Intrinsic IL-2 production by effector CD8 T cells affects IL-2 signaling and promotes fate decisions, stemness, and protection

Mannose metabolism reshapes T cell differentiation to enhance anti-tumor immunity

Cellular metabolic status profoundly influences T cell differentiation, persistence, and anti-tumor efficacy. Our single-cell metabolic analyses of T cells reveal that diminished mannose metabolism is a prominent feature of T cell dysfunction. Conversely, experimental augmentation/restoration of mannose metabolism in adoptively transferred T cells via D-mannose supplementation enhances anti-tumor activity and restricts exhaustion differentiation both in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, D-mannose treatment induces intracellular metabolic programming and increases the O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT)-mediated O-GlcNAcylation of β-catenin, which preserves Tcf7 expression and epigenetic stemness, thereby promoting stem-like programs in T cells. Furthermore, in vitro expansion with D-mannose supplementation yields T cell products for adoptive therapy with stemness characteristics, even after extensive long-term expansion, that exhibits enhanced anti-tumor efficacy. These findings reveal cell-intrinsic mannose metabolism as a physiological regulator of CD8+ T cell fate, decoupling proliferation/expansion from differentiation, and underscoring the therapeutic potential of mannose modulation in cancer immunotherapy.

Transient EZH2 Suppression by Tazemetostat during In Vitro Expansion Maintains T-Cell Stemness and Improves Adoptive T-Cell Therapy

The histone methyltransferase enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) plays important roles in T-cell differentiation, proliferation, and function. Previous studies have demonstrated that genetic deletion of EZH2 in CD8+ or total T cells impairs their antiviral and antitumor activities, cytokine production, and ability to expand upon rechallenge. Contrary to the detrimental role of deleting T cell-intrinsic EZH2, in this study, we demonstrated that transient inhibition of EZH2 in T cells prior to the phenotypic onset of exhaustion with a clinically approved inhibitor, tazemetostat (Taz), delayed their dysfunctional progression and preserved T-cell stemness and polyfunctionality but had no negative impact on cell proliferation. Taz-induced T-cell epigenetic reprogramming increased the expression of the self-renewal T-cell transcription factor TCF1 by reducing H3K27 methylation at its promoter preferentially in rapidly dividing T cells. In a murine melanoma model, T cells depleted of EZH2 induced poor tumor control, whereas adoptively transferred T cells pretreated with Taz exhibited superior antitumor immunity, especially when used in combination with anti-PD-1 blockade. Collectively, these data highlight the potential of transient epigenetic reprogramming by EZH2 inhibition to enhance adoptive T-cell immunotherapy.

Transient-resting culture after activation enhances the generation of CD8+ stem cell-like memory T cells from peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Adoptive cell therapy (ACT) has revolutionized the treatment of patients with cancer. The success of ACT depends largely on transferred T cell status, particularly their less-differentiated state with stem cell-like properties, which enhances ACT effectiveness. Stem cell-like memory T (TSCM) cells exhibit continuous self-renewal and multilineage differentiation similar to pluripotent stem cells. TSCM cells are promising candidates for cancer immunotherapies, whereas maintenance of a more stem-cell-like state before transfer is challenging. Here, we established a highly efficient protocol for generating CD8+ TSCM cells from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The process involved activating PBMCs using anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody and RetroNectin, followed by a transient-resting culture period (24 h) and subsequent long-term expansion in vitro with interlukien-2. We report that this transient-resting culture after activation preserves CD8+ T cells in a stem memory phenotype (CD95+ CD45RA+ CCR7+) compared to the conventional culture method. Further, this approach reduces the expression of T cell immunoglobulin mucin-3, an exhaustion marker, and increases the expression of T cell factor-1, a master regulator of stemness even after long-term culture compared to the conventional culture method. In conclusion, our study presents a simplified and cost-effective method for generating and expanding CD8+ TSCM cells ex vivo. This approach streamlines the optimization of cancer immunotherapy using ACT.

Cell Identity and Spatial Distribution of PD-1/PD-L1 Blockade Responders

The programmed death 1 (PD-1)/programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) axis inhibits T cell activity, impairing anti-tumor immunity. Blocking this axis with therapeutic antibodies is one of the most promising anti-tumor immunotherapies. It has long been recognized that PD-1/PD-L1 blockade reinvigorates exhausted T (TEX) cells already present in the tumor microenvironment (TME). However, recent advancements in high-throughput gene sequencing and bioinformatic tools have provided researchers with a more granular and dynamic insight into PD-1/PD-L1 blockade-responding cells, extending beyond the TME and TEX populations. This review provides an update on the cell identity, spatial distribution, and treatment-induced spatiotemporal dynamics of PD-1/PD-L1 blockade responders. It also provides a synopsis of preliminary reports of potential PD-1/PD-L1 blockade responders other than T cells to depict a panoramic picture. Important questions to answer in further studies and the translational and clinical potential of the evolving understandings are also discussed.

