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Graumans W, van der Starre A, Stoter R, van Gemert GJ, Andolina C, Ramjith J, Kooij T, Bousema T, Proellochs N. AlbuMAX supplemented media induces the formation of transmission-competent P. falciparum gametocytes. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2024; 259:111634. [PMID: 38823647 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2024.111634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2024] [Revised: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
Asexual blood stage culture of Plasmodium falciparum is routinely performed but reproducibly inducing commitment to and maturation of viable gametocytes remains difficult. Culture media can be supplemented with human serum substitutes to induce commitment but these generally only allow for long-term culture of asexual parasites and not transmission-competent gametocytes due to their different lipid composition. Recent insights demonstrated the important roles lipids play in sexual commitment; elaborating on this we exposed ring stage parasites (20-24 hours hpi) for one day to AlbuMAX supplemented media to trigger induction to gametocytogenesis. We observed a significant increase in gametocytes after AlbuMAX induction compared to serum. We also tested the transmission potential of AlbuMAX inducted gametocytes and found a significant higher oocyst intensity compared to serum. We conclude that AlbuMAX supplemented media induces commitment, allows a more stable and predictable production of transmittable gametocytes than serum alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter Graumans
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Alex van der Starre
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Rianne Stoter
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Geert-Jan van Gemert
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Chiara Andolina
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Jordache Ramjith
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Taco Kooij
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Teun Bousema
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Immunology and Infection, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Nicholas Proellochs
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
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2
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Blanken SL, Barry A, Lanke K, Guelbeogo M, Ouedraogo A, Soulama I, Coulibaly SA, Teelen K, Graumans W, Dumont E, Stone W, Ramjith J, Marti M, Andrade CM, Drakeley C, Collins K, Tiono A, Bousema T. Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte production correlates with genetic markers of parasite replication but is not influenced by experimental exposure to mosquito biting. EBioMedicine 2024; 105:105190. [PMID: 38901148 PMCID: PMC11239461 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2024.105190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plasmodium blood-stage parasites balance asexual multiplication with gametocyte development. Few studies link these dynamics with parasite genetic markers in vivo; even fewer in longitudinally monitored infections. Environmental influences on gametocyte formation, such as mosquito exposure, may influence the parasite's investment in gametocyte production. METHODS We investigated gametocyte production and asexual multiplication in two Plasmodium falciparum infected populations; a controlled human malaria infection (CHMI) study and a 28-day observational study in naturally infected individuals in Burkina Faso with controlled mosquito exposure. We measured gene transcript levels previously related to gametocyte formation (ap2-g, surfin1.2, surfin13.1, gexp-2) or inhibition of asexual multiplication (sir2a) and compared transcript levels to ring-stage parasite and mature gametocyte densities. FINDINGS Three of the five markers (ap2-g, surfin1.2, surfin13.1) predicted peak gametocytaemia in the CHMI study. An increase in all five markers in natural infections was associated with an increase in mature gametocytes 14 days later; the effect of sir2a on future gametocytes was strongest (fold change = 1.65, IQR = 1.22-2.24, P = 0.004). Mosquito exposure was not associated with markers of gametocyte formation (ap2-g P = 0.277; sir2a P = 0.499) or carriage of mature gametocytes (P = 0.379). INTERPRETATION All five parasite genetic markers predicted gametocyte formation over a single cycle of gametocyte formation and maturation in vivo; sir2a and ap2-g were most closely associated with gametocyte growth dynamics. We observed no evidence to support the hypothesis that exposure to Anopheles mosquito bites stimulates gametocyte formation. FUNDING This work was funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (INDIE OPP1173572), the European Research Council fellowship (ERC-CoG 864180) and UKRI Medical Research Council (MR/T016272/1) and Wellcome Center (218676/Z/19/Z).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Lynn Blanken
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Aissata Barry
- Groupe de Recherche Action en Santé (GRAS), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Kjerstin Lanke
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Moussa Guelbeogo
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso
| | - Alphonse Ouedraogo
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso
| | - Issiaka Soulama
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso
| | - Sam Aboubacar Coulibaly
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso
| | - Karina Teelen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Wouter Graumans
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Elin Dumont
- Department of Immunology and Infection, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Will Stone
- Department of Immunology and Infection, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Jordache Ramjith
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Matthias Marti
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
| | - Carolina M Andrade
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Chris Drakeley
- MRC International Statistics and Epidemiology Group, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Katharine Collins
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Alfred Tiono
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso
| | - Teun Bousema
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Immunology and Infection, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
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3
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Nirdosh, Shukla H, Mishra S. An ApiAp2 Transcription Factor with a Dispensable Role in Plasmodium berghei Life Cycle. ACS Infect Dis 2024; 10:1904-1913. [PMID: 38752809 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.4c00240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Malaria parasites have a complex life cycle and undergo replication and population expansion within vertebrate hosts and mosquito vectors. These developmental transitions rely on changes in gene expression and chromatin reorganization that result in the activation and silencing of stage-specific genes. The ApiAp2 family of DNA-binding proteins plays an important role in regulating gene expression in malaria parasites. Here, we characterized the ApiAp2 protein in Plasmodium berghei, which we termed Ap2-D. In silico analysis revealed that Ap2-D has three beta-sheets followed by a helix at the C-terminus for DNA binding. Using gene tagging with 3XHA-mCherry, we found that Ap2-D is expressed in Plasmodium blood stages and is present in the parasite cytoplasm and nucleus. Surprisingly, our gene deletion study revealed a completely dispensable role for Ap2-D in the entirety of the P. berghei life cycle. Ap2-D KO parasites were found to grow in the blood successfully and progress through the mosquito midgut and salivary glands. Sporozoites isolated from mosquito salivary glands were infective for hepatocytes and achieved similar patency as WT in mice. We emphasize the importance of genetic validation of antimalarial drug targets before progressing them to drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nirdosh
- Division of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow 226031, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Himadri Shukla
- Division of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow 226031, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Satish Mishra
- Division of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow 226031, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
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4
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Mitesser V, Simantov K, Dzikowski R. Time to switch gears: how long noncoding RNAs function as epigenetic regulators in Apicomplexan parasites. Curr Opin Microbiol 2024; 79:102484. [PMID: 38688159 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2024.102484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNA) are emerging as important regulators of gene expression in eukaryotes. In recent years, a large repertoire of lncRNA were discovered in Apicomplexan parasites and were implicated in several mechanisms of gene expression, including marking genes for activation, contributing to the formation of subnuclear compartments and organization, regulating the deposition of epigenetic modifications, influencing chromatin and chromosomal structure and manipulating host gene expression. Here, we aim to update recent knowledge on the role of lncRNAs as regulators in Apicomplexan parasites and highlight the possible molecular mechanisms by which they function. We hope that some of the hypotheses raised here will contribute to further investigation and lead to new mechanistic insight and better understanding of the role of lncRNA in parasite's biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera Mitesser
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, The Kuvin Center for the Study of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, IMRIC, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Karina Simantov
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, The Kuvin Center for the Study of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, IMRIC, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Ron Dzikowski
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, The Kuvin Center for the Study of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, IMRIC, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel.
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5
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Voss TS, Brancucci NM. Regulation of sexual commitment in malaria parasites - a complex affair. Curr Opin Microbiol 2024; 79:102469. [PMID: 38574448 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2024.102469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Malaria blood stage parasites commit to either one of two distinct cellular fates while developing within erythrocytes of their mammalian host: they either undergo another round of asexual replication or they differentiate into nonreplicative transmissible gametocytes. Depending on the state of infection, either path may support or impair the ultimate goal of human-to-human transmission via the mosquito vector. Malaria parasites therefore evolved strategies to control investments into asexual proliferation versus gametocyte formation. Recent work provided fascinating molecular insight into shared and unique mechanisms underlying the control and environmental modulation of sexual commitment in the two most widely studied malaria parasite species, Plasmodium falciparum and P. berghei. With this review, we aim at placing these findings into a comparative mechanistic context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Till S Voss
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Nicolas Mb Brancucci
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland.
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6
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Guan J, Wu P, Mo X, Zhang X, Liang W, Zhang X, Jiang L, Li J, Cui H, Yuan J. An axonemal intron splicing program sustains Plasmodium male development. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4697. [PMID: 38824128 PMCID: PMC11144265 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-49002-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Differentiation of male gametocytes into flagellated fertile male gametes relies on the assembly of axoneme, a major component of male development for mosquito transmission of the malaria parasite. RNA-binding protein (RBP)-mediated post-transcriptional regulation of mRNA plays important roles in eukaryotic sexual development, including the development of female Plasmodium. However, the role of RBP in defining the Plasmodium male transcriptome and its function in male gametogenesis remains incompletely understood. Here, we performed genome-wide screening for gender-specific RBPs and identified an undescribed male-specific RBP gene Rbpm1 in the Plasmodium. RBPm1 is localized in the nucleus of male gametocytes. RBPm1-deficient parasites fail to assemble the axoneme for male gametogenesis and thus mosquito transmission. RBPm1 interacts with the spliceosome E complex and regulates the splicing initiation of certain introns in a group of 26 axonemal genes. RBPm1 deficiency results in intron retention and protein loss of these axonemal genes. Intron deletion restores axonemal protein expression and partially rectifies axonemal defects in RBPm1-null gametocytes. Further splicing assays in both reporter and endogenous genes exhibit stringent recognition of the axonemal introns by RBPm1. The splicing activator RBPm1 and its target introns constitute an axonemal intron splicing program in the post-transcriptional regulation essential for Plasmodium male development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiepeng Guan
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Peijia Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Xiaoli Mo
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Xiaolong Zhang
- Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenqi Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Xiaoming Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Lubin Jiang
- Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.
| | - Jian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.
| | - Huiting Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.
| | - Jing Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.
- Department of Infectious Disease, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.
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7
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Liu C, Tang J, Liang K, Liu P, Li Z. Ready for renascence in mosquito: The regulation of gene expression in Plasmodium sexual development. Acta Trop 2024; 254:107191. [PMID: 38554994 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2024.107191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Malaria remains one of the most perilous vector-borne infectious diseases for humans globally. Sexual gametocyte represents the exclusive stage at which malaria parasites are transmitted from the vertebrate to the Anopheles host. The feasible and effective approach to prevent malaria transmission is by addressing the sexual developmental processes, that is, gametocytogenesis and gametogenesis. Thus, this review will comprehensively cover advances in the regulation of gene expression surrounding the transmissible stages, including epigenetic, transcriptional, and post-transcriptional control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong Liu
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology and Key Laboratory of Special Pathogen Prevention and Control of Hunan Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, China; School of Public Health, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, China
| | - Jingjing Tang
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology and Key Laboratory of Special Pathogen Prevention and Control of Hunan Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, China
| | - Kejia Liang
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology and Key Laboratory of Special Pathogen Prevention and Control of Hunan Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, China
| | - Peng Liu
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology and Key Laboratory of Special Pathogen Prevention and Control of Hunan Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, China
| | - Zhenkui Li
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology and Key Laboratory of Special Pathogen Prevention and Control of Hunan Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, China.
