pagotto
- Endocrinology Unit, Department of Internal Medicine and Gastroenterology, Sant' Orsola-Malpighi Hospital, Bologna, Italy, and Department of Physiological Chemistry, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Germany.
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12
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Cannabinoids. Pain 2003. [DOI: 10.1201/9780203911259.ch56] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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13
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Abstract
Mammalian tissues contain at least two types of cannabinoid receptor, CB(1) and CB(2), both coupled to G proteins. CB(1) receptors are expressed mainly by neurones of the central and peripheral nervous system whereas CB(2) receptors occur centrally and peripherally in certain non-neuronal tissues, particularly in immune cells. The existence of endogenous ligands for cannabinoid receptors has also been demonstrated. The discovery of this 'endocannabinoid system' has prompted the development of a range of novel cannabinoid receptor agonists and antagonists, including several that show marked selectivity for CB(1) or CB(2) receptors. It has also been paralleled by a renewed interest in cannabinoid-induced antinociception. This review summarizes current knowledge about the ability of cannabinoids to produce antinociception in animal models of acute pain as well as about the ability of these drugs to suppress signs of tonic pain induced in animals by nerve damage or by the injection of an inflammatory agent. Particular attention is paid to the types of pain against which cannabinoids may be effective, the distribution pattern of cannabinoid receptors in central and peripheral pain pathways and the part that these receptors play in cannabinoid-induced antinociception. The possibility that antinociception can be mediated by cannabinoid receptors other than CB(1) and CB(2) receptors, for example CB(2)-like receptors, is also discussed as is the evidence firstly that one endogenous cannabinoid, anandamide, produces antinociception through mechanisms that differ from those of other types of cannabinoid, for example by acting on vanilloid receptors, and secondly that the endocannabinoid system has physiological and/or pathophysiological roles in the modulation of pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G Pertwee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, AB25 2ZD, Scotland, Aberdeen, UK.
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14
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Abstract
The use of cannabis for the management of a wide range of painful disorders has been well documented in case reports throughout history. However, clinical evaluations of cannabis and its psychoactive constituent THC have not led to a consensus regarding their analgesic effectiveness. On the other hand, THC and its synthetic derivatives have been shown to be effective in most animal models of pain. These antinociceptive effects are mediated through cannabinoid receptors in the brain that in turn appear to interact with noradrenergic and kappa opioid systems in the spinal cord to modulate the perception of painful stimuli. The endogenous ligand, anandamide, is also an effective antinociceptive agent. The extent to which the endogenous cannabinoid system is involved in the modulation of pain is currently unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- B R Martin
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond 23298, USA
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15
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Abstract
Delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-8-THC), a cannabinoid with lower psychotropic potency than the main Cannabis constituent, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-THC), was administered (18 mg/m2 in edible oil, p.o.) to eight children, aged 3-13 years with various hematologic cancers, treated with different antineoplastic drugs for up to 8 months. The total number of treatments with delta-8-THC so far is 480. The THC treatment started two hours before each antineoplastic treatment and was continued every 6 hrs for 24 hours. Vomiting was completely prevented. The side effects observed were negligible.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Abrahamov
- Department of Pediatrics, Shaare Zedek Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel
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16
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Seth R, Sinha S. Chemistry and pharmacology of cannabis. PROGRESS IN DRUG RESEARCH. FORTSCHRITTE DER ARZNEIMITTELFORSCHUNG. PROGRES DES RECHERCHES PHARMACEUTIQUES 1991; 36:71-115. [PMID: 1876710 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-0348-7136-5_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R Seth
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India
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17
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Abstract
The effects of several drugs and neurotoxins on schedule-controlled responding are reviewed in a number of species. In general, the behavioral effects of these chemicals in different species differ quantitatively more frequently than qualitatively. The sensitivity of schedule-controlled behavior to chemical effects across species does not show any obvious relationship to position on the phylogenetic tree. Pigeons are more sensitive, less sensitive, or equally sensitive to chemicals than other species, depending on the chemical. Because pigeons are inexpensive, have a long life span and are easy to train and handle, they should receive serious consideration as a species of choice for behavioral testing of potential neurobehavioral toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- D E McMillan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock 72205
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18