Deficiency of metabolic regulator PKM2 activates the pentose phosphate pathway and generates TCF1+ progenitor CD8+ T cells to improve immunotherapy

TCF1high progenitor CD8+ T cells mediate the efficacy of immunotherapy; however, the mechanisms that govern their generation and maintenance are poorly understood. Here, we show that targeting glycolysis through deletion of pyruvate kinase muscle 2 (PKM2) results in elevated pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) activity, leading to enrichment of a TCF1high progenitor-exhausted-like phenotype and increased responsiveness to PD-1 blockade in vivo. PKM2KO CD8+ T cells showed reduced glycolytic flux, accumulation of glycolytic intermediates and PPP metabolites and increased PPP cycling as determined by 1,2-13C glucose carbon tracing. Small molecule agonism of the PPP without acute glycolytic impairment skewed CD8+ T cells toward a TCF1high population, generated a unique transcriptional landscape and adoptive transfer of agonist-treated CD8+ T cells enhanced tumor control in mice in combination with PD-1 blockade and promoted tumor killing in patient-derived tumor organoids. Our study demonstrates a new metabolic reprogramming that contributes to a progenitor-like T cell state promoting immunotherapy efficacy.

Interruption of the intratumor CD8+ T cell:Treg crosstalk improves the efficacy of PD-1 immunotherapy

PD-1 blockade unleashes potent antitumor activity in CD8+ T cells but can also promote immunosuppressive T regulatory (Treg) cells, which may worsen the response to immunotherapy. Tumor-Treg inhibition is a promising strategy to improve the efficacy of checkpoint blockade immunotherapy; however, our understanding of the mechanisms supporting tumor-Tregs during PD-1 immunotherapy is incomplete. Here, we show that PD-1 blockade increases tumor-Tregs in mouse models of melanoma and metastatic melanoma patients. Mechanistically, Treg accumulation is not caused by Treg-intrinsic inhibition of PD-1 signaling but depends on an indirect effect of activated CD8+ T cells. CD8+ T cells produce IL-2 and colocalize with Tregs in mouse and human melanomas. IL-2 upregulates the anti-apoptotic protein ICOS on tumor-Tregs, promoting their accumulation. Inhibition of ICOS signaling before PD-1 immunotherapy improves control over immunogenic melanoma. Thus, interrupting the intratumor CD8+ T cell:Treg crosstalk represents a strategy to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of PD-1 immunotherapy.

An Omicron-specific, self-amplifying mRNA booster vaccine for COVID-19: a phase 2/3 randomized trial

Here we conducted a multicenter open-label, randomized phase 2 and 3 study to assess the safety and immunogenicity of a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Omicron-specific (BA.1/B.1.1.529), monovalent, thermostable, self-amplifying mRNA vaccine, GEMCOVAC-OM, when administered intradermally as a booster in healthy adults who had received two doses of BBV152 or ChAdOx1 nCoV-19. GEMCOVAC-OM was well tolerated with no related serious adverse events in both phase 2 and phase 3. In phase 2, the safety and immunogenicity of GEMCOVAC-OM was compared with our prototype mRNA vaccine GEMCOVAC-19 (D614G variant-specific) in 140 participants. At day 29 after vaccination, there was a significant rise in anti-spike (BA.1) IgG antibodies with GEMCOVAC-OM (P < 0.0001) and GEMCOVAC-19 (P < 0.0001). However, the IgG titers (primary endpoint) and seroconversion were higher with GEMCOVAC-OM (P < 0.0001). In phase 3, GEMCOVAC-OM was compared with ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 in 3,140 participants (safety cohort), which included an immunogenicity cohort of 420 participants. At day 29, neutralizing antibody titers against the BA.1 variant of SARS-CoV-2 were significantly higher than baseline in the GEMCOVAC-OM arm (P < 0.0001), but not in the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 arm (P = 0.1490). GEMCOVAC-OM was noninferior (primary endpoint) and superior to ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 in terms of neutralizing antibody titers and seroconversion rate (lower bound 95% confidence interval of least square geometric mean ratio >1 and difference in seroconversion >0% for superiority). At day 29, anti-spike IgG antibodies and seroconversion (secondary endpoints) were significantly higher with GEMCOVAC-OM (P < 0.0001). These results demonstrate that GEMCOVAC-OM is safe and boosts immune responses against the B.1.1.529 variant. Clinical Trial Registry India identifier: CTRI/2022/10/046475 .

Exogenous IL-2 delays memory precursors generation and is essential for enhancing memory cells effector functions

To investigate the impact of paracrine IL-2 signals on memory precursor (MP) cell differentiation, we activated CD8 T cell in vitro in the presence or absence of exogenous IL-2 (ex-IL-2). We assessed memory differentiation by transferring these cells into virus-infected mice. Both conditions generated CD8 T cells that participate in the ongoing response and gave rise to similar memory cells. Nevertheless, when transferred into a naive host, T cells activated with ex-IL-2 generated a higher frequency of memory cells displaying increased functional memory traits. Single-cell RNA-seq analysis indicated that without ex-IL-2, cells rapidly acquire an MP signature, while in its presence they adopted an effector signature. This was confirmed at the protein level and in a functional assay. Overall, ex-IL-2 delays the transition into MP cells, allowing the acquisition of effector functions that become imprinted in their progeny. These findings may help to optimize the generation of therapeutic T cells.