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8
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Freville A, Stewart LB, Tetteh KKA, Treeck M, Cortes A, Voss TS, Tarr SJ, Baker DA, Conway DJ. Expression of the MSPDBL2 antigen in a discrete subset of Plasmodium falciparum schizonts is regulated by GDV1 but may not be linked to sexual commitment. mBio 2024; 15:e0314023. [PMID: 38530030 PMCID: PMC11077968 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03140-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface protein MSPDBL2 is a polymorphic antigen targeted by acquired immune responses, and normally expressed in only a minority of mature schizonts. The potential relationship of MSPDBL2 to sexual commitment is examined, as variable mspdbl2 transcript levels and proportions of MSPDBL2-positive mature schizonts in clinical isolates have previously correlated with levels of many sexual stage parasite gene transcripts, although not with the master regulator ap2-g. It is demonstrated that conditional overexpression of the gametocyte development protein GDV1, which promotes sexual commitment, also substantially increases the proportion of MSPDBL2-positive schizonts in culture. Conversely, truncation of the gdv1 gene is shown to prevent any expression of MSPDBL2. However, across diverse P. falciparum cultured lines, the variable proportions of MSPDBL2 positivity in schizonts do not correlate significantly with variable gametocyte conversion rates, indicating it is not involved in sexual commitment. Confirming this, examining a line with endogenous hemagglutinin-tagged AP2-G showed that the individual schizonts expressing MSPDBL2 are mostly different from those expressing AP2-G. Using a selection-linked integration system, modified P. falciparum lines were engineered to express an intact or disrupted version of MSPDBL2, showing the protein is not required for sexual commitment or early gametocyte development. Asexual parasite multiplication rates were also not affected by expression of either intact or disrupted MSPDBL2 in a majority of schizonts. Occurring alongside sexual commitment, the role of the discrete MSPDBL2-positive schizont subpopulation requires further investigation in natural infections where it is under immune selection. IMPORTANCE Malaria parasites in the blood are remarkably variable, able to switch antigenic targets so they may survive within humans who have already developed specific immune responses. This is one of the challenges in developing vaccines against malaria. MSPDBL2 is a target of naturally acquired immunity expressed in minority proportions of schizonts, the end stages of each 2-day replication cycle in red blood cells which contain merozoites prepared to invade new red blood cells. Results show that the proportion of schizonts expressing MSPDBL2 is positively controlled by the expression of the regulatory gametocyte development protein GDV1. It was previously known that expression of GDV1 leads to increased expression of AP2-G which causes parasites to switch to sexual development, so a surprising finding here is that MSPDBL2-positive parasites are mostly distinct from those that express AP2-G. This discrete antigenic subpopulation of mostly asexual parasites is regulated alongside sexually committed parasites, potentially enabling survival under stress conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline Freville
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lindsay B. Stewart
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin K. A. Tetteh
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Alfred Cortes
- ISGlobal, Hospital Clínic - Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
- ICREA, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Till S. Voss
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sarah J. Tarr
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - David A. Baker
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - David J. Conway
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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9
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Day CJ, Favuzza P, Bielfeld S, Haselhorst T, Seefeldt L, Hauser J, Shewell LK, Flueck C, Poole J, Jen FEC, Schäfer A, Dangy JP, Gilberger TW, França CT, Duraisingh MT, Tamborrini M, Brancucci NMB, Grüring C, Filarsky M, Jennings MP, Pluschke G. The essential malaria protein PfCyRPA targets glycans to invade erythrocytes. Cell Rep 2024; 43:114012. [PMID: 38573856 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum is a human-adapted apicomplexan parasite that causes the most dangerous form of malaria. P. falciparum cysteine-rich protective antigen (PfCyRPA) is an invasion complex protein essential for erythrocyte invasion. The precise role of PfCyRPA in this process has not been resolved. Here, we show that PfCyRPA is a lectin targeting glycans terminating with α2-6-linked N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac). PfCyRPA has a >50-fold binding preference for human, α2-6-linked Neu5Ac over non-human, α2-6-linked N-glycolylneuraminic acid. PfCyRPA lectin sites were predicted by molecular modeling and validated by mutagenesis studies. Transgenic parasite lines expressing endogenous PfCyRPA with single amino acid exchange mutants indicated that the lectin activity of PfCyRPA has an important role in parasite invasion. Blocking PfCyRPA lectin activity with small molecules or with lectin-site-specific monoclonal antibodies can inhibit blood-stage parasite multiplication. Therefore, targeting PfCyRPA lectin activity with drugs, immunotherapy, or a vaccine-primed immune response is a promising strategy to prevent and treat malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Day
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Paola Favuzza
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sabrina Bielfeld
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology (CSSB), Hamburg, Germany; Department of Biology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Haselhorst
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Leonie Seefeldt
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Julia Hauser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Lucy K Shewell
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Christian Flueck
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jessica Poole
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Freda E-C Jen
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Anja Schäfer
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Pierre Dangy
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Tim-W Gilberger
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology (CSSB), Hamburg, Germany; Department of Biology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany; Department of Cellular Parasitology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Camila Tenorio França
- Department of Immunology & Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Manoj T Duraisingh
- Department of Immunology & Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Marco Tamborrini
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas M B Brancucci
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christof Grüring
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Michael Filarsky
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology (CSSB), Hamburg, Germany; Department of Biology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Michael P Jennings
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia.
| | - Gerd Pluschke
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
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10
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Thiele PJ, Mela-Lopez R, Blandin SA, Klug D. Let it glow: genetically encoded fluorescent reporters in Plasmodium. Malar J 2024; 23:114. [PMID: 38643106 PMCID: PMC11032601 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-024-04936-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The use of fluorescent proteins (FPs) in Plasmodium parasites has been key to understand the biology of this obligate intracellular protozoon. FPs like the green fluorescent protein (GFP) enabled to explore protein localization, promoter activity as well as dynamic processes like protein export and endocytosis. Furthermore, FP biosensors have provided detailed information on physiological parameters at the subcellular level, and fluorescent reporter lines greatly extended the malariology toolbox. Still, in order to achieve optimal results, it is crucial to know exactly the properties of the FP of choice and the genetic scenario in which it will be used. This review highlights advantages and disadvantages of available landing sites and promoters that have been successfully applied for the ectopic expression of FPs in Plasmodium berghei and Plasmodium falciparum. Furthermore, the properties of newly developed FPs beyond DsRed and EGFP, in the visualization of cells and cellular structures as well as in the sensing of small molecules are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia J Thiele
- Inserm, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, UPR9022/U1257, Mosquito Immune Responses (MIR), IBMC, F-67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Raquel Mela-Lopez
- Inserm, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, UPR9022/U1257, Mosquito Immune Responses (MIR), IBMC, F-67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Stéphanie A Blandin
- Inserm, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, UPR9022/U1257, Mosquito Immune Responses (MIR), IBMC, F-67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Dennis Klug
- Inserm, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, UPR9022/U1257, Mosquito Immune Responses (MIR), IBMC, F-67000, Strasbourg, France.
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Department of Molecular Cell Physiology, Philipps University Marburg, 35037, Marburg, Germany.
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11
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Sollelis L, Howick VM, Marti M. Revisiting the determinants of malaria transmission. Trends Parasitol 2024; 40:302-312. [PMID: 38443304 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2024.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
Malaria parasites have coevolved with humans over thousands of years, mirroring their migration out of Africa. They persist to this day, despite continuous elimination efforts worldwide. These parasites can adapt to changing environments during infection of human and mosquito, and when expanding the geographical range by switching vector species. Recent studies in the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, identified determinants governing the plasticity of sexual conversion rates, sex ratio, and vector competence. Here we summarize the latest literature revealing environmental, epigenetic, and genetic determinants of malaria transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauriane Sollelis
- Wellcome Center for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection and Immunity University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK; Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Virginia M Howick
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland; Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health, and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Matthias Marti
- Wellcome Center for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection and Immunity University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK; Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.
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12
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Lappalainen R, Kumar M, Duraisingh MT. Hungry for control: metabolite signaling to chromatin in Plasmodium falciparum. Curr Opin Microbiol 2024; 78:102430. [PMID: 38306915 PMCID: PMC11157454 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2024.102430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
The human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum undergoes a complex life cycle in two hosts, mammalian and mosquito, where it is constantly subjected to environmental changes in nutrients. Epigenetic mechanisms govern transcriptional switches and are essential for parasite persistence and proliferation. Parasites infecting red blood cells are auxotrophic for several nutrients, and mounting evidence suggests that various metabolites act as direct substrates for epigenetic modifications, with their abundance directly relating to changes in parasite gene expression. Here, we review the latest understanding of metabolic changes that alter the histone code resulting in changes to transcriptional programmes in malaria parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Lappalainen
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston 02115, USA
| | - Manish Kumar
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston 02115, USA
| | - Manoj T Duraisingh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston 02115, USA.
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13
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Pietsch E, Niedermüller K, Andrews M, Meyer BS, Lenz TL, Wilson DW, Gilberger TW, Burda PC. Disruption of a Plasmodium falciparum patatin-like phospholipase delays male gametocyte exflagellation. Mol Microbiol 2024; 121:529-542. [PMID: 38131156 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.15211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/03/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
An essential process in transmission of the malaria parasite to the Anopheles vector is the conversion of mature gametocytes into gametes within the mosquito gut, where they egress from the red blood cell (RBC). During egress, male gametocytes undergo exflagellation, leading to the formation of eight haploid motile microgametes, while female gametes retain their spherical shape. Gametocyte egress depends on sequential disruption of the parasitophorous vacuole membrane and the host cell membrane. In other life cycle stages of the malaria parasite, phospholipases have been implicated in membrane disruption processes during egress, however their importance for gametocyte egress is relatively unknown. Here, we performed comprehensive functional analyses of six putative phospholipases for their role during development and egress of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes. We localize two of them, the prodrug activation and resistance esterase (PF3D7_0709700) and the lysophospholipase 1 (PF3D7_1476700), to the parasite plasma membrane. Subsequently, we show that disruption of most of the studied phospholipase genes does neither affect gametocyte development nor egress. The exception is the putative patatin-like phospholipase 3 (PF3D7_0924000), whose gene deletion leads to a delay in male gametocyte exflagellation, indicating an important, albeit not essential, role of this enzyme in male gametogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Pietsch
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Korbinian Niedermüller
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Mia Andrews
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Britta S Meyer
- Research Unit for Evolutionary Immunogenomics, Department of Biology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tobias L Lenz
- Research Unit for Evolutionary Immunogenomics, Department of Biology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Danny W Wilson
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Tim-Wolf Gilberger
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Paul-Christian Burda
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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14
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Farrukh A, Musabyimana JP, Distler U, Mahlich VJ, Mueller J, Bick F, Tenzer S, Pradel G, Ngwa CJ. The Plasmodium falciparum CCCH zinc finger protein MD3 regulates male gametocytogenesis through its interaction with RNA-binding proteins. Mol Microbiol 2024; 121:543-564. [PMID: 38148574 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.15215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
The transmission of malaria parasites to mosquitoes is dependent on the formation of gametocytes. Once fully matured, gametocytes are able to transform into gametes in the mosquito's midgut, a process accompanied with their egress from the enveloping erythrocyte. Gametocyte maturation and gametogenesis require a well-coordinated gene expression program that involves a wide spectrum of regulatory proteins, ranging from histone modifiers to transcription factors to RNA-binding proteins. Here, we investigated the role of the CCCH zinc finger protein MD3 in Plasmodium falciparum gametocytogenesis. MD3 was originally identified as an epigenetically regulated protein of immature gametocytes and recently shown to be involved in male development in a barcode-based screen in P. berghei. We report that MD3 is mainly present in the cytoplasm of immature male P. falciparum gametocytes. Parasites deficient of MD3 are impaired in gametocyte maturation and male gametocytogenesis. BioID analysis in combination with co-immunoprecipitation assays unveiled an interaction network of MD3 with RNA-binding proteins like PABP1 and ALBA3, with translational initiators, regulators and repressors like elF4G, PUF1, NOT1 and CITH, and with further regulators of gametocytogenesis, including ZNF4, MD1 and GD1. We conclude that MD3 is part of a regulator complex crucial for post-transcriptional fine-tuning of male gametocytogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afia Farrukh