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Schulze GE, McMillan DE, Bailey JR, Scallet AC, Ali SF, Slikker W, Paule MG. Acute effects of marijuana smoke on complex operant behavior in rhesus monkeys. Life Sci 1989; 45:465-75. [PMID: 2770412 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(89)90096-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The acute behavioral effects of marijuana smoke were assessed in rhesus monkeys using a battery of food-reinforced complex operant tasks that included incremental repeated acquisition (IRA, n = 9), conditioned position responding (CPR, n = 8), progressive ratio (PR, n = 8), delayed matching to sample (DMTS, n = 6), and temporal response differentiation responding (TRD, n = 3). Marijuana or placebo smoke was delivered by a specialized face mask 15-min before sessions at exposure levels of 1, 5, 10, and 15 puffs (35cc/puff) or one cigarette smoked to a butt length of approximately 10 mm (approximately 20 puffs). Marijuana smoke caused significant disruptions of performance in all tests except PR after exposure to 10 or more puffs. Generally, response rates decreased or latencies to respond increased. Performance in the PR test was not consistently affected by marijuana exposure. Accuracy of responding was not altered by marijuana smoke at doses lower than those that decreased response rates in the IRA or CPR tests. In the three animals performing under all five schedules, the relative sensitivities for detecting marijuana behavioral effects were DMTS = TRD greater than IRA = CPR greater than PR. These results suggest that performance under operant schedules that are thought to represent some aspect of time perception, short-term memory, learning, motivation, and position discrimination show differential sensitivity to disruption by marijuana smoke, a finding similar to that noted previously for iv THC administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- G E Schulze
- Division of Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR 72079
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19
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Matsuzaki M, Casella GA, Ratner M. delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol: EEG changes, bradycardia and hypothermia in the rhesus monkey. Brain Res Bull 1987; 19:223-9. [PMID: 2822207 DOI: 10.1016/0361-9230(87)90087-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Administration of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC; 0.75-4.0 mg/kg IP) to rhesus monkeys produced a biphasic pattern of high-voltage slow waves (HVSW) and fast waves (HVFW) EEG, along with behavioral depression and alertness, respectively. The HVSW phase appeared 20 to 30 min after drug injection and was uniquely characterized by spike-bursts in frontal and temporal lobes and hypothalamus, theta-waves in parietal and occipital lobes, and generalized HVSW in subcortical regions. During the HVSW phase, bradycardia and hypothermia occurred, and animals exhibited depression or sedation. After the HVSW phase lasting for 3-4 hr, HVFW predominated in overall EEGs with marked decrease in neocortical spike-bursts. Bradycardia and hypothermia occurred simultaneously 20 to 30 min after drug injection and reached maximal levels (30-40 percent decrease in heart rate, 1.5-2.0 degrees C decrease in body temperature) 2 to 3 hr after injection. The dose- and time-response relationships for bradycardia and hypothermia paralleled the HVSW phase with behavioral depression. Animals were alert and calm during recovery from bradycardia and hypothermia. THC levels and disposition in blood correlated with bradycardia, hypothermia and EEGs and behavioral changes following THC administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Matsuzaki
- New York State Division of Substance Abuse Services Testing and Research Laboratory, Brooklyn 11217
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Smith JB. Effects of single and repeated daily injections of morphine, clonidine, and l-nantradol on avoidance responding of rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1985; 87:425-9. [PMID: 3936101 DOI: 10.1007/bf00432507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Interruption of a photobeam by rats was maintained under a continuous shock avoidance schedule, and moderate response rates were maintained at low shock frequencies. Responding decreased, and shock frequency increased, in a dose-dependent manner after acute injections of the narcotic morphine, the antihypertensive l-nantradol clonidine, and the cannabinoid l-nantradol. Clonidine and l-nantradol were about 100 times more potent than morphine for decreasing overall responding, and l-nantradol was about 3 times more potent than clonidine for decreasing escape responding. When drugs were given repeatedly prior to daily experimental sessions, tolerance developed to response rate decreases of morphine and l-nantradol within seven to ten sessions, but tolerance did not develop to rate decreases of clonidine for up to 30 sessions. Continued decreased responding by clonidine was antagonized by yohimbine, but not by prazosin or naltrexone. These results extend observations for the acute effects of l-nantradol and clonidine to operant responding under a schedule of continuous shock avoidance. Different potencies for drugs in the present and previous experiments suggest important effects of response topography on dose effects.
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Davis WM, Hatoum NS. Neurobehavioral actions of cannabichromene and interactions with delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol. GENERAL PHARMACOLOGY 1983; 14:247-52. [PMID: 6301931 DOI: 10.1016/0306-3623(83)90004-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
1. Neither cannabichromene (CBC) nor delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) protected mice from electroshock-induced seizures, although THC inhibited postictal mortality. Minor effects were produced on seizure latency and duration. 2. CBC had a weak analgetic action in mice; THC had a moderate and lengthy effect, which was potentiated at 2 hr by concurrent CBC. 3. Both CBC (10-75 mg/kg, i.p.) and THC (20 mg/kg) reduced motility of mice, the THC equalling the highest dose of CBC. 4. Performance of a conditioned avoidance response was strongly impaired by THC, but not by CBC, nor did CBC combined with THC have influence on the effects of THC.