Sustained AhR activity programs memory fate of early effector CD8+ T cells

Identification of mechanisms that program early effector T cells to either terminal effector T (Teff) or memory T (Tm) cells has important implications for protective immunity against infections and cancers. Here, we show that the cytosolic transcription factor aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is used by early Teff cells to program memory fate. Upon antigen engagement, AhR is rapidly up-regulated via reactive oxygen species signaling in early CD8+ Teff cells, which does not affect the effector response, but is required for memory formation. Mechanistically, activated CD8+ T cells up-regulate HIF-1α to compete with AhR for HIF-1β, leading to the loss of AhR activity in HIF-1αhigh short-lived effector cells, but sustained in HIF-1αlow memory precursor effector cells (MPECs) with the help of autocrine IL-2. AhR then licenses CD8+ MPECs in a quiescent state for memory formation. These findings partially resolve the long-standing issue of how Teff cells are regulated to differentiate into memory cells.

Interleukin-2 signaling in the regulation of T cell biology in autoimmunity and cancer

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is a critical cytokine for T cell peripheral tolerance and immunity. Here, we review how IL-2 interaction with the high-affinity IL-2 receptor (IL-2R) supports the development and homeostasis of regulatory T cells and contributes to the differentiation of helper, cytotoxic, and memory T cells. A critical element for each T cell population is the expression of CD25 (Il2rα), which heightens the receptor affinity for IL-2. Signaling through the high-affinity IL-2R also reinvigorates CD8+ exhausted T (Tex) cells in response to checkpoint blockade. We consider the molecular underpinnings reflecting how IL-2R signaling impacts these various T cell subsets and the implications for enhancing IL-2-dependent immunotherapy of autoimmunity, other inflammatory disorders, and cancer.

CD81 and CD82 expressing tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in the NSCLC tumor microenvironment play a crucial role in T-cell activation and cytokine production

Introduction

To understand the immune system within the tumor microenvironment (TME) of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), it is crucial to elucidate the characteristics of molecules associated with T cell activation.

Methods

We conducted an in-depth analysis using single-cell RNA sequencing data obtained from tissue samples of 19 NSCLC patients. T cells were classified based on the Tumor Proportion Score (TPS) within the tumor region, and molecular markers associated with activation and exhaustion were analyzed in T cells from high TPS areas.

Results

Notably, tetraspanins CD81 and CD82, belonging to the tetraspanin protein family, were found to be expressed in activated T cells, particularly in cytotoxic T cells. These tetraspanins showed strong correlations with activation and exhaustion markers. In vitro experiments confirmed increased expression of CD81 and CD82 in IL-2-stimulated T cells. T cells were categorized into CD81highCD82high and CD81lowCD82low groups based on their expression levels, with CD81highCD82high T cells exhibiting elevated activation markers such as CD25 and CD69 compared to CD81lowCD82low T cells. This trend was consistent across CD3+, CD8+, and CD4+ T cell subsets. Moreover, CD81highCD82high T cells, when stimulated with anti-CD3, demonstrated enhanced secretion of cytokines such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-2, along with an increase in the proportion of memory T cells. Bulk RNA sequencing results after sorting CD81highCD82high and CD81lowCD82low T cells consistently supported the roles of CD81 and CD82. Experiments with overexpressed CD81 and CD82 showed increased cytotoxicity against target cells.

Discussion

These findings highlight the multifaceted roles of CD81 and CD82 in T cell activation, cytokine production, memory subset accumulation, and target cell cytolysis. Therefore, these findings suggest the potential of CD81 and CD82 as promising candidates for co-stimulatory molecules in immune therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment within the intricate TME.

Cytokine signaling in chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy

Adoptive immunotherapy using chimeric antigen-receptor (CAR)-engineered T cells can induce robust antitumor responses against hematologic malignancies. However, its efficacy is not durable in the majority of the patients, warranting further improvement of T-cell functions. Cytokine signaling is one of the key cascades regulating T-cell survival and effector functions. In addition to cytokines that use the common γ chain as a receptor subunit, multiple cytokines regulate T-cell functions directly or indirectly. Modulating cytokine signaling in CAR-T cells by genetic engineering is one promising strategy to augment their therapeutic efficacy. These strategies include ectopic expression of cytokines, cytokine receptors, and synthetic molecules that mimic endogenous cytokine signaling. Alternatively, autocrine IL-2 signaling can be augmented through reprogramming of CAR-T cell properties through transcriptional and epigenetic modification. On the other hand, cytokine production by CAR-T cells triggers systemic inflammatory responses, which mainly manifest as adverse events such as cytokine-release syndrome (CRS) and neurotoxicity. In addition to inhibiting direct inflammatory mediators such as IL-6 and IL-1 released from activated macrophages, suppression of T-cell-derived cytokines associated with the priming of macrophages can be accomplished through genetic modification of CAR-T cells. In this review, I will outline recently developed synthetic biology approaches to exploit cytokine signaling to enhance CAR-T cell functions. I will also discuss therapeutic target molecules to prevent or alleviate CAR-T cell-related toxicities.