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Jean Pierre Musabyimana
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Ute Distler
- Core Facility for Mass Spectrometry, Institute of Immunology, University Medical Centre of the Johannes-Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Vanessa Jil Mahlich
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Julius Mueller
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Fabian Bick
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Stefan Tenzer
- Core Facility for Mass Spectrometry, Institute of Immunology, University Medical Centre of the Johannes-Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Gabriele Pradel
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Che Julius Ngwa
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
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15
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Letcher B, Maciuca S, Iqbal Z. Role for gene conversion in the evolution of cell-surface antigens of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. PLoS Biol 2024; 22:e3002507. [PMID: 38451924 PMCID: PMC10919680 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3002507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
While the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum has low average genome-wide diversity levels, likely due to its recent introduction from a gorilla-infecting ancestor (approximately 10,000 to 50,000 years ago), some genes display extremely high diversity levels. In particular, certain proteins expressed on the surface of human red blood cell-infecting merozoites (merozoite surface proteins (MSPs)) possess exactly 2 deeply diverged lineages that have seemingly not recombined. While of considerable interest, the evolutionary origin of this phenomenon remains unknown. In this study, we analysed the genetic diversity of 2 of the most variable MSPs, DBLMSP and DBLMSP2, which are paralogs (descended from an ancestral duplication). Despite thousands of available Illumina WGS datasets from malaria-endemic countries, diversity in these genes has been hard to characterise as reads containing highly diverged alleles completely fail to align to the reference genome. To solve this, we developed a pipeline leveraging genome graphs, enabling us to genotype them at high accuracy and completeness. Using our newly- resolved sequences, we found that both genes exhibit 2 deeply diverged lineages in a specific protein domain (DBL) and that one of the 2 lineages is shared across the genes. We identified clear evidence of nonallelic gene conversion between the 2 genes as the likely mechanism behind sharing, leading us to propose that gene conversion between diverged paralogs, and not recombination suppression, can generate this surprising genealogy; a model that is furthermore consistent with high diversity levels in these 2 genes despite the strong historical P. falciparum transmission bottleneck.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brice Letcher
- EMBL-EBI, Hinxton, United Kingdom
- Laboratory of Biology and Modelling of the Cell, CNRS UMR 5239, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France
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16
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Hollin T, Abel S, Banks C, Hristov B, Prudhomme J, Hales K, Florens L, Stafford Noble W, Le Roch KG. Proteome-Wide Identification of RNA-dependent proteins and an emerging role for RNAs in Plasmodium falciparum protein complexes. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1365. [PMID: 38355719 PMCID: PMC10866993 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45519-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Ribonucleoprotein complexes are composed of RNA, RNA-dependent proteins (RDPs) and RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), and play fundamental roles in RNA regulation. However, in the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, identification and characterization of these proteins are particularly limited. In this study, we use an unbiased proteome-wide approach, called R-DeeP, a method based on sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation, to identify RDPs. Quantitative analysis by mass spectrometry identifies 898 RDPs, including 545 proteins not yet associated with RNA. Results are further validated using a combination of computational and molecular approaches. Overall, this method provides the first snapshot of the Plasmodium protein-protein interaction network in the presence and absence of RNA. R-DeeP also helps to reconstruct Plasmodium multiprotein complexes based on co-segregation and deciphers their RNA-dependence. One RDP candidate, PF3D7_0823200, is functionally characterized and validated as a true RBP. Using enhanced crosslinking and immunoprecipitation followed by high-throughput sequencing (eCLIP-seq), we demonstrate that this protein interacts with various Plasmodium non-coding transcripts, including the var genes and ap2 transcription factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Hollin
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Steven Abel
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Charles Banks
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO, USA
| | - Borislav Hristov
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jacques Prudhomme
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Kianna Hales
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - William Stafford Noble
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Paul G. Allen School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Karine G Le Roch
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA.
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17
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Pietsch E, Ramaprasad A, Bielfeld S, Wohlfarter Y, Maco B, Niedermüller K, Wilcke L, Kloehn J, Keller MA, Soldati-Favre D, Blackman MJ, Gilberger TW, Burda PC. A patatin-like phospholipase is important for mitochondrial function in malaria parasites. mBio 2023; 14:e0171823. [PMID: 37882543 PMCID: PMC10746288 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01718-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE For their proliferation within red blood cells, malaria parasites depend on a functional electron transport chain (ETC) within their mitochondrion, which is the target of several antimalarial drugs. Here, we have used gene disruption to identify a patatin-like phospholipase, PfPNPLA2, as important for parasite replication and mitochondrial function in Plasmodium falciparum. Parasites lacking PfPNPLA2 show defects in their ETC and become hypersensitive to mitochondrion-targeting drugs. Furthermore, PfPNPLA2-deficient parasites show differences in the composition of their cardiolipins, a unique class of phospholipids with key roles in mitochondrial functions. Finally, we demonstrate that parasites devoid of PfPNPLA2 have a defect in gametocyte maturation, underlining the importance of a functional ETC for parasite transmission to the mosquito vector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Pietsch
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Abhinay Ramaprasad
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sabrina Bielfeld
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Yvonne Wohlfarter
- Institute of Human Genetics, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bohumil Maco
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Korbinian Niedermüller
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Louisa Wilcke
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Joachim Kloehn
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Markus A. Keller
- Institute of Human Genetics, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Michael J. Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Tim-Wolf Gilberger
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Paul-Christian Burda
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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18
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Thommen BT, Dziekan JM, Achcar F, Tjia S, Passecker A, Buczak K, Gumpp C, Schmidt A, Rottmann M, Grüring C, Marti M, Bozdech Z, Brancucci NMB. Genetic validation of PfFKBP35 as an antimalarial drug target. eLife 2023; 12:RP86975. [PMID: 37934560 PMCID: PMC10629825 DOI: 10.7554/elife.86975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum accounts for the majority of over 600,000 malaria-associated deaths annually. Parasites resistant to nearly all antimalarials have emerged and the need for drugs with alternative modes of action is thus undoubted. The FK506-binding protein PfFKBP35 has gained attention as a promising drug target due to its high affinity to the macrolide compound FK506 (tacrolimus). Whilst there is considerable interest in targeting PfFKBP35 with small molecules, a genetic validation of this factor as a drug target is missing and its function in parasite biology remains elusive. Here, we show that limiting PfFKBP35 levels are lethal to P. falciparum and result in a delayed death-like phenotype that is characterized by defective ribosome homeostasis and stalled protein synthesis. Our data furthermore suggest that FK506, unlike the action of this drug in model organisms, exerts its antiproliferative activity in a PfFKBP35-independent manner and, using cellular thermal shift assays, we identify putative FK506-targets beyond PfFKBP35. In addition to revealing first insights into the function of PfFKBP35, our results show that FKBP-binding drugs can adopt non-canonical modes of action - with major implications for the development of FK506-derived molecules active against Plasmodium parasites and other eukaryotic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basil T Thommen
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteAllschwilSwitzerland
- University of BaselBaselSwitzerland
| | - Jerzy M Dziekan
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological UniversitySingaporeSingapore
| | - Fiona Achcar
- Wellcome Center for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
- Institute for Parasitology, University of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Seth Tjia
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological UniversitySingaporeSingapore
| | - Armin Passecker
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteAllschwilSwitzerland
- University of BaselBaselSwitzerland
| | | | - Christin Gumpp
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteAllschwilSwitzerland
- University of BaselBaselSwitzerland
| | | | - Matthias Rottmann
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteAllschwilSwitzerland
- University of BaselBaselSwitzerland
| | - Christof Grüring
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteAllschwilSwitzerland
- University of BaselBaselSwitzerland
| | - Matthias Marti
- Wellcome Center for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
- Institute for Parasitology, University of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Zbynek Bozdech
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological UniversitySingaporeSingapore
| | - Nicolas MB Brancucci
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteAllschwilSwitzerland
- University of BaselBaselSwitzerland
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19
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Lucky AB, Wang C, Shakri AR, Kalamuddin M, Chim-Ong A, Li X, Miao J. Plasmodium falciparum GCN5 plays a key role in regulating artemisinin resistance-related stress responses. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2023; 67:e0057723. [PMID: 37702516 PMCID: PMC10583690 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00577-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum causes the most severe malaria and is exposed to various environmental and physiological stresses in the human host. Given that GCN5 plays a critical role in regulating stress responses in model organisms, we aimed to elucidate PfGCN5's function in stress responses in P. falciparum. The protein level of PfGCN5 was substantially induced under three stress conditions [heat shock, low glucose starvation, and dihydroartemisinin, the active metabolite of artemisinin (ART)]. With a TetR-DOZI conditional knockdown (KD) system, we successfully down-regulated PfGCN5 to ~50% and found that KD parasites became more sensitive to all three stress conditions. Transcriptomic analysis via RNA-seq identified ~1,000 up- and down-regulated genes in the wild-type (WT) and KD parasites under these stress conditions. Importantly, DHA induced transcriptional alteration of many genes involved in many aspects of stress responses, which were heavily shared among the altered genes under heat shock and low glucose conditions, including ART-resistance-related genes such as K13 and coronin. Based on the expression pattern between WT and KD parasites under three stress conditions, ~300-400 genes were identified to be involved in PfGCN5-dependent, general, and stress-condition-specific responses with high levels of overlaps among three stress conditions. Notably, using ring-stage survival assay, we found that KD or inhibition of PfGCN5 could sensitize the ART-resistant parasites to the DHA treatment. All these indicate that PfGCN5 is pivotal in regulating general and ART-resistance-related stress responses in malaria parasites, implicating PfGCN5 as a potential target for malaria intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amuza Byaruhanga Lucky
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Chengqi Wang
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases Research, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Ahmad Rushdi Shakri
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Mohammad Kalamuddin
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Anongruk Chim-Ong
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Xiaolian Li
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Jun Miao
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases Research, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
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20
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Kioko M, Pance A, Mwangi S, Goulding D, Kemp A, Rono M, Ochola-Oyier LI, Bull PC, Bejon P, Rayner JC, Abdi AI. Extracellular vesicles could be a putative posttranscriptional regulatory mechanism that shapes intracellular RNA levels in Plasmodium falciparum. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6447. [PMID: 37833314 PMCID: PMC10575976 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42103-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum secretes extracellular vesicles (PfEVs) that contain parasite-derived RNA. However, the significance of the secreted RNA remains unexplored. Here, we compare secreted and intracellular RNA from asexual cultures of six P. falciparum lines. We find that secretion of RNA via extracellular vesicles is not only periodic throughout the asexual intraerythrocytic developmental cycle but is also highly conserved across P. falciparum isolates. We further demonstrate that the phases of RNA secreted via extracellular vesicles are discernibly shifted compared to those of the intracellular RNA within the secreting whole parasite. Finally, transcripts of genes with no known function during the asexual intraerythrocytic developmental cycle are enriched in PfEVs compared to the whole parasite. We conclude that the secretion of extracellular vesicles could be a putative posttranscriptional RNA regulation mechanism that is part of or synergise the classic RNA decay processes to maintain intracellular RNA levels in P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mwikali Kioko
- Bioscience Department, KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
- Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
| | - Alena Pance
- Pathogens and Microbes Programme, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Cambridge, UK
- School of Life and Medical Science, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Shaban Mwangi
- Bioscience Department, KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - David Goulding
- Pathogens and Microbes Programme, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | - Alison Kemp
- Cambridge Institute of Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Martin Rono
- Bioscience Department, KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
- Pwani University Biosciences Research Centre, Pwani University, Kilifi, Kenya
| | | | - Pete C Bull
- Bioscience Department, KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - Philip Bejon
- Bioscience Department, KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Julian C Rayner
- Cambridge Institute of Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Abdirahman I Abdi
- Bioscience Department, KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya.
- Pwani University Biosciences Research Centre, Pwani University, Kilifi, Kenya.
