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El-Shoura EAM, Abdelzaher LA, Mahmoud NI, Farghaly OA, Sabry M, Girgis Shahataa M, Salem EA, Saad HM, Elhussieny O, Kozman MR, Atwa AM. Combined sulforaphane and β-sitosterol mitigate olanzapine-induced metabolic disorders in rats: Insights on FOXO, PI3K/AKT, JAK/STAT3, and MAPK signaling pathways. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 140:112904. [PMID: 39116489 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2024.112904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2024] [Revised: 07/27/2024] [Accepted: 08/05/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024]
Abstract
One of the best antipsychotics for treating schizophrenia and bipolar disorders is olanzapine (OLA). However, its use is restricted owing to unfavorable adverse effects as liver damage, dyslipidemia, and weight gain. The primary objective of the present investigation was to examine the signaling mechanisms that underlie the metabolic disruption generated by OLA. Besides, the potential protective effect of sulforaphane (SFN) and β-sitosterol (βSS) against obesity and metabolic toxicity induced by OLA were inspected as well. A total of five groups of male Wistar rats were established, including the control, OLA, SFN+OLA, βSS+OLA, and the combination + OLA groups. Hepatic histopathology, biochemical analyses, ultimate body weights, liver function, oxidative stress, and pro-inflammatory cytokines were evaluated. In addition to the relative expression of FOXO, the signaling pathways for PI3K/AKT, JAK/STAT3, and MAPK were assessed as well. All biochemical and hepatic histopathological abnormalities caused by OLA were alleviated by SFN and/or βSS. A substantial decrease in systolic blood pressure (SBP), proinflammatory cytokines, serum lipid profile parameters, hepatic MDA, TBIL, AST, and ALT were reduced through SFN or/and βSS. To sum up, the detrimental effects of OLA are mediated by alterations in the Akt/FOXO3a/ATG12, Ras/SOS2/Raf-1/MEK/ERK1/2, and Smad3,4/TGF-β signaling pathways. The administration of SFN and/or βSS has the potential to mitigate the metabolic deficit, biochemical imbalances, hepatic histological abnormalities, and the overall unfavorable consequences induced by OLA by modulating the abovementioned signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehab A M El-Shoura
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University, Assiut Branch, Assiut 71524, Egypt.
| | - Lobna A Abdelzaher
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Nesreen I Mahmoud
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Nahda University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Omar A Farghaly
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University, Assiut Branch, Egypt
| | - Mostafa Sabry
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University, Assiut Branch, Egypt
| | - Mary Girgis Shahataa
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Esraa A Salem
- Department of Medical Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Menoufia University, Shebeen ElKom, 32511, Egypt
| | - Hebatallah M Saad
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Matrouh University, Marsa Matruh 51744, Egypt
| | - Omnya Elhussieny
- Department of Histology and Cytology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Matrouh University, Marsa Matruh 51744, Egypt
| | - Magy R Kozman
- Clinical Pharmacy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Misr University for Science and Technology, Giza 12563, Egypt
| | - Ahmed M Atwa
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Egyptian Russian University, Cairo, Egypt; Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Ayen Iraqi University, Thi-Qar 64001, Iraq
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2
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Lee S, Eun H, Lee K. Effector Binding Sequentially Alters KRAS Dimerization on the Membrane: New Insights Into RAS-Mediated RAF Activation. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2401530. [PMID: 39138901 PMCID: PMC11481233 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202401530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
RAS proteins are peripheral membrane GTPases that activate multiple downstream effectors for cell proliferation and differentiation. The formation of a signaling RAS-RAF complex at the plasma membrane is implicated in a quarter of all human cancers; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. In this work, nanodisc platforms and paramagnetic relaxation enhancement (PRE) analyses to determine the structure of a hetero-tetrameric complex comprising KRAS and the RAS-binding domain (RBD) and cysteine-rich domain (CRD) of activated RAF1 are employed. The binding of the RBD or RBD-CRD differentially alters the dimerization modes of KRAS on both anionic and neutral membranes, validated by interface-specific mutagenesis. Notably, the RBD binding allosterically generated two distinct KRAS dimer interfaces in equilibrium, favored by KRAS free and in complex with the RBD-CRD, respectively. Additional interactions of the CRD with both KRAS protomers are mutually cooperative to stabilize a new dimer configuration of KRAS bound to the RBD-CRD. The RAF binding sequentially alters KRAS dimerization, providing new insights into RAF activation, including a configurational transition of the KRAS dimer to provide an interaction site for the CRD and release the autoinhibited RAF complex. These methods are applicable to many other signaling protein complexes on the membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soo‐Yeon Lee
- Department of PharmacyCollege of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical SciencesCHA UniversityPocheon‐siGyeonggi‐Do11160Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun‐Jong Eun
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical SciencesCollege of PharmacySeoul National UniversitySeoul08826Republic of Korea
| | - Ki‐Young Lee
- School of PharmacySungkyunkwan UniversitySuwon16419Republic of Korea
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3