Per-cell histone acetylation is associated with terminal differentiation in human T cells

BACKGROUND

Epigenetic remodeling at effector gene loci has been reported to be critical in regulating T cell differentiation and function. However, efforts to investigate underlying epigenetic mechanisms that control T cell behaviors have been largely hindered by very limited experimental tools, especially in humans.

RESULTS

In this study, we employed a flow cytometric assay to analyze histone acetylation at single-cell level in human T cells. The data showed that histone acetylation was increased during T cell activation. Among T cell subsets, terminally differentiated effector memory T (TEMRA) cells robustly producing effector cytokines were hyper-acetylated. Conversely, these TEMRA cells had lower expression levels of TCF-1, a key transcription factor for maintaining stem cell features. Pharmaceutical inhibition of histone acetylation using a small molecule C646 restrained the production of effector molecules, but retained stem cell-like properties in T cells after expansion.

CONCLUSIONS

Per-cell histone acetylation is associated with terminal differentiation and poor stemness in human T cells. These observations suggest a new approach to enhance the stem cell-like properties of T cells and improve the efficacy of immunotherapy.

Naturally occurring T cell mutations enhance engineered T cell therapies

Adoptive T cell therapies have produced exceptional responses in a subset of patients with cancer. However, therapeutic efficacy can be hindered by poor T cell persistence and function1. In human T cell cancers, evolution of the disease positively selects for mutations that improve fitness of T cells in challenging situations analogous to those faced by therapeutic T cells. Therefore, we reasoned that these mutations could be co-opted to improve T cell therapies. Here we systematically screened the effects of 71 mutations from T cell neoplasms on T cell signalling, cytokine production and in vivo persistence in tumours. We identify a gene fusion, CARD11-PIK3R3, found in a CD4+ cutaneous T cell lymphoma2, that augments CARD11-BCL10-MALT1 complex signalling and anti-tumour efficacy of therapeutic T cells in several immunotherapy-refractory models in an antigen-dependent manner. Underscoring its potential to be deployed safely, CARD11-PIK3R3-expressing cells were followed up to 418 days after T cell transfer in vivo without evidence of malignant transformation. Collectively, our results indicate that exploiting naturally occurring mutations represents a promising approach to explore the extremes of T cell biology and discover how solutions derived from evolution of malignant T cells can improve a broad range of T cell therapies.

Optimising IL-2 for Cancer Immunotherapy

The key role of T cells in cancer immunotherapy is well established and is highlighted by the remarkable capacity of Ab-mediated checkpoint blockade to overcome T-cell exhaustion and amplify anti-tumor responses. However, total or partial tumor remission following checkpoint blockade is still limited to only a few types of tumors. Hence, concerted attempts are being made to devise new methods for improving tumor immunity. Currently, much attention is being focused on therapy with IL-2. This cytokine is a powerful growth factor for T cells and optimises their effector functions. When used at therapeutic doses for cancer treatment, however, IL-2 is highly toxic. Nevertheless, recent work has shown that modifying the structure or presentation of IL-2 can reduce toxicity and lead to effective anti-tumor responses in synergy with checkpoint blockade. Here, we review the complex interaction of IL-2 with T cells: first during normal homeostasis, then during responses to pathogens, and finally in anti-tumor responses.

The lncRNA Malat1 inhibits miR-15/16 to enhance cytotoxic T cell activation and memory cell formation

Proper activation of cytotoxic T cells via the T cell receptor and the costimulatory receptor CD28 is essential for adaptive immunity against viruses, intracellular bacteria, and cancers. Through biochemical analysis of RNA:protein interactions, we uncovered a non-coding RNA circuit regulating activation and differentiation of cytotoxic T cells composed of the long non-coding RNA Malat1 (Metastasis Associated Lung Adenocarcinoma Transcript 1) and the microRNA family miR-15/16. miR-15/16 is a widely and highly expressed tumor suppressor miRNA family important for cell proliferation and survival. miR-15/16 play important roles in T cell responses to viral infection, including the regulation of antigen-specific T cell expansion and memory. Comparative Argonaute-2 high-throughput sequencing of crosslinking immunoprecipitation (AHC) combined with gene expression profiling in normal and miR-15/16-deficient mouse T cells revealed a large network of hundreds of direct miR-15/16 target mRNAs, many with functional relevance for T cell activation, survival and memory formation. Among these targets, Malat1 contained the largest absolute magnitude miR-15/16-dependent AHC peak. This binding site was among the strongest lncRNA:miRNA interactions detected in the T cell transcriptome. We used CRISPR targeting with homology directed repair to generate mice with a 5-nucleotide mutation in the miR-15/16-binding site in Malat1. This mutation interrupted Malat1:miR-15/16 interaction, and enhanced the repression of other miR-15/16 target genes, including CD28. Interrupting Malat1 interaction with miR-15/16 decreased cytotoxic T cell activation, including the expression of interleukin 2 (IL-2) and a broader CD28-responsive gene program. Accordingly, Malat1 mutation diminished memory cell persistence in mice following LCMV Armstrong and Listeria monocytogenes infection. This study marks a significant advance in the study of long non-coding RNAs in the immune system by ascribing cell-intrinsic, sequence-specific in vivo function to Malat1. These findings have implications for T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases, antiviral and anti-tumor immunity, as well as lung adenocarcinoma and other malignancies where Malat1 is overexpressed.

SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination-induced immunological memory in human nonlymphoid and lymphoid tissues

Tissue-resident lymphocytes provide organ-adapted protection against invading pathogens. Whereas their biology has been examined in great detail in various infection models, their generation and functionality in response to vaccination have not been comprehensively analyzed in humans. We therefore studied SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine-specific T cells in surgery specimens of kidney, liver, lung, bone marrow, and spleen compared with paired blood samples from largely virus-naive individuals. As opposed to lymphoid tissues, nonlymphoid organs harbored significantly elevated frequencies of spike-specific CD4+ T cells compared with blood showing hallmarks of tissue residency and an expanded memory pool. Organ-derived CD4+ T cells further exhibited increased polyfunctionality over those detected in blood. Single-cell RNA-Seq together with T cell receptor repertoire analysis indicated that the clonotype rather than organ origin is a major determinant of transcriptomic state in vaccine-specific CD4+ T cells. In summary, our data demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2 vaccination entails acquisition of tissue memory and residency features in organs distant from the inoculation site, thereby contributing to our understanding of how local tissue protection might be accomplished.

Deletion of the protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPN22 for adoptive T cell therapy facilitates CTL effector function but promotes T cell exhaustion

BACKGROUND

Adoptive cell therapy (ACT) is a promising strategy for treating cancer, yet it faces several challenges such as lack of long-term protection due to T cell exhaustion induced by chronic TCR stimulation in the tumor microenvironment. One benefit of ACT, however, is that it allows for cellular manipulations, such as deletion of the phosphotyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 22 (PTPN22), which improves CD8+ T cell antitumor efficacy in ACT. We tested whether Ptpn22KO cytolytic T cells (CTLs) were also more effective than Ptpn22WT CTL in controlling tumors in scenarios that favor T cell exhaustion.

METHODS

Tumor control by Ptpn22WT and Ptpn22KO CTL was assessed following adoptive transfer of low numbers of CTL to mice with subcutaneously implanted MC38 tumors. Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes were isolated for analysis of effector functions. An in vitro assay was established to compare CTL function in response to acute and chronic restimulation with antigen-pulsed tumor cells. The expression of effector and exhaustion-associated proteins by Ptpn22WT and Ptpn22KO T cells was followed over time in vitro and in vivo using the ID8 tumor model. Finally, the effect of PD-1 and TIM-3 blockade on Ptpn22KO CTL tumor control was assessed using monoclonal antibodies and CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout.

RESULTS

Despite having improved effector function at the time of transfer, Ptpn22KO CTL became more exhausted than Ptpn22WT CTL, characterized by more rapid loss of effector functions, and earlier and higher expression of inhibitory receptors (IRs), particularly the terminal exhaustion marker TIM-3. TIM-3 expression, under the control of the transcription factor NFIL3, was induced by IL-2 signaling which was enhanced in Ptpn22KO cells. Antitumor responses of Ptpn22KO CTL were improved following PD-1 blockade in vivo, yet knockout or antibody-mediated blockade of TIM-3 did not improve but further impaired tumor control, indicating TIM-3 signaling itself did not drive the diminished function seen in Ptpn22KO CTL.

CONCLUSIONS

This study questions whether TIM-3 plays a role as an IR and highlights that genetic manipulation of T cells for ACT needs to balance short-term augmented effector function against the risk of T cell exhaustion in order to achieve longer-term protection.

New insights into the stemness of adoptively transferred T cells by γc family cytokines

T cell-based adoptive cell therapy (ACT) has exhibited excellent antitumoral efficacy exemplified by the clinical breakthrough of chimeric antigen receptor therapy (CAR-T) in hematologic malignancies. It relies on the pool of functional T cells to retain the developmental potential to serially kill targeted cells. However, failure in the continuous supply and persistence of functional T cells has been recognized as a critical barrier to sustainable responses. Conferring stemness on infused T cells, yielding stem cell-like memory T cells (TSCM) characterized by constant self-renewal and multilineage differentiation similar to pluripotent stem cells, is indeed necessary and promising for enhancing T cell function and sustaining antitumor immunity. Therefore, it is crucial to identify TSCM cell induction regulators and acquire more TSCM cells as resource cells during production and after infusion to improve antitumoral efficacy. Recently, four common cytokine receptor γ chain (γc) family cytokines, encompassing interleukin-2 (IL-2), IL-7, IL-15, and IL-21, have been widely used in the development of long-lived adoptively transferred TSCM in vitro. However, challenges, including their non-specific toxicities and off-target effects, have led to substantial efforts for the development of engineered versions to unleash their full potential in the induction and maintenance of T cell stemness in ACT. In this review, we summarize the roles of the four γc family cytokines in the orchestration of adoptively transferred T cell stemness, introduce their engineered versions that modulate TSCM cell formation and demonstrate the potential of their various combinations. Video Abstract.