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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21
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Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum, the human malaria parasite, infects two hosts and various cell types, inducing distinct morphological and physiological changes in the parasite in response to different environmental conditions. These variations required the parasite to adapt and develop elaborate molecular mechanisms to ensure its spread and transmission. Recent findings have significantly improved our understanding of the regulation of gene expression in P. falciparum. Here, we provide an up-to-date overview of technologies used to highlight the transcriptomic adjustments occurring in the parasite throughout its life cycle. We also emphasize the complementary and complex epigenetic mechanisms regulating gene expression in malaria parasites. This review concludes with an outlook on the chromatin architecture, the remodeling systems, and how this 3D genome organization is critical in various biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Hollin
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California, Riverside, California, USA;
| | - Zeinab Chahine
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California, Riverside, California, USA;
| | - Karine G Le Roch
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California, Riverside, California, USA;
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22
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Kengne-Ouafo JA, Bah SY, Kemp A, Stewart L, Amenga-Etego L, Deitsch KW, Rayner JC, Billker O, Binka FN, Sutherland CJ, Awandare GA, Urban BC, Dinko B. The global transcriptome of Plasmodium falciparum mid-stage gametocytes (stages II-IV) appears largely conserved and gametocyte-specific gene expression patterns vary in clinical isolates. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0382022. [PMID: 37698406 PMCID: PMC10581088 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03820-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Our overall understanding of the developmental biology of malaria parasites has been greatly enhanced by recent advances in transcriptomic analysis. However, most of these investigations rely on laboratory strains (LS) that were adapted into in vitro culture many years ago, and the transcriptomes of clinical isolates (CI) circulating in human populations have not been assessed. In this study, RNA-seq was used to compare the global transcriptome of mid-stage gametocytes derived from three short-term cultured CI, with gametocytes derived from the NF54 reference laboratory strain. The core transcriptome appeared to be consistent between CI- and LS-derived gametocyte preparations, but some important differences were also observed. A majority of gametocyte-specific genes (43/53) appear to have relatively higher expression in CI-derived gametocytes than in LS-derived gametocytes, but a K-means clustering analysis showed that genes involved in flagellum- and microtubule-based processes (movement/motility) were more abundant in both groups, albeit with some differences between them. In addition, gametocytes from one CI described as CI group II gametocytes (CI:GGII) showed gene expression variation in the form of reduced gametocyte-specific gene expression compared to the other two CI-derived gametocytes (CI gametocyte group I, CI:GGI), although the mixed developmental stages used in our study is a potential confounder, only partially mitigated by the inclusion of multiple replicates for each CI. Overall, our study suggests that there may be subtle differences in the gene expression profiles of mid-stage gametocytes from CI relative to the NF54 reference strain of Plasmodium falciparum. Thus, it is necessary to deploy gametocyte-producing clinical parasite isolates to fully understand the diversity of gene expression strategies that may occur during the sequestered development of parasite sexual stages. IMPORTANCE Maturing gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum are known to sequester away from peripheral circulation into the bone marrow until they are mature. Blocking gametocyte sequestration can prevent malaria transmission from humans to mosquitoes, but most studies aim to understand gametocyte development utilizing long-term adapted laboratory lines instead of clinical isolates. This is a particular issue for our understanding of the sexual stages, which are known to decrease rapidly during adaptation to long-term culture, meaning that many LS are unable to produce transmissible gametocytes. Using RNA-seq, we investigated the global transcriptome of mid-stage gametocytes derived from three clinical isolates and a reference strain (NF54). This identified important differences in gene expression profiles between immature gametocytes of CI and the NF54 reference strain of P. falciparum, suggesting increased investment in gametocytogenesis in clinical isolates. Our transcriptomic data highlight the use of clinical isolates in studying the morphological, cellular features and molecular biology of gametocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas A. Kengne-Ouafo
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Saikou Y. Bah
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
- Vaccine and Immunity Theme, MRC Unit The Gambia at London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Banjul, Gambia
| | - Alison Kemp
- Malaria Programme, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Lindsay Stewart
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lucas Amenga-Etego
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Kirk W. Deitsch
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York City, New York, USA
| | - Julian C. Rayner
- Malaria Programme, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Oliver Billker
- Malaria Programme, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden, Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Fred N. Binka
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana
| | - Colin J. Sutherland
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gordon A. Awandare
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Britta C. Urban
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Bismarck Dinko
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic and Biomedical Sciences, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana
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23
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Chahine Z, Gupta M, Lenz T, Hollin T, Abel S, Banks CAS, Saraf A, Prudhomme J, Florens L, Le Roch KG. PfMORC protein regulates chromatin accessibility and transcriptional repression in the human malaria parasite, P. falciparum. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.09.11.557253. [PMID: 37745554 PMCID: PMC10515874 DOI: 10.1101/2023.09.11.557253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
The environmental challenges the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, faces during its progression into its various lifecycle stages warrant the use of effective and highly regulated access to chromatin for transcriptional regulation. Microrchidia (MORC) proteins have been implicated in DNA compaction and gene silencing across plant and animal kingdoms. Accumulating evidence has shed light into the role MORC protein plays as a transcriptional switch in apicomplexan parasites. In this study, using CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing tool along with complementary molecular and genomics approaches, we demonstrate that PfMORC not only modulates chromatin structure and heterochromatin formation throughout the parasite erythrocytic cycle, but is also essential to the parasite survival. Chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by deep sequencing (ChIP-seq) experiments suggest that PfMORC binds to not only sub-telomeric regions and genes involved in antigenic variation but is also most likely a key modulator of stage transition. Protein knockdown experiments followed by chromatin conformation capture (Hi-C) studies indicate that downregulation of PfMORC induces the collapse of the parasite heterochromatin structure leading to its death. All together these findings confirm that PfMORC plays a crucial role in chromatin structure and gene regulation, validating this factor as a strong candidate for novel antimalarial strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Chahine
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - M Gupta
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - T Lenz
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - T Hollin
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - S Abel
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - CAS Banks
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, 1000 E. 50th Street, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - A Saraf
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, 1000 E. 50th Street, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - J Prudhomme
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - L Florens
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, 1000 E. 50th Street, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - KG Le Roch
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
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24
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Mori T, Nakashima M. Sequence-dependent heterochromatin formation in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Heliyon 2023; 9:e19164. [PMID: 37681121 PMCID: PMC10480601 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Revised: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum represses transcription of the gene encoding AP2-G, which is the master regulator of germ cell differentiation, via heterochromatin condensation following histone H3 lysine 9 trimethylation (H3K9me3). Although H3K9me3-marked heterochromatin is typically constitutive and its establishment depends on the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway in fission yeast centromeres, malaria parasites lack molecular members essential for RNAi. We developed a strategy to assess heterochromatin establishment on artificial chromosomes introduced into P. falciparum. We show that a particular DNA sequence in the AP2-G promoter is able to induce de novo H3K9me3 nucleosome deposition. In addition, we also found that the AP2-G promoter contains a distinct element required in maintenance of the repression memory. Thus, we speculate that malaria parasites have evolutionarily acquired a sequence-dependent establishment system of non-constitutive, i.e. facultative, H3K9me3-marked heterochromatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiyuki Mori
- Corresponding author. Department of Molecular Protozoology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases (RIMD), Osaka University, 3-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.
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25
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Batugedara G, Lu XM, Hristov B, Abel S, Chahine Z, Hollin T, Williams D, Wang T, Cort A, Lenz T, Thompson TA, Prudhomme J, Tripathi AK, Xu G, Cudini J, Dogga S, Lawniczak M, Noble WS, Sinnis P, Le Roch KG. Novel insights into the role of long non-coding RNA in the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5086. [PMID: 37607941 PMCID: PMC10444892 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40883-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The complex life cycle of Plasmodium falciparum requires coordinated gene expression regulation to allow host cell invasion, transmission, and immune evasion. Increasing evidence now suggests a major role for epigenetic mechanisms in gene expression in the parasite. In eukaryotes, many lncRNAs have been identified to be pivotal regulators of genome structure and gene expression. To investigate the regulatory roles of lncRNAs in P. falciparum we explore the intergenic lncRNA distribution in nuclear and cytoplasmic subcellular locations. Using nascent RNA expression profiles, we identify a total of 1768 lncRNAs, of which 718 (~41%) are novels in P. falciparum. The subcellular localization and stage-specific expression of several putative lncRNAs are validated using RNA-FISH. Additionally, the genome-wide occupancy of several candidate nuclear lncRNAs is explored using ChIRP. The results reveal that lncRNA occupancy sites are focal and sequence-specific with a particular enrichment for several parasite-specific gene families, including those involved in pathogenesis and sexual differentiation. Genomic and phenotypic analysis of one specific lncRNA demonstrate its importance in sexual differentiation and reproduction. Our findings bring a new level of insight into the role of lncRNAs in pathogenicity, gene regulation and sexual differentiation, opening new avenues for targeted therapeutic strategies against the deadly malaria parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayani Batugedara
- Department of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Xueqing M Lu
- Department of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Borislav Hristov
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195-5065, USA
| | - Steven Abel
- Department of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Zeinab Chahine
- Department of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Thomas Hollin
- Department of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Desiree Williams
- Department of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Tina Wang
- Department of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Anthony Cort
- Department of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Todd Lenz
- Department of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Trevor A Thompson
- Department of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Jacques Prudhomme
- Department of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Abhai K Tripathi
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and the Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Guoyue Xu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and the Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | | | - Sunil Dogga
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, CB10 1SA, UK
| | | | | | - Photini Sinnis
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and the Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Karine G Le Roch
- Department of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA.