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Kettenes-van den Bosch JJ, Salemink CA, van Noordwijk J, Khan I. Biological activity of the tetrahydrocannabinols. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 1980; 2:197-231. [PMID: 6251315 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-8741(80)81002-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
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Revuelta AV, Cheney DL, Costa E, Lander N, Mechoulam R. Reduction of hippocampal acetylcholine turnover in rats treated with (-)-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol and its 1',2'-dimethyl-heptyl homolog. Brain Res 1980; 195:445-52. [PMID: 6249445 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(80)90078-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The effects of (-)-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), (+)-delta 8-THC, and the dimethyl-heptyl (DMH) homolog of (-)-delta 8-THC (delta 8-THC-DMH) have been compared with the action of (-)-delta 9-THC on the turnover rate of acetylcholine in various brain areas. The data demonstrate that (-)-delta 8-THC-DMH, (-)-delta 9-THC and (-)- delta 8-THC all specifically reduce ther turnover rate of acetylcholine in the hippocampus in a dose-dependent manner ((-)-delta 8-THC-DMH > (-)-delta 9-THC > (-)-delta 8-THC) without altering the acetylcholine or choline content (except for high doses of (-)-delta 8-THC-DMH). The (+)-isomer of delta 8-THC fails to change any cholinergic parameter. The selectivity of action suggests that the tetrahydrocannabinoids may activate specific transmitter receptors which indirectly modulate the activity of the cholinergic neurons in the septal-hippocampal pathway.
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Armaganidis A, Moschovakis A, Papanikolaou G, Kapsabelis B, Petroulakis G, Liakopoulos D, Lazaratou H. Hashish smoke interfers with Sidman avoidance in mice. EXPERIENTIA 1979; 35:894-5. [PMID: 477846 DOI: 10.1007/bf01955134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Hashish smoke has been proved to be active in the Sidman avoidance. Its activity is similar to that of hallucinogens.
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Miller LL. Cannabis and the brain with special reference to the limbic system. ADVANCES IN THE BIOSCIENCES 1978; 22-23:539-66. [PMID: 389695 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-023759-6.50047-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Chapman LF, Sassenrath EN, Goo GP. Social behavior of rhesus monkeys chronically exposed to moderate amounts of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. ADVANCES IN THE BIOSCIENCES 1978; 22-23:693-712. [PMID: 116882 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-023759-6.50057-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Fried PA. Behavioral and electroencephalographic correlates of the chronic use of marijuana--a review. BEHAVIORAL BIOLOGY 1977; 21:163-96. [PMID: 334157 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-6773(77)90297-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Behavioral Pharmacology of the Tetrahydrocannabinols. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1977. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-004701-7.50006-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Abstract
Adult male volunteers with a prior history of either moderate (N = 12) or heavy (N = 14) marihuana use were systematically observed before, during and after a 21-day period of free access to 1 g 2% delta-9 THC marihuana cigarettes. A matched sample of casual alcohol drinkers (N = 11) served as a control group. Sleep and other molar behaviors were observed hourly to obtain a representative sample of daily activity. Both moderate and heavy users were less active immediately after marihuana use and slept more on days following heavier consumption. Heavy users reduced their waking activity on days following heavier consumption, as well as during the entire period of marihuana availability. These reactions did not persist beyond the period of availability for either group. The findings suggest a dose-related delayed reaction to heavy marihuana consumption which disappears following the cessation of regular use. However, changes in activity following single doses of marihuana may be related more to the social circumstances of its use than to its pharmacological action.
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Stoffer GR, Stoffer JE. Stress and aversive behavior in non-human primates: A retrospective bibliography (1914–1974) indexed by type of primate, aversive event, and topical area. Primates 1976. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02382914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Snyder EW, Lewis EG, Dustman RE, Beck EC. Sustained ingestion of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and the operant behavior of stump-tailed macaques. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1975; 3:1129-32. [PMID: 817298 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(75)90028-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Three stump-tailed macaques were trained to press a lever for liquid reinforcement on a tandem schedule which required the animal to delay responding for at least 30 sec after each reinforcer. If the animal responded during that interval, a clock was reset thus re-establishing the delay requirement. If he delayed responding appropriately, the monkey was shifted to a fixed-interval schedule of 135 sec duration. The FI component was terminated with a drop of flavored liquid at which point the delay requirement began anew. Following a stable baseline performance, two monkeys received 2 mg/kg of THC orally every third day for 90 days with the placebo administered on intervening days. The third animal received the placebo throughout testing. Each monkey's performance was described in terms of response rate and response patterning between reinforcers. Despite the sustained ingestion of THC neither animal showed appreciable change in test behavior attributable to tolerance to the drug. Although the drug continued to have a powerful effect throughout testing on the days it was administered, there was no evidence of any consistent or cumulative drug effect on placebo-day performance.