Ascomylactam C Induces an Immunogenic Cell Death Signature via Mitochondria-Associated ER Stress in Lung Cancer and Melanoma

Ascomylactam C (AsC) is a new 13-membered-ring macrocyclic alkaloid, which was first isolated and identified in 2019 from the secondary metabolites of the mangrove endophytic fungus Didymella sp. CYSK-4 in the South China Sea. AsC has been found to have a broad-spectrum cytotoxic activity. However, the antitumor effects in vivo and mechanisms of AsC remain unclear. The aim of this study was to describe the effects of AsC on lung cancer and melanoma cells and to explore the antitumor molecular mechanism of AsC. In vitro, we used plate colony formation experiments and demonstrated the ability of AsC to inhibit low-density tumor growth. An Annexin V/PI cell apoptosis detection experiment revealed that AsC induced tumor cell apoptosis. In vivo, AsC suppressed the tumor growth of LLC and B16F10 allograft significantly in mice, and promoted the infiltration of CD4+ T and CD8+ T cells in tumor tissues. Mechanistically, by analyses of Western blotting, immunofluorescence and ELISA analysis, we found that AsC increased ROS formation, induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, activated the protein kinase RNA-like ER kinase (PERK)/eukaryotic translation initiation factor (eIF2α)/activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4)/C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) signaling pathway, and induced immunogenic cell death (ICD) of tumor cells. Our results suggest that AsC may be a potentially promising antitumor drug candidate.

The effect of varicella-zoster virus reactivation on the long-term outcomes of patients undergoing allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

BACKGROUND

A virus infection may lead the body to produce more immune cells of particular types or stimulate the production of new ones, both of which may have anti-leukemic effects. There has been no research on whether immune cells stimulated by varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection have anti-leukemic effects. The objective of this investigation is to assess the impact of VZV infection on patients' long-term survival following allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT).

METHODS

This retrospective study investigated the association between varicella-zoster virus (VZV) reactivation and outcomes in 219 individuals who received allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) at the Sun Yat-sen University's First Affiliated Hospital. According to being diagnosed with VZV infection or not, these patients were grouped into two groups. The comparison of cumulative incidence of relapse, non-recurrent mortality, and overall survival (OS) was conducted between the two groups.

RESULTS

Analyzing multivariate data, VZV reactivation was linked to lower relapse incidence in the group containing all individuals (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.27; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.12-0.64), patients suffering from acute myeloid leukaemia (HR = 0.10; 95% CI, 0.01-0.83), and patients suffering from acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (HR = 0.25; 95% CI, 0.08-0.77). Moreover, VZV reactivation was linked with decreased non-relapse mortality in all individuals (HR = 0.20; 95% CI, 0.05-0.79), but no statistical significance was found for any disease subgroup. Further, VZV reactivation was an independent predictor for improved OS in the group containing all individuals (HR = 0.10; 95% CI, 0.03-0.29), patients suffering from acute myeloid leukaemia (HR = 0.09; 95% CI, 0.01-0.66), and patients suffering from acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (HR = 0.16; 95% CI, 0.04-0.68).

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to show that VZV reactivation following allo-HSCT is an independent predictor for lower relapse rates and improved OS, providing novel therapeutic approaches to improve patients' long-term survival following allo-HSCT.

Deficiency of metabolic regulator PKM2 activates the pentose phosphate pathway and generates TCF1+ progenitor CD8+ T cells to improve checkpoint blockade

TCF1high progenitor CD8+ T cells mediate the efficacy of PD-1 blockade, however the mechanisms that govern their generation and maintenance are poorly understood. Here, we show that targeting glycolysis through deletion of pyruvate kinase muscle 2 (PKM2) results in elevated pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) activity, leading to enrichment of a TCF1high central memory-like phenotype and increased responsiveness to PD-1 blockade in vivo. PKM2KO CD8+ T cells showed reduced glycolytic flux, accumulation of glycolytic intermediates and PPP metabolites, and increased PPP cycling as determined by 1,2 13C glucose carbon tracing. Small molecule agonism of the PPP without acute glycolytic impairment skewed CD8+ T cells towards a TCF1high population, generated a unique transcriptional landscape, enhanced tumor control in mice in combination with PD-1 blockade, and promoted tumor killing in patient-derived tumor organoids. Our study demonstrates a new metabolic reprogramming that contributes to a progenitor-like T cell state amenable to checkpoint blockade.