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26
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Chen JG, Liu SC, Nie Q, Du YT, Lv YY, He LP, Chen G. Exosome-derived long noncoding RNAs: Mediators of host-Plasmodium parasite communication. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. RNA 2023:e1808. [PMID: 37553236 DOI: 10.1002/wrna.1808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023]
Abstract
Overcoming challenges associated with malaria eradication proves to be a formidable task due to the complicated life cycle exhibited by the malaria parasite and the lack of safe and enduring vaccines against malaria. Investigating the interplay between Plasmodium parasites and their mammalian hosts is crucial for the development of novel vaccines. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) derived from Plasmodium parasites or host cells have emerged as potential signaling molecules involved in the trafficking of proteins, RNA (mRNAs, miRNAs, and ncRNAs), and DNA. These lncRNAs facilitate the interaction between hosts and parasites, impacting normal physiology or pathology in malaria-infected individuals. Moreover, they possess the capacity to regulate immune responses and associated signaling pathways, thus potentially influencing chromatin organization, epigenetic modifications, mRNA processing, splicing, and translation. However, the functional role of exosomal lncRNAs in malaria remains poorly understood. This review offers a comprehensive analysis of lncRNA and exosomal lncRNA profiles during malaria infection. It presents an overview of recent progress in elucidating the involvement of exosomal lncRNAs in host-parasite interactions. Additionally, potential exosomal lncRNAs linked to the domains of innate and adaptive immunity in the context of malaria are proposed. These findings may contribute to the discovery of new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for malaria. Furthermore, the need for additional research was highlighted that aimed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying lncRNA transportation into host cells and their targeting of specific genes to regulate the host's immune response. This knowledge gap presents an opportunity for future investigations, offering innovative approaches to enhance malarial control. This article is categorized under: RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > Small Molecule-RNA Interactions RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > Protein-RNA Interactions: Functional Implications RNA in Disease and Development > RNA in Disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Guang Chen
- Taizhou Central Hospital (Taizhou University Hospital), Taizhou University, Taizhou, China
| | - Shuang-Chun Liu
- Municipal Hospital Affiliated to Medical School of Taizhou University, Taizhou, China
| | - Qing Nie
- Weifang Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Weifang, Shandong Province, China
| | - Yun-Ting Du
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Cancer Hospital of China Medical University, Liaoning Cancer Hospital & Institute, Shenyang, China
| | - Yin-Yi Lv
- Taizhou Central Hospital (Taizhou University Hospital), Taizhou University, Taizhou, China
| | - Lian-Ping He
- Taizhou Central Hospital (Taizhou University Hospital), Taizhou University, Taizhou, China
| | - Guang Chen
- Taizhou Central Hospital (Taizhou University Hospital), Taizhou University, Taizhou, China
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27
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Ouologuem DT, Dara A, Kone A, Ouattara A, Djimde AA. Plasmodium falciparum Development from Gametocyte to Oocyst: Insight from Functional Studies. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1966. [PMID: 37630530 PMCID: PMC10460021 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11081966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria elimination may never succeed without the implementation of transmission-blocking strategies. The transmission of Plasmodium spp. parasites from the human host to the mosquito vector depends on circulating gametocytes in the peripheral blood of the vertebrate host. Once ingested by the mosquito during blood meals, these sexual forms undergo a series of radical morphological and metabolic changes to survive and progress from the gut to the salivary glands, where they will be waiting to be injected into the vertebrate host. The design of effective transmission-blocking strategies requires a thorough understanding of all the mechanisms that drive the development of gametocytes, gametes, sexual reproduction, and subsequent differentiation within the mosquito. The drastic changes in Plasmodium falciparum shape and function throughout its life cycle rely on the tight regulation of stage-specific gene expression. This review outlines the mechanisms involved in Plasmodium falciparum sexual stage development in both the human and mosquito vector, and zygote to oocyst differentiation. Functional studies unravel mechanisms employed by P. falciparum to orchestrate the expression of stage-specific functional products required to succeed in its complex life cycle, thus providing us with potential targets for developing new therapeutics. These mechanisms are based on studies conducted with various Plasmodium species, including predominantly P. falciparum and the rodent malaria parasites P. berghei. However, the great potential of epigenetics, genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and functional genetic studies to improve the understanding of malaria as a disease remains partly untapped because of limitations in studies using human malaria parasites and field isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinkorma T. Ouologuem
- Malaria Research and Training Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Sciences, Techniques, and Technologies of Bamako, Bamako 1805, Mali
| | - Antoine Dara
- Malaria Research and Training Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Sciences, Techniques, and Technologies of Bamako, Bamako 1805, Mali
| | - Aminatou Kone
- Malaria Research and Training Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Sciences, Techniques, and Technologies of Bamako, Bamako 1805, Mali
| | - Amed Ouattara
- Malaria Research Program, Center for Vaccine Development and Global Health, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Abdoulaye A. Djimde
- Malaria Research and Training Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Sciences, Techniques, and Technologies of Bamako, Bamako 1805, Mali
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28
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Harris CT, Tong X, Campelo R, Marreiros IM, Vanheer LN, Nahiyaan N, Zuzarte-Luís VA, Deitsch KW, Mota MM, Rhee KY, Kafsack BFC. Sexual differentiation in human malaria parasites is regulated by competition between phospholipid metabolism and histone methylation. Nat Microbiol 2023; 8:1280-1292. [PMID: 37277533 PMCID: PMC11163918 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-023-01396-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
For Plasmodium falciparum, the most widespread and virulent malaria parasite that infects humans, persistence depends on continuous asexual replication in red blood cells, while transmission to their mosquito vector requires asexual blood-stage parasites to differentiate into non-replicating gametocytes. This decision is controlled by stochastic derepression of a heterochromatin-silenced locus encoding AP2-G, the master transcription factor of sexual differentiation. The frequency of ap2-g derepression was shown to be responsive to extracellular phospholipid precursors but the mechanism linking these metabolites to epigenetic regulation of ap2-g was unknown. Through a combination of molecular genetics, metabolomics and chromatin profiling, we show that this response is mediated by metabolic competition for the methyl donor S-adenosylmethionine between histone methyltransferases and phosphoethanolamine methyltransferase, a critical enzyme in the parasite's pathway for de novo phosphatidylcholine synthesis. When phosphatidylcholine precursors are scarce, increased consumption of SAM for de novo phosphatidylcholine synthesis impairs maintenance of the histone methylation responsible for silencing ap2-g, increasing the frequency of derepression and sexual differentiation. This provides a key mechanistic link that explains how LysoPC and choline availability can alter the chromatin status of the ap2-g locus controlling sexual differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantal T Harris
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis Graduate Program, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Xinran Tong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- BCMB Allied Graduate Program, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Riward Campelo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Inês M Marreiros
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Leen N Vanheer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Navid Nahiyaan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Weill Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Vanessa A Zuzarte-Luís
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Kirk W Deitsch
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Maria M Mota
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Kyu Y Rhee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Weill Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Björn F C Kafsack
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
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29
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Thompson TA, Chahine Z, Le Roch KG. The role of long noncoding RNAs in malaria parasites. Trends Parasitol 2023; 39:517-531. [PMID: 37121862 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2023.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The human malaria parasites, including Plasmodium falciparum, persist as a major cause of global morbidity and mortality. The recent stalling of progress toward malaria elimination substantiates a need for novel interventions. Controlled gene expression is central to the parasite's numerous life cycle transformations and adaptation. With few specific transcription factors (TFs) identified, crucial roles for chromatin states and epigenetics in parasite transcription have become evident. Although many chromatin-modifying enzymes are known, less is known about which factors mediate their impacts on transcriptional variation. Like those of higher eukaryotes, long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have recently been shown to have integral roles in parasite gene regulation. This review aims to summarize recent developments and key findings on the role of lncRNAs in P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor A Thompson
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Zeinab Chahine
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Karine G Le Roch
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA.
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30
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Toenhake CG, Voorberg-van der Wel A, Wu H, Kanyal A, Nieuwenhuis IG, van der Werff NM, Hofman SO, Zeeman AM, Kocken CHM, Bártfai R. Epigenetically regulated RNA-binding proteins signify malaria hypnozoite dormancy. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112727. [PMID: 37392389 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Dormancy enables relapsing malaria parasites, such as Plasmodium vivax and cynomolgi, to survive unfavorable conditions. It is enabled by hypnozoites, parasites remaining quiescent inside hepatocytes before reactivating and establishing blood-stage infection. We integrate omics approaches to explore gene-regulatory mechanisms underlying hypnozoite dormancy. Genome-wide profiling of activating and repressing histone marks identifies a few genes that get silenced by heterochromatin during hepatic infection of relapsing parasites. By combining single-cell transcriptomics, chromatin accessibility profiling, and fluorescent in situ RNA hybridization, we show that these genes are expressed in hypnozoites and that their silencing precedes parasite development. Intriguingly, these hypnozoite-specific genes mainly encode proteins with RNA-binding domains. We hence hypothesize that these likely repressive RNA-binding proteins keep hypnozoites in a developmentally competent but dormant state and that heterochromatin-mediated silencing of the corresponding genes aids reactivation. Exploring the regulation and exact function of these proteins hence could provide clues for targeted reactivation and killing of these latent pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Haoyu Wu
- Department of Molecular Biology, Radboud University, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Abhishek Kanyal
- Department of Molecular Biology, Radboud University, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | | | | | - Sam Otto Hofman
- Department of Parasitology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, the Netherlands
| | - Anne-Marie Zeeman
- Department of Parasitology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, the Netherlands
| | | | - Richárd Bártfai
- Department of Molecular Biology, Radboud University, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
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Tang RY, Yin L, Yao L, Zhang QF, Chen XP. A Co-Expressed Natural Antisense RNA FCER1A-AS Controls IgE-Dependent Immunity by Promoting Expression of FcεRIα. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0073323. [PMID: 37154775 PMCID: PMC10269606 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00733-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
As the α-subunit of the high-affinity receptor for the Fc portion of immunoglobulin E (FcεRIα), FcεRIα plays a central role in IgE-mediated allergic disorders and in the immunity and immunopathology of some parasitic infections. FcεRIα is specifically expressed on basophils and mast cells, but the mechanism that controls FcεRIα expression in these cells is poorly understood. In this study, we found that the natural antisense transcript (NAT) of FcεRIα (FCER1A-AS) is co-expressed with the sense transcript (FCER1A-S) in both interleukin (IL)-3-induced FcεRIα-expressing cells and in the high FcεRIα-expressing cell line MC/9. When FCER1A-AS is selectively knocked down by the CRISPR/RfxCas13d (CasRx) approach in MC/9 cells, the expression of both FCER1A-S mRNA and proteins is markedly decreased. Furthermore, FCER1A-AS deficiency was also found to be associated with a lack of FCER1A-S expression in vivo. Correspondingly, homozygous mice deficient in FCER1A-AS demonstrated a similar phenotype to FCER1A knockout mice in Schistosoma japonicum infection and in IgE-FcεRIα-mediated cutaneous anaphylaxis. Thus, we uncovered a novel pathway for the control of FcεRIα expression by its co-expressed natural antisense transcript. IMPORTANCE FcεRIα is responsible for high-affinity binding with the Fc portion of IgE, which is critical for IgE-dependent disease responses such as allergy responses and anti-parasite immunity. FcεRIα is expressed on a few cell types, including mast cells and basophils. Although the expression of FcεRIα is known to be promoted by the IL-3-GATA-2 pathway during its differentiation, the mechanism by which FcεRIα expression is maintained remains unknown. In this study, we discovered that a natural antisense transcript, FCER1A-AS, is co-expressed with the sense transcript. The presence of FCER1A-AS is essential for sense transcript expression in mast cells and basophils, but not for the differentiation of these cells through cis-regulation. Like FcεRIα knockout mice, mice lacking FCER1A-AS also exhibit reduced survival after Schistosoma japonicum infection and a lack of IgE-mediated cutaneous anaphylaxis. Thus, a novel pathway for regulating IgE-mediated allergic diseases through noncoding RNAs has been revealed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruo-yu Tang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lan Yin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Liang Yao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qing-Feng Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiao-Ping Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
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Alemayehu A. Biology and epidemiology of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax gametocyte carriage: Implication for malaria control and elimination. Parasite Epidemiol Control 2023; 21:e00295. [PMID: 36950502 PMCID: PMC10025134 DOI: 10.1016/j.parepi.2023.e00295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 01/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria is among the leading public health problems worldwide. Female anopheles mosquito orchestrates the transmission of malaria by taking gametocytes and introducing sporozoite while taking blood meals. Interrupting transmission is the major strategy for malaria elimination. The gametocyte stage is essential for the onward transmission of malaria. Thus, understanding its basic biology and epidemiology is key to malaria control and elimination. Therefore, the current review focuses on revealing the biology, prevalence, and determinants of gametocyte carriage as well as its implication on mitigation of malaria. It also illustrates the role of asymptomatic and sub-microscopic Plasmodium infections and G-6-PD deficiency in gametocyte carriage and hence malaria transmission. Gametocytogenesis is initiated at committed merozoites and gives rise to the development of gametocytes. The trigger for gametocytogenesis depends on the host, parasite, and intervention factors. Gametocytes pass through five developmental stages identifiable by molecular markers. A considerable number of malaria patients carry gametocytes at a sub-microscopic level, thereby serving as a potential infectious reservoir of transmission. Factors involving the human host, Plasmodium parasite, and intervention parameters play a critical role in gametocyte biology and prevalence. The contribution of asymptomatic and sub-microscopic infections to malaria transmission is unknown. The clear impact of G-6-PD deficiency on malaria control and elimination remains unclear. Lack of clarity on such issues might impede the success of interventions. Basic science and epidemiological studies should continue to overcome the challenges and cope with the ever-evolving parasite and guide interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aklilu Alemayehu
- School of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Institute of Health, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Arba Minch University, Arba Minch, Ethiopia
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Jeninga MD, Tang J, Selvarajah SA, Maier AG, Duffy MF, Petter M. Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes display global chromatin remodelling during sexual differentiation. BMC Biol 2023; 21:65. [PMID: 37013531 PMCID: PMC10071754 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-023-01568-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The protozoan malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum has a complex life cycle during which it needs to differentiate into multiple morphologically distinct life forms. A key process for transmission of the disease is the development of male and female gametocytes in the human blood, yet the mechanisms determining sexual dimorphism in these haploid, genetically identical sexual precursor cells remain largely unknown. To understand the epigenetic program underlying the differentiation of male and female gametocytes, we separated the two sexual forms by flow cytometry and performed RNAseq as well as comprehensive ChIPseq profiling of several histone variants and modifications. RESULTS We show that in female gametocytes the chromatin landscape is globally remodelled with respect to genome-wide patterns and combinatorial usage of histone variants and histone modifications. We identified sex specific differences in heterochromatin distribution, implicating exported proteins and ncRNAs in sex determination. Specifically in female gametocytes, the histone variants H2A.Z/H2B.Z were highly enriched in H3K9me3-associated heterochromatin. H3K27ac occupancy correlated with stage-specific gene expression, but in contrast to asexual parasites this was unlinked to H3K4me3 co-occupancy at promoters in female gametocytes. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, we defined novel combinatorial chromatin states differentially organising the genome in gametocytes and asexual parasites and unravelled fundamental, sex-specific differences in the epigenetic code. Our chromatin maps represent an important resource for future understanding of the mechanisms driving sexual differentiation in P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myriam D Jeninga
- Mikrobiologisches Institut - Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jingyi Tang
- Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Bio21 Institute, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Shamista A Selvarajah
- Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Bio21 Institute, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Alexander G Maier
- The Australian National University, Research School of Biology, 134 Linnaeus Way, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Michael F Duffy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Peter Doherty Institute, 792 Elizabeth Street, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
- Bio21 Institute, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Michaela Petter
- Mikrobiologisches Institut - Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany.
- Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Bio21 Institute, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.
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The troubled puberty of malaria parasites. Trends Parasitol 2023; 39:155-157. [PMID: 36702699 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2023.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Sexual differentiation of malaria parasites is essential for transmission, yet the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Russell et al. elegantly combined a loss-of-function screen with single-cell RNA-sequencing to identify key factors in this process. Gomes et al. further characterized one of them, MD1, as a regulator contributing to male fate determination.
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Wichers-Misterek JS, Binder AM, Mesén-Ramírez P, Dorner LP, Safavi S, Fuchs G, Lenz TL, Bachmann A, Wilson D, Frischknecht F, Gilberger TW. A Microtubule-Associated Protein Is Essential for Malaria Parasite Transmission. mBio 2023; 14:e0331822. [PMID: 36625655 PMCID: PMC9973338 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03318-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Mature gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum display a banana (falciform) shape conferred by a complex array of subpellicular microtubules (SPMT) associated with the inner membrane complex (IMC). Microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) define MT populations and modulate interaction with pellicular components. Several MAPs have been identified in Toxoplasma gondii, and homologues can be found in the genomes of Plasmodium species, but the function of these proteins for asexual and sexual development of malaria parasites is still unknown. Here, we identified a novel subpellicular MAP, termed SPM3, that is conserved within the genus Plasmodium, especially within the subgenus Laverania, but absent in other Apicomplexa. Conditional knockdown and targeted gene disruption of Pfspm3 in Plasmodium falciparum cause severe morphological defects during gametocytogenesis, leading to round, nonfalciform gametocytes with an aberrant SPMT pattern. In contrast, Pbspm3 knockout in Plasmodium berghei, a species with round gametocytes, caused no defect in gametocytogenesis, but sporozoites displayed an aberrant motility and a dramatic defect in invasion of salivary glands, leading to a decreased efficiency in transmission. Electron microscopy revealed a dissociation of the SPMT from the IMC in Pbspm3 knockout parasites, suggesting a function of SPM3 in anchoring MTs to the IMC. Overall, our results highlight SPM3 as a pellicular component with essential functions for malaria parasite transmission. IMPORTANCE A key structural feature driving the transition between different life cycle stages of the malaria parasite is the unique three-membrane pellicle, consisting of the parasite plasma membrane (PPM) and a double membrane structure underlying the PPM termed the inner membrane complex (IMC). Additionally, there are numerous linearly arranged intramembranous particles (IMPs) linked to the IMC, which likely link the IMC to the subpellicular microtubule cytoskeleton. Here, we identified, localized, and characterized a novel subpellicular microtubule-associated protein unique to the genus Plasmodium. The knockout of this protein in the human-pathogenic species P. falciparum resulted in malformed gametocytes and aberrant microtubules. We confirmed the microtubule association in the P. berghei rodent malaria homologue and show that its knockout results in a perturbed microtubule architecture, aberrant sporozoite motility, and decreased transmission efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Stephan Wichers-Misterek
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- Biology Department, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Annika M. Binder
- Integrative Parasitology, Department of Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Paolo Mesén-Ramírez
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- Biology Department, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Lilian Patrick Dorner
- Integrative Parasitology, Department of Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Soraya Safavi
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- Biology Department, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Gwendolin Fuchs
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- Biology Department, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tobias L. Lenz
- Biology Department, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
- Research Unit for Evolutionary Immunogenomics, Department of Biology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Anna Bachmann
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- Biology Department, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Hamburg-Borstel-Lübeck-Riems, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Danny Wilson
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Friedrich Frischknecht
- Integrative Parasitology, Department of Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tim-Wolf Gilberger
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- Biology Department, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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Patterns of Heterochromatin Transitions Linked to Changes in the Expression of Plasmodium falciparum Clonally Variant Genes. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0304922. [PMID: 36515553 PMCID: PMC9927496 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03049-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The survival of malaria parasites in the changing human blood environment largely depends on their ability to alter gene expression by epigenetic mechanisms. The active state of Plasmodium falciparum clonally variant genes (CVGs) is associated with euchromatin characterized by the histone mark H3K9ac, whereas the silenced state is characterized by H3K9me3-based heterochromatin. Expression switches are linked to euchromatin-heterochromatin transitions, but these transitions have not been characterized for the majority of CVGs. To define the heterochromatin distribution patterns associated with the alternative transcriptional states of CVGs, we compared H3K9me3 occupancy at a genome-wide level among several parasite subclones of the same genetic background that differed in the transcriptional state of many CVGs. We found that de novo heterochromatin formation or the complete disruption of a heterochromatin domain is a relatively rare event, and for the majority of CVGs, expression switches can be explained by the expansion or retraction of heterochromatin domains. We identified different modalities of heterochromatin changes linked to transcriptional differences, but despite this complexity, heterochromatin distribution patterns generally enable the prediction of the transcriptional state of specific CVGs. We also found that in some subclones, several var genes were simultaneously in an active state. Furthermore, the heterochromatin levels in the putative regulatory region of the gdv1 antisense noncoding RNA, a regulator of sexual commitment, varied between parasite lines with different sexual conversion rates. IMPORTANCE The malaria parasite P. falciparum is responsible for more than half a million deaths every year. P. falciparum clonally variant genes (CVGs) mediate fundamental host-parasite interactions and play a key role in parasite adaptation to fluctuations in the conditions of the human host. The expression of CVGs is regulated at the epigenetic level by changes in the distribution of a type of chromatin called heterochromatin. Here, we describe at a genome-wide level the changes in the heterochromatin distribution associated with the different transcriptional states of CVGs. Our results also reveal a likely role for heterochromatin at a particular locus in determining the parasite investment in transmission to mosquitoes. Additionally, this data set will enable the prediction of the transcriptional state of CVGs from epigenomic data, which is important for the study of parasite adaptation to the conditions of the host in natural malaria infections.
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Russell AJC, Sanderson T, Bushell E, Talman AM, Anar B, Girling G, Hunziker M, Kent RS, Martin JS, Metcalf T, Montandon R, Pandey V, Pardo M, Roberts AB, Sayers C, Schwach F, Choudhary JS, Rayner JC, Voet T, Modrzynska KK, Waters AP, Lawniczak MKN, Billker O. Regulators of male and female sexual development are critical for the transmission of a malaria parasite. Cell Host Microbe 2023; 31:305-319.e10. [PMID: 36634679 PMCID: PMC7616090 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2022.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Malaria transmission to mosquitoes requires a developmental switch in asexually dividing blood-stage parasites to sexual reproduction. In Plasmodium berghei, the transcription factor AP2-G is required and sufficient for this switch, but how a particular sex is determined in a haploid parasite remains unknown. Using a global screen of barcoded mutants, we here identify genes essential for the formation of either male or female sexual forms and validate their importance for transmission. High-resolution single-cell transcriptomics of ten mutant parasites portrays the developmental bifurcation and reveals a regulatory cascade of putative gene functions in the determination and subsequent differentiation of each sex. A male-determining gene with a LOTUS/OST-HTH domain as well as the protein interactors of a female-determining zinc-finger protein indicate that germ-granule-like ribonucleoprotein complexes complement transcriptional processes in the regulation of both male and female development of a malaria parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Theo Sanderson
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK; Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Ellen Bushell
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK; Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden, Umeå University, Umeå 90187, Sweden; Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå 90187, Sweden
| | - Arthur M Talman
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK; MIVEGEC, University of Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Burcu Anar
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
| | | | - Mirjam Hunziker
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden, Umeå University, Umeå 90187, Sweden; Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå 90187, Sweden
| | - Robyn S Kent
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
| | - Julie S Martin
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Tom Metcalf
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
| | | | - Vikash Pandey
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden, Umeå University, Umeå 90187, Sweden; Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå 90187, Sweden
| | | | - A Brett Roberts
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Claire Sayers
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden, Umeå University, Umeå 90187, Sweden; Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå 90187, Sweden
| | | | | | - Julian C Rayner
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Thierry Voet
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Leuven, KU Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven Institute for Single Cell Omics, LISCO, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Katarzyna K Modrzynska
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Andrew P Waters
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK.
| | | | - Oliver Billker
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden, Umeå University, Umeå 90187, Sweden; Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå 90187, Sweden.