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Sofia RD, Vassar HB, Knobloch LC. Comparative analgesic activity of various naturally occurring cannabinoids in mice and rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1975; 40:285-95. [PMID: 1170585 DOI: 10.1007/bf00421466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The analgesic effectiveness of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), a crude marihuana extract (CME), cannabinol (CBN), cannabidiol (CBD), morphine SO-4 and aspirin following oral administration was directly compared in mice using the acetic-induced writhing and hot plate tests and the Randall-Selitto paw pressure test in rats. THC and morphine were equipotent in all tests except that morphine was significantly more potent in elevating pain threshold in the uninflamed rat hind paw. In terms of THC content, CME was nearly equipotent in the hot plate and Randall-Selitto tests, but was 3 times more potent in the acetic acid writhing test. On the other hand, CBN, like aspirin, was only effective in reducing writhing frequency in mice (3 times more potent than aspirin) and raising pain threshold of the inflamed hind paw of the rat (equipotent with aspirin). CBD did not display a significantly analgesic effect in any of the test systems used. The results of this investigation seem to suggest that both THC and CME possess narcotic-like analgesic activity similar to morphine, while CBN appears to be a non-narcotic type analgesic like aspirin.
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Thompson GR, Fleischman RW, Rosenkrantz H, Braude MC. Oral and intravenous toxicity of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in rhesus monkeys. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1974; 27:648-65. [PMID: 4212215 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(74)90044-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Siegel RK, Brewster JM, Jarvik ME. An observational study of hallucinogen-induced behavior in unrestrained Macaca mulatta. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1974; 40:211-23. [PMID: 4216925 DOI: 10.1007/bf00429415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Frankenheim JM. Effects of repeated doses of l-delta 8-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol on schedule-controlled temporally-spaced responding of rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1974; 38:125-44. [PMID: 4460069 DOI: 10.1007/bf00426107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Saulle RD. Psychopharmacology of the cannabinoids. A review. PSYCHOSOMATICS 1973; 14:352-4. [PMID: 4212284 DOI: 10.1016/s0033-3182(73)71308-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Kosersky DS, Dewey WL, Harris LS. Antipyretic, analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the rat. Eur J Pharmacol 1973; 24:1-7. [PMID: 4756165 DOI: 10.1016/0014-2999(73)90107-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Lewis EG, Dustman RE, Peters B, Straight RC, Beck EC. The effects of varying doses of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol on the human visual and somatosensory evoked response. ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY AND CLINICAL NEUROPHYSIOLOGY 1973; 35:347-54. [PMID: 4126806 DOI: 10.1016/0013-4694(73)90190-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Alves CN, Carlini EA. Effects of acute and chronic administration of Cannabis sative extract on the mouse-killing behavior of rats. Life Sci 1973; 13:75-85. [PMID: 4796256 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(73)90279-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Thompson GR, Rosenkrantz H, Schaeppi UH, Braude MC. Comparison of acute oral toxicity of cannabinoids in rats, dogs and monkeys. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1973; 25:363-72. [PMID: 4199474 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(73)90310-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Goldberg ME, Hefner MA, Robichaud RC, Dubinsky B. Effects of 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and chlordiazepoxide (CDP) on state-dependent learning: evidence for asymmetrical dissociation. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1973; 30:173-84. [PMID: 4711374 DOI: 10.1007/bf00421432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Sjödén PO, Järbe TU, Henriksson BG. Effects of long-term administration and withdrawal of tetrahydrocannabinols (delta 8-THC and delta 9-THC) on open-field behavior in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1973; 1:243-9. [PMID: 4798094 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(73)90111-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Pirch JH, Cohn RA, Osterholm KC, Barratt ES. Antagonism of amphetamine locomotor stimulation in rats by single doses of marijuana extract administered orally. Neuropharmacology 1973; 12:485-93. [PMID: 4708477 DOI: 10.1016/0028-3908(73)90065-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Boggan WO, Steele RA, Freedman DX. 9 -Tetrahydrocannabinol effect on audiogenic seizure susceptibility. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1973; 29:101-6. [PMID: 4709834 DOI: 10.1007/bf00422641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Miller LL, Drew WG, Wikler A. Comparison of 9 -THC, LSD-25 and scopolamine on non-spatial single alternation performance in the runway. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1973; 28:1-11. [PMID: 4714677 DOI: 10.1007/bf00413952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Poddar MK, Ghosh JJ. Effect of cannabis extract, 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol and lysergic acid diethylamide on rat liver enzymes. Biochem Pharmacol 1972; 21:3301-3. [PMID: 4405370 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(72)90094-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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