The lncRNA Malat1 Inhibits miR-15/16 to Enhance Cytotoxic T Cell Activation and Memory Cell Formation

Proper activation of cytotoxic T cells via the T cell receptor and the costimulatory receptor CD28 is essential for adaptive immunity against viruses, many intracellular bacteria and cancers. Through biochemical analysis of RNA:protein interactions, we uncovered a non-coding RNA circuit regulating activation and differentiation of cytotoxic T cells composed of the long non-coding RNA Malat1 (Metastasis Associated Lung Adenocarcinoma Transcript 1) and the microRNA family miR-15/16. miR-15/16 is a widely and highly expressed tumor suppressor miRNA family important for cell proliferation and survival. miR-15/16 also play important roles in T cell responses to viral infection, including the regulation of antigen-specific T cell expansion and T cell memory. Comparative Argonaute-2 high throughput sequencing of crosslinking immunoprecipitation (Ago2 HITS-CLIP, or AHC) combined with gene expression profiling in normal and miR-15/16-deficient T cells revealed a large network of several hundred direct miR-15/16 target mRNAs, many with functional relevance for T cell activation, survival and memory formation. Among these targets, the long non-coding RNA Malat1 contained the largest absolute magnitude miR-15/16-dependent AHC peak in T cells. This binding site was also among the strongest lncRNA:miRNA interactions detected in the T cell transcriptome. We used CRISPR targeting with homology directed repair to generate mice with a 5-nucleotide mutation in the miR-15/16 binding site in Malat1. This mutation interrupted Malat1:miR-15/16 interaction, and enhanced the repression of other miR-15/16 target genes, including CD28. Interrupting Malat1 interaction with miR-15/16 decreased cytotoxic T cell activation, including the expression of IL-2 and a broader CD28-responsive gene program. Accordingly, Malat1 mutation diminished memory cell persistence following LCMV Armstrong and Listeria monocytogenes infection. This study marks a significant advance in the study of long noncoding RNAs in the immune system by ascribing cell-intrinsic, sequence-specific in vivo function to Malat1. These findings have implications for T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases, antiviral and anti-tumor immunity, as well as lung adenocarcinoma and other malignancies where Malat1 is overexpressed.

IL-12 and IL-27 Promote CD39 Expression on CD8+ T Cells and Differentially Regulate the CD39+CD8+ T Cell Phenotype

Tumor-specific CD8+ T cells are critical components of antitumor immunity; however, factors that modulate their phenotype and function have not been completely elucidated. Cytokines IL-12 and IL-27 have recognized roles in promoting CD8+ T cells' effector function and mediated antitumor responses. Tumor-specific CD8+ tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) can be identified based on surface expression of CD39, whereas bystander CD8+ TILs do not express this enzyme. It is currently unclear how and why tumor-specific CD8+ T cells uniquely express CD39. Given the important roles of IL-12 and IL-27 in promoting CD8+ T cell functionality, we investigated whether these cytokines could modulate CD39 expression on these cells. Using in vitro stimulation assays, we identified that murine splenic CD8+ T cells differentially upregulate CD39 in the presence of IL-12 and IL-27. Subsequently, we assessed the exhaustion profile of IL-12- and IL-27-induced CD39+CD8+ T cells. Despite the greatest frequency of exhausted CD39+CD8+ T cells after activation with IL-12, as demonstrated by the coexpression of TIM-3+PD-1+LAG-3+ and reduced degranulation capacity, these cells retained the ability to produce IFN-γ. IL-27-induced CD39+CD8+ T cells expressed PD-1 but did not exhibit a terminally exhausted phenotype. IL-27 was able to attenuate IL-12-mediated inhibitory receptor expression on CD39+CD8+ T cells but did not rescue degranulation ability. Using an immunogenic neuro-2a mouse model, inhibiting IL-12 activity reduced CD39+CD8+ TIL frequency compared with controls without changing the overall CD8+ TIL frequency. These results provide insight into immune regulators of CD39 expression on CD8+ T cells and further highlight the differential impact of CD39-inducing factors on the phenotype and effector functions of CD8+ T cells.

Transient EZH2 suppression by Tazemetostat during in vitro expansion maintains T cell stemness and improves adoptive T cell therapy

The histone methyltransferase enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2)-mediated epigenetic regulation of T cell differentiation in acute infection has been extensively investigated. However, the role of EZH2 in T cell exhaustion remains under-explored. Here, using in vitro exhaustion models, we demonstrated that transient inhibition of EZH2 in T cells before the phenotypic onset of exhaustion with a clinically approved inhibitor, Tazemetastat, delayed their dysfunctional progression and maintained T cell stemness and polyfunctionality while having no negative impact on cell proliferation. Tazemetestat induced T cell epigenetic reprogramming and increased the expression of the self-renewing T cell transcription factor TCF1 by reducing its promoter H3K27 methylation preferentially in rapidly dividing T cells. In a murine melanoma model, T cells pre-treated with tazemetastat exhibited a superior response to anti-PD-1 blockade therapy after adoptive transfer. Collectively, these data unveil the potential of transient epigenetic reprogramming as a potential intervention to be combined with checkpoint blockade for immune therapy.

Depletion of polyfunctional CD26highCD8+ T cells repertoire in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

BACKGROUND

CD8⁺ T cells play an essential role against tumors but the role of human CD8⁺CD26⁺ T cell subset against tumors, in particular, haematological cancers such as chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) remains unknown. Although CD4⁺CD26^high T cells are considered for adoptive cancer immunotherapy, the role of CD8⁺CD26⁺ T cells is ill-defined. Therefore, further studies are required to better determine the role of CD8⁺CD26⁺ T cells in solid tumors and haematological cancers.