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Cruz Camacho A, Kiper E, Oren S, Zaharoni N, Nir N, Soffer N, Noy Y, Ben David B, Rivkin A, Rotkopf R, Michael D, Carvalho TG, Regev-Rudzki N. High-throughput analysis of the transcriptional patterns of sexual genes in malaria. Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:14. [PMID: 36639683 PMCID: PMC9838061 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05624-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) is the leading protozoan causing malaria, the most devastating parasitic disease. To ensure transmission, a small subset of Pf parasites differentiate into the sexual forms (gametocytes). Since the abundance of these essential parasitic forms is extremely low within the human host, little is currently known about the molecular regulation of their sexual differentiation, highlighting the need to develop tools to investigate Pf gene expression during this fundamental mechanism. METHODS We developed a high-throughput quantitative Reverse-Transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) platform to robustly monitor Pf transcriptional patterns, in particular, systematically profiling the transcriptional pattern of a large panel of gametocyte-related genes (GRG). Initially, we evaluated the technical performance of the systematic RT-qPCR platform to ensure it complies with the accepted quality standards for: (i) RNA extraction, (ii) cDNA synthesis and (iii) evaluation of gene expression through RT-qPCR. We then used this approach to monitor alterations in gene expression of a panel of GRG upon treatment with gametocytogenesis regulators. RESULTS We thoroughly elucidated GRG expression profiles under treatment with the antimalarial drug dihydroartemisinin (DHA) or the metabolite choline over the course of a Pf blood cycle (48 h). We demonstrate that both significantly alter the expression pattern of PfAP2-G, the gametocytogenesis master regulator. However, they also markedly modify the developmental rate of the parasites and thus might bias the mRNA expression. Additionally, we screened the effect of the metabolites lactate and kynurenic acid, abundant in severe malaria, as potential regulators of gametocytogenesis. CONCLUSIONS Our data demonstrate that the high-throughput RT-qPCR method enables studying the immediate transcriptional response initiating gametocytogenesis of the parasites from a very low volume of malaria-infected RBC samples. The obtained data expand the current knowledge of the initial alterations in mRNA profiles of GRG upon treatment with reported regulators. In addition, using this method emphasizes that asexual parasite stage composition is a crucial element that must be considered when interpreting changes in GRG expression by RT-qPCR, specifically when screening for novel compounds that could regulate Pf sexual differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abel Cruz Camacho
- grid.13992.300000 0004 0604 7563Faculty of Biochemistry, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 7610001 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Edo Kiper
- grid.13992.300000 0004 0604 7563Faculty of Biochemistry, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 7610001 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Sonia Oren
- grid.13992.300000 0004 0604 7563Faculty of Biochemistry, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 7610001 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Nir Zaharoni
- grid.13992.300000 0004 0604 7563Faculty of Biochemistry, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 7610001 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Netta Nir
- grid.13992.300000 0004 0604 7563Faculty of Biochemistry, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 7610001 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Noam Soffer
- grid.13992.300000 0004 0604 7563Faculty of Biochemistry, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 7610001 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yael Noy
- grid.13992.300000 0004 0604 7563Faculty of Biochemistry, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 7610001 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Bar Ben David
- grid.13992.300000 0004 0604 7563Faculty of Biochemistry, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 7610001 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Anna Rivkin
- grid.13992.300000 0004 0604 7563Faculty of Biochemistry, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 7610001 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Ron Rotkopf
- grid.13992.300000 0004 0604 7563Department of Life Sciences Core Facilities, Weizmann Institute of Science, 7610001 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Dan Michael
- grid.13992.300000 0004 0604 7563Feinberg Graduate School, Weizmann Institute of Science, 7610001 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Teresa G. Carvalho
- grid.1018.80000 0001 2342 0938Department of Microbiology, Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086 Australia
| | - Neta Regev-Rudzki
- grid.13992.300000 0004 0604 7563Faculty of Biochemistry, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 7610001 Rehovot, Israel
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Zanghi G, Patel H, Camargo N, Smith JL, Bae Y, Flannery EL, Chuenchob V, Fishbaugher ME, Mikolajczak SA, Roobsoong W, Sattabongkot J, Hayes K, Vaughan AM, Kappe SHI. Global gene expression of human malaria parasite liver stages throughout intrahepatocytic development. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.01.05.522945. [PMID: 36711670 PMCID: PMC9881933 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.05.522945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) is causing the greatest malaria burden, yet the liver stages (LS) of this most important parasite species have remained poorly studied. Here, we used a human liver-chimeric mouse model in combination with a novel fluorescent PfNF54 parasite line (PfNF54cspGFP) to isolate PfLS-infected hepatocytes and generate transcriptomes that cover the major LS developmental phases in human hepatocytes. RNA-seq analysis of early Pf LS trophozoites two days after infection, revealed a central role of translational regulation in the transformation of the extracellular invasive sporozoite into intracellular LS. The developmental time course gene expression analysis indicated that fatty acid biosynthesis, isoprenoid biosynthesis and iron metabolism are sustaining LS development along with amino acid metabolism and biosynthesis. Countering oxidative stress appears to play an important role during intrahepatic LS development. Furthermore, we observed expression of the variant PfEMP1 antigen-encoding var genes, and we confirmed expression of PfEMP1 protein during LS development. Transcriptome comparison of the late Pf liver stage schizonts with P. vivax (Pv) late liver stages revealed highly conserved gene expression profiles among orthologous genes. A notable difference however was the expression of genes regulating sexual stage commitment. While Pv schizonts expressed markers of sexual commitment, the Pf LS parasites were not sexually committed and showed expression of gametocytogenesis repression factors. Our results provide the first comprehensive gene expression profile of the human malaria parasite Pf LS isolated during in vivo intrahepatocytic development. This data will inform biological studies and the search for effective intervention strategies that can prevent infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gigliola Zanghi
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Hardik Patel
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Nelly Camargo
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Jenny L. Smith
- Research Scientific Computing, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Yeji Bae
- Research Scientific Computing, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Erika L. Flannery
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases, Emeryville, CA, United State
| | - Vorada Chuenchob
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases, Emeryville, CA, United State
| | - Matthew E. Fishbaugher
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases, Emeryville, CA, United State
| | - Sebastian A Mikolajczak
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases, Emeryville, CA, United State
| | - Wanlapa Roobsoong
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Jetsumon Sattabongkot
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Kiera Hayes
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Ashley M. Vaughan
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Stefan H. I. Kappe
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
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Stewart LB, Freville A, Voss TS, Baker DA, Awandare GA, Conway DJ. Plasmodium falciparum Sexual Commitment Rate Variation among Clinical Isolates and Diverse Laboratory-Adapted Lines. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0223422. [PMID: 36409095 PMCID: PMC9769538 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02234-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Asexual blood-stage malaria parasites must produce sexual progeny to infect mosquitoes. It is important to understand the scope and causes of intraspecific variation in sexual commitment rates, particularly for the major human parasite P. falciparum. First, two alternative assay methods of measuring sexual commitment were compared to test a genetically modified P. falciparum line with elevated commitment rates inducible by overexpression of GDV1. The methods yielded correlated measurements with higher sensitivity and precision being achieved by one employing detection of the early gametocyte differentiation marker Pfs16. Thus, this was used to survey a diverse range of parasite lines and test each in multiple biological replicate assays in a serum-free medium supplemented with Albumax. There were differences among six recent clinical isolates from Ghana in their mean rates of sexual commitment per cycle, ranging from 3.3% to 12.2%. Among 13 diverse long-term laboratory-adapted lines, mean sexual commitment rates for most ranged from 4.7% to 13.4%, a few had lower rates with means from 0.3 to 1.6%, and one with a nonfunctional ap2-g gene always showed zero commitment. Among a subset of lines tested for the effects of exogenous choline to suppress commitment, there were significant differences. As expected, there was no effect in a line that had lost the gdv1 gene and that had generally low commitment, whereas the others showed quantitatively variable but significant responses to choline, suggesting potential trait variation. The results indicated the value of performing multiple replicate assays for understanding the variation of this key reproductive trait that likely affects transmission. IMPORTANCE Only sexual-stage malaria parasites are transmitted from human blood to mosquitoes. Thus, it is vital to understand variations in sexual commitment rates because these may be modifiable or susceptible to blocking. Two different methods of commitment rate measurement were first compared, demonstrating higher sensitivity and precision by the detection of an early differentiation marker, which was subsequently used to survey diverse lines. Clinical isolates from Ghana showed significant variation in mean per-cycle commitment rates and variation among biological replicates. Laboratory-adapted lines of diverse origins had a wider range with most being within the range observed for the clinical isolates, while a minority consistently had lower or zero rates. There was quantitative variation in the effects when adding choline to suppress commitment, indicating differing responsiveness of parasites to this environmental modification. Performing multiple assay replicates and comparisons of diverse isolates was important to understand this trait and its potential effects on transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay B. Stewart
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Aline Freville
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Till S. Voss
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, University of Basel, Basal, Switzerland
| | - David A. Baker
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gordon A. Awandare
- West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens (WACCBIP), Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - David J. Conway
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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Tintó-Font E, Cortés A. How a malaria parasite becomes a male. Nature 2022; 612:408-409. [PMID: 36476767 DOI: 10.1038/d41586-022-04167-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Keroack CD, Duraisingh MT. Molecular mechanisms of cellular quiescence in apicomplexan parasites. Curr Opin Microbiol 2022; 70:102223. [PMID: 36274498 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2022.102223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Quiescence is a reversible nonproliferative cellular state that allows organisms to persist through unfavorable conditions. Quiescence can be stimulated by a wide range of external or intrinsic factors. Cells undergo a coordinated molecular program to enter and exit from the quiescent state, which is governed by signaling, transcriptional and translational changes, epigenetic mechanisms, metabolic switches, and changes in cellular architecture. These mechanisms have been extensively studied in model organisms, and a growing number of studies have identified conserved mechanisms in apicomplexan parasites. Quiescence in the context of a parasitic infection has significant clinical impact: quiescent forms may underlie treatment failures, relapsing infections, and stress tolerance. Here, we review the latest understanding of quiescence in apicomplexa, synthesizing these studies to highlight conserved mechanisms, and identifying technologies to assist in further characterization of quiescence. Understanding conserved mechanisms of quiescence in apicomplexans will provide avenues for transmission prevention and radical cure of infections.