METHODS

We studied 55 CLL and 44 age-sex-matched healthy controls (HCs). The expression of CD26 on different T cell subsets (e.g. naïve, memory, effector, and etc.) was analyzed. Also, functional properties of CD8⁺CD26⁺ and CD8⁺CD26^- T cells were evaluated. Finally, the plasma cytokine/chemokine and Galectin-9 (Gal-9) levels were examined.

RESULTS

CD26 expression identifies three CD8⁺ T cell subsets with distinct immunological properties. While CD26^negCD8⁺ T cells are mainly transitional, effector memory and effectors, CD26^lowCD8⁺ T cells are mainly naïve, stem cell, and central memory but CD26^high T cells are differentiated to transitional and effector memory. CD26⁺CD8⁺ T cells are significantly reduced in CLL patients versus HCs. CD26^high cells are enriched with Mucosal Associated Invariant T (MAIT) cells co-expressing CD161TVα7.2 and IL-18Rα. Also, CD26^high cells have a rich chemokine receptor profile (e.g. CCR5 and CCR6), profound cytokine (TNF-α, IFN-γ, and IL-2), and cytolytic molecules (Granzyme B, K, and perforin) expression upon stimulation. CD26^high and CD26^low T cells exhibit significantly lower frequencies of CD160, 2B4, TIGIT, ICOS, CD39, and PD-1 but higher levels of CD27, CD28, and CD73 versus CD26^neg cells. To understand the mechanism linked to CD26^high depletion, we found that malignant B cells by shedding Galectin-9 (Gal-9) contribute to the elevation of plasma Gal-9 in CLL patients. In turn, Gal-9 and the inflammatory milieu (IL-18, IL-12, and IL-15) in CLL patients contribute to increased apoptosis of CD26^high T cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that CD26⁺ T cells possess a natural polyfunctionality to traffic and exhibit effector functions and resist exhaustion. Therefore, they can be proposed for adoptive cancer immunotherapy. Finally, neutralizing and/or inhibiting Gal-9 may preserve CD26^highCD8⁺ T cells in CLL.

From thymus to tissues and tumors: A review of T-cell biology

T cells are critical orchestrators of the adaptive immune response that optimally eliminate a specific pathogen. Aberrant T-cell development and function are implicated in a broad range of human disease including immunodeficiencies, autoimmune diseases, and allergic diseases. Accordingly, therapies targeting T cells and their effector cytokines have markedly improved the care of patients with immune dysregulatory diseases. Newer discoveries concerning T-cell-mediated antitumor immunity and T-cell exhaustion have further prompted development of highly effective and novel treatment modalities for malignancies, including checkpoint inhibitors and antigen-reactive T cells. Recent discoveries are also uncovering the depth and variability of T-cell phenotypes: while T cells have long been described using a subset-based classification system, next-generation sequencing technologies suggest an astounding degree of complexity and heterogeneity at the single-cell level.

Liver-resident memory T cells: life in lockdown

A subset of memory T cells has been identified in the liver with a tissue-resident profile and the capacity for long-term 'lockdown'. Here we review how they are retained in, and adapted to, the hepatic microenvironment, including its unique anatomical features and metabolic challenges. We describe potential interactions with other local cell types and the need for a better understanding of this complex bidirectional crosstalk. Pathogen or tumour antigen-specific tissue-resident memory T cells (T_RM) can provide rapid frontline immune surveillance; we review the evidence for this in hepatotropic infections of major worldwide importance like hepatitis B and malaria and in liver cancers like hepatocellular carcinoma. Conversely, T_RM can be triggered by pro-inflammatory and metabolic signals to mediate bystander tissue damage, with an emerging role in a number of liver pathologies. We discuss the need for liver sampling to gain a window into these compartmentalised T cells, allowing more accurate disease monitoring and future locally targeted immunotherapies.

Aging induces severe SIV infection accompanied by an increase in follicular CD8+ T cells with overactive STAT3 signaling

The number of elderly people living with HIV is increasing globally, and the condition of this population is relatively complicated due to the dual effects of aging and HIV infection. However, the impact of HIV infection combined with aging on the immune homeostasis of secondary lymphoid organs remains unclear. Here, we used the simian immunodeficiency virus mac239 (SIVmac239) strain to infect six young and six old Chinese rhesus macaques (ChRMs) and compared the infection characteristics of the two groups in the chronic stage through multiplex immunofluorescence staining of lymph nodes. The results showed that the SIV production and CD4/CD8 ratio inversion in old ChRMs were more severe than those in young ChRMs in both the peripheral blood and the lymph nodes, especially when a large number of CD8+ T cells infiltrated the follicles and germinal centers. STAT3 in these follicular CXCR5+CD8+ T cells was highly activated, with high expression of granzyme B, which might be caused by the severe inflammatory milieu in the follicles of old ChRMs. This study indicates that aging may be a cofactor involved in SIV-induced immune disorders in secondary lymphoid tissues, affecting the effective antiviral activity of highly enriched follicular CXCR5+CD8+ cells.