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Hoshizaki J, Adjalley SH, Thathy V, Judge K, Berriman M, Reid AJ, Lee MCS. A manually curated annotation characterises genomic features of P. falciparum lncRNAs. BMC Genomics 2022; 23:780. [PMID: 36451097 PMCID: PMC9710153 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-022-09017-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Important regulation occurs at the level of transcription in Plasmodium falciparum and growing evidence suggests that these apicomplexan parasites have complex regulatory networks. Recent studies implicate long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) as transcriptional regulators in P. falciparum. However, due to limited research and the lack of necessary experimental tools, our understanding of their role in the malaria-causing parasite remains largely unelucidated. In this work, we address one of these limitations, the lack of an updated and improved lncRNA annotation in P. falciparum. RESULTS We generated long-read RNA sequencing data and integrated information extracted and curated from multiple sources to manually annotate lncRNAs. We identified 1119 novel lncRNAs and validated and refined 1250 existing annotations. Utilising the collated datasets, we generated evidence-based ranking scores for each annotation and characterised the distinct genomic contexts and features of P. falciparum lncRNAs. Certain features indicated subsets with potential biological significance such as 25 lncRNAs containing multiple introns, 335 lncRNAs lacking mutations in piggyBac mutagenic studies and lncRNAs associated with specific biologic processes including two new types of lncRNAs found proximal to var genes. CONCLUSIONS The insights and the annotation presented in this study will serve as valuable tools for researchers seeking to understand the role of lncRNAs in parasite biology through both bioinformatics and experimental approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Hoshizaki
- grid.52788.300000 0004 0427 7672Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, CB10 1SA UK
| | - Sophie H. Adjalley
- grid.52788.300000 0004 0427 7672Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, CB10 1SA UK ,Micrographia Bio, London, W12 0BZ UK
| | - Vandana Thathy
- grid.4991.50000 0004 1936 8948MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS UK ,grid.239585.00000 0001 2285 2675Present address: Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY10032 USA
| | - Kim Judge
- grid.52788.300000 0004 0427 7672Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, CB10 1SA UK
| | - Matthew Berriman
- grid.52788.300000 0004 0427 7672Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, CB10 1SA UK ,grid.8756.c0000 0001 2193 314XWellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA UK
| | - Adam J. Reid
- grid.52788.300000 0004 0427 7672Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, CB10 1SA UK ,grid.5335.00000000121885934Present address: Wellcome/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QN UK
| | - Marcus C. S. Lee
- grid.52788.300000 0004 0427 7672Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, CB10 1SA UK
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Diffendall GM, Barcons-Simon A, Baumgarten S, Dingli F, Loew D, Scherf A. Discovery of RUF6 ncRNA-interacting proteins involved in P. falciparum immune evasion. Life Sci Alliance 2022; 6:6/1/e202201577. [PMID: 36379669 PMCID: PMC9670795 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202201577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are emerging regulators of immune evasion and transmission of Plasmodium falciparum RUF6 is an ncRNA gene family that is transcribed by RNA polymerase III but actively regulates the Pol II-transcribed var virulence gene family. Understanding how RUF6 ncRNA connects to downstream effectors is lacking. We developed an RNA-directed proteomic discovery (ChIRP-MS) protocol to identify in vivo RUF6 ncRNA-protein interactions. The RUF6 ncRNA interactome was purified with biotinylated antisense oligonucleotides. Quantitative label-free mass spectrometry identified several unique proteins linked to gene transcription including RNA Pol II subunits, nucleosome assembly proteins, and a homologue of DEAD box helicase 5 (DDX5). Affinity purification of Pf-DDX5 identified proteins originally found by our RUF6-ChIRP protocol, validating the technique's robustness for identifying ncRNA interactomes in P. falciparum Inducible displacement of nuclear Pf-DDX5 resulted in significant down-regulation of the active var gene. Our work identifies a RUF6 ncRNA-protein complex that interacts with RNA Pol II to sustain the var gene expression, including a helicase that may resolve G-quadruplex secondary structures in var genes to facilitate transcriptional activation and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gretchen M Diffendall
- Universite Paris Cité, Institut Pasteur, Biology of Host-Parasite Interactions Unit, INSERM U1201, CNRS EMR9195, Paris, France,Sorbonne Université Ecole doctorale Complexité du Vivant ED515, Paris, France
| | - Anna Barcons-Simon
- Universite Paris Cité, Institut Pasteur, Biology of Host-Parasite Interactions Unit, INSERM U1201, CNRS EMR9195, Paris, France,Sorbonne Université Ecole doctorale Complexité du Vivant ED515, Paris, France,Biomedical Center, Division of Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Florent Dingli
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Centre de Recherche, CurieCoreTech Mass Spectrometry Proteomics, Paris, France
| | - Damarys Loew
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Centre de Recherche, CurieCoreTech Mass Spectrometry Proteomics, Paris, France
| | - Artur Scherf
- Universite Paris Cité, Institut Pasteur, Biology of Host-Parasite Interactions Unit, INSERM U1201, CNRS EMR9195, Paris, France
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Transcriptomic complexity of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum revealed by long-read sequencing. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0276956. [PMID: 36331983 PMCID: PMC9635732 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0276956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The Plasmodium falciparum human malaria parasite genome is incompletely annotated and does not accurately represent the transcriptomic diversity of this species. To address this need, we performed long-read transcriptomic sequencing. 5' capped mRNA was enriched from samples of total and nuclear-fractionated RNA from intra-erythrocytic stages and converted to cDNA library. The cDNA libraries were sequenced on PacBio and Nanopore long-read platforms. 12,495 novel isoforms were annotated from the data. Alternative 5' and 3' ends represent the majority of isoform events among the novel isoforms, with retained introns being the next most common event. The majority of alternative 5' ends correspond to genomic regions with features similar to those of the reference transcript 5' ends. However, a minority of alternative 5' ends showed markedly different features, including locations within protein-coding regions. Alternative 3' ends showed similar features to the reference transcript 3' ends, notably adenine-rich termination signals. Distinguishing features of retained introns could not be observed, except for a tendency towards shorter length and greater GC content compared with spliced introns. Expression of antisense and retained intron isoforms was detected at different intra-erythrocytic stages, suggesting developmental regulation of these isoform events. To gain insights into the possible functions of the novel isoforms, their protein-coding potential was assessed. Variants of P. falciparum proteins and novel proteins encoded by alternative open reading frames suggest that P. falciparum has a greater proteomic repertoire than the current annotation. We provide a catalog of annotated transcripts and encoded alternative proteins to support further studies on gene and protein regulation of this pathogen.
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PfSRPK1 Regulates Asexual Blood Stage Schizogony and Is Essential for Male Gamete Formation. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0214122. [PMID: 36094218 PMCID: PMC9602455 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02141-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Serine/arginine-rich protein kinases (SRPKs) are cell cycle-regulated serine/threonine protein kinases and are important regulators of splicing factors. In this study, we functionally characterize SRPK1 of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. P. falciparum SRPK1 (PfSRPK1) was expressed in asexual blood-stage and sexual-stage gametocytes. Pfsrpk1- parasites formed asexual schizonts that generated far fewer merozoites than wild-type parasites, causing reduced replication rates. Pfsrpk1- parasites also showed a severe defect in the differentiation of male gametes, causing a complete block in parasite transmission to mosquitoes. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis of wild-type PfNF54 and Pfsrpk1- stage V gametocytes suggested a role for PfSRPK1 in regulating transcript splicing and transcript abundance of genes coding for (i) microtubule/cilium morphogenesis-related proteins, (ii) proteins involved in cyclic nucleotide metabolic processes, (iii) proteins involved in signaling such as PfMAP2, (iv) lipid metabolism enzymes, (v) proteins of osmophilic bodies, and (vi) crystalloid components. Our study reveals an essential role for PfSRPK1 in parasite cell morphogenesis and suggests this kinase as a target to prevent malaria transmission from humans to mosquitoes. IMPORTANCE Plasmodium sexual stages represent a critical bottleneck in the parasite life cycle. Gametocytes taken up in an infectious blood meal by female anopheline mosquito get activated to form gametes and fuse to form short-lived zygotes, which transform into ookinetes to infect mosquitoes. In the present study, we demonstrate that PfSRPK1 is important for merozoite formation and critical for male gametogenesis and is involved in transcript homeostasis for numerous parasite genes. Targeting PfSRPK1 and its downstream pathways may reduce parasite replication and help achieve effective malaria transmission-blocking strategies.
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Epigenetic and Epitranscriptomic Gene Regulation in Plasmodium falciparum and How We Can Use It against Malaria. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13101734. [PMID: 36292619 PMCID: PMC9601349 DOI: 10.3390/genes13101734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria, caused by Plasmodium parasites, is still one of the biggest global health challenges. P. falciparum is the deadliest species to humans. In this review, we discuss how this parasite develops and adapts to the complex and heterogenous environments of its two hosts thanks to varied chromatin-associated and epigenetic mechanisms. First, one small family of transcription factors, the ApiAP2 proteins, functions as master regulators of spatio-temporal patterns of gene expression through the parasite life cycle. In addition, chromatin plasticity determines variable parasite cell phenotypes that link to parasite growth, virulence and transmission, enabling parasite adaptation within host conditions. In recent years, epitranscriptomics is emerging as a new regulatory layer of gene expression. We present evidence of the variety of tRNA and mRNA modifications that are being characterized in Plasmodium spp., and the dynamic changes in their abundance during parasite development and cell fate. We end up outlining that new biological systems, like the mosquito model, to decipher the unknowns about epigenetic mechanisms in vivo; and novel methodologies, to study the function of RNA modifications; are needed to discover the Achilles heel of the parasite. With this new knowledge, future strategies manipulating the epigenetics and epitranscriptomic machinery of the parasite have the potential of providing new weapons against malaria.
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Portugaliza HP, Natama HM, Guetens P, Rovira-Vallbona E, Somé AM, Millogo A, Ouédraogo DF, Valéa I, Sorgho H, Tinto H, van Hong N, Sitoe A, Varo R, Bassat Q, Cortés A, Rosanas-Urgell A. Plasmodium falciparum sexual conversion rates can be affected by artemisinin-based treatment in naturally infected malaria patients. EBioMedicine 2022; 83:104198. [PMID: 35961203 PMCID: PMC9385555 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2022.104198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
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Highly Variable Expression of Merozoite Surface Protein MSPDBL2 in Diverse Plasmodium falciparum Clinical Isolates and Transcriptome Scans for Correlating Genes. mBio 2022; 13:e0194822. [PMID: 35950755 PMCID: PMC9426457 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01948-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The merozoite surface protein MSPDBL2 of Plasmodium falciparum is under strong balancing selection and is a target of naturally acquired antibodies. Remarkably, MSPDBL2 is expressed in only a minority of mature schizonts of any cultured parasite line, and mspdbl2 gene transcription increases in response to overexpression of the gametocyte development inducer GDV1, so it is important to understand its natural expression. Here, MSPDBL2 in mature schizonts was analyzed in the first ex vivo culture cycle of 96 clinical isolates from 4 populations with various levels of infection endemicity in different West African countries, by immunofluorescence microscopy with antibodies against a conserved region of the protein. In most isolates, less than 1% of mature schizonts were positive for MSPDBL2, but the frequency distribution was highly skewed, as nine isolates had more than 3% schizonts positive and one had 73% positive. To investigate whether the expression of other gene loci correlated with MSPDBL2 expression, whole-transcriptome sequencing was performed on schizont-enriched material from 17 of the isolates with a wide range of proportions of schizonts positive. Transcripts of particular genes were highly significantly positively correlated with MSPDBL2 positivity in schizonts as well as with mspdbl2 gene transcript levels, showing overrepresentation of genes implicated previously as involved in gametocytogenesis but not including the gametocytogenesis master regulator ap2-g. Single-cell transcriptome analysis of a laboratory-adapted clone showed that most individual parasites expressing mspdbl2 did not express ap2-g, consistent with MSPDBL2 marking a developmental subpopulation that is distinct but likely to co-occur alongside sexual commitment. IMPORTANCE These findings contribute to understanding malaria parasite antigenic and developmental variation, focusing on the merozoite surface protein encoded by the single locus under strongest balancing selection. Analyzing the initial ex vivo generation of parasites grown from a wide sample of clinical infections, we show a unique and highly skewed pattern of natural expression frequencies of MSPDBL2, distinct from that of any other antigen. Bulk transcriptome analysis of a range of clinical isolates showed significant overrepresentation of sexual development genes among those positively correlated with MSPDBL2 protein and mspdbl2 gene expression, indicating the MSPDBL2-positive subpopulation to be often coincident with parasites developing sexually in preparation for transmission. Single-cell transcriptome data confirm the absence of a direct correlation with the ap2-g master regulator of sexual development, indicating that the MSPDBL2-positive subpopulation has a separate function in asexual survival and replication under conditions that promote terminal sexual differentiation.
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Functional inactivation of Plasmodium falciparum glycogen synthase kinase GSK3 modulates erythrocyte invasion and blocks gametocyte maturation. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102360. [PMID: 35961464 PMCID: PMC9478393 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is responsible for hundreds of thousands of deaths every year. The lack of an effective vaccine and the global spread of multidrug resistant parasites hampers the fight against the disease and underlines the need for new antimalarial drugs. Central to the pathogenesis of malaria is the proliferation of Plasmodium parasites within human erythrocytes. Parasites invade erythrocytes via a coordinated sequence of receptor–ligand interactions between the parasite and the host cell. Posttranslational modifications such as protein phosphorylation are known to be key regulators in this process and are mediated by protein kinases. For several parasite kinases, including the Plasmodium falciparum glycogen synthase kinase 3 (PfGSK3), inhibitors have been shown to block erythrocyte invasion. Here, we provide an assessment of PfGSK3 function by reverse genetics. Using targeted gene disruption, we show the active gene copy, PfGSK3β, is not essential for asexual blood stage proliferation, although it modulates efficient erythrocyte invasion. We found functional inactivation leads to a 69% decreased growth rate and confirmed this growth defect by rescue experiments with wildtype and catalytically inactive mutants. Functional knockout of PfGSK3β does not lead to transcriptional upregulation of the second copy of PfGSK3. We further analyze expression, localization, and function of PfGSK3β during gametocytogenesis using a parasite line allowing conditional induction of sexual commitment. We demonstrate PfGSK3β-deficient gametocytes show a strikingly malformed morphology leading to the death of parasites in later stages of gametocyte development. Taken together, these findings are important for our understanding and the development of PfGSK3 as an antimalarial target.
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