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Healy FM, Turner AL, Marensi V, MacEwan DJ. Mediating kinase activity in Ras-mutant cancer: potential for an individualised approach? Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1441938. [PMID: 39372214 PMCID: PMC11450236 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1441938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 09/06/2024] [Indexed: 10/08/2024] Open
Abstract
It is widely acknowledged that there is a considerable number of oncogenic mutations within the Ras superfamily of small GTPases which are the driving force behind a multitude of cancers. Ras proteins mediate a plethora of kinase pathways, including the MAPK, PI3K, and Ral pathways. Since Ras was considered undruggable until recently, pharmacological targeting of pathways downstream of Ras has been attempted to varying success, though drug resistance has often proven an issue. Nuances between kinase pathway activation in the presence of various Ras mutants are thought to contribute to the resistance, however, the reasoning behind activation of different pathways in different Ras mutational contexts is yet to be fully elucidated. Indeed, such disparities often depend on cancer type and disease progression. However, we are in a revolutionary age of Ras mutant targeted therapy, with direct-targeting KRAS-G12C inhibitors revolutionising the field and achieving FDA-approval in recent years. However, these are only beneficial in a subset of patients. Approximately 90% of Ras-mutant cancers are not KRAS-G12C mutant, and therefore raises the question as to whether other distinct amino acid substitutions within Ras may one day be targetable in a similar manner, and indeed whether better understanding of the downstream pathways these various mutants activate could further improve therapy. Here, we discuss the favouring of kinase pathways across an array of Ras-mutant oncogenic contexts and assess recent advances in pharmacological targeting of various Ras mutants. Ultimately, we will examine the utility of individualised pharmacological approaches to Ras-mediated cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona M. Healy
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Amy L. Turner
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Vanessa Marensi
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Chester Medical School, University of Chester, Chester, United Kingdom
| | - David J. MacEwan
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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4
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Chang SH, Mezzano-Robinson V, Zhou H, Moreira A, Pillai R, Ramaswami S, Loomis C, Heguy A, Tsirigos A, Pass HI. Digital spatial profiling to predict recurrence in grade 3 stage I lung adenocarcinoma. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2024; 168:648-657.e8. [PMID: 37890657 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2023.10.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Early-stage lung adenocarcinoma is treated with local therapy alone, although patients with grade 3 stage I lung adenocarcinoma have a 50% 5-year recurrence rate. Our objective is to determine if analysis of the tumor microenvironment can create a predictive model for recurrence. METHODS Thirty-four patients with grade 3 stage I lung adenocarcinoma underwent surgical resection. Digital spatial profiling was used to perform genomic (n = 31) and proteomic (n = 34) analyses of pancytokeratin positive and negative tumor cells. K-means clustering was performed on the top 50 differential genes and top 20 differential proteins, with Kaplan-Meier recurrence curves based on patient clustering. External validation of high-expression genes was performed with Kaplan-Meier plotter. RESULTS There were no significant clinicopathologic differences between patients who did (n = 14) and did not (n = 20) have recurrence. Median time to recurrence was 806 days; median follow-up with no recurrence was 2897 days. K-means clustering of pancytokeratin positive genes resulted in a model with a Kaplan-Meier curve with concordance index of 0.75. K-means clustering for pancytokeratin negative genes was less successful at differentiating recurrence (concordance index 0.6). Genes upregulated or downregulated for recurrence were externally validated using available public databases. Proteomic data did not reach statistical significance but did internally validate the genomic data described. CONCLUSIONS Genomic difference in lung adenocarcinoma may be able to predict risk of recurrence. After further validation, stratifying patients by this risk may help guide who will benefit from adjuvant therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie H Chang
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY.
| | - Valeria Mezzano-Robinson
- Experimental Pathology Research Laboratory, Department of Pathology, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY
| | - Hua Zhou
- Department of Pathology, Applied Bioinformatics Laboratory, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY
| | - Andre Moreira
- Department of Pathology, Center for Biomarker Research and Development, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY
| | - Raymond Pillai
- Division of Pulmonary Critical Care, Department of Medicine, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY
| | - Sitharam Ramaswami
- Department of Pathology, Genome Technology Center, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY
| | - Cynthia Loomis
- Experimental Pathology Research Laboratory, Department of Pathology, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY
| | - Adriana Heguy
- Department of Pathology, Genome Technology Center, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY
| | - Aristotelis Tsirigos
- Department of Pathology, Applied Bioinformatics Laboratory, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY
| | - Harvey I Pass
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY
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Iori S, Lahtela-Kakkonen M, D'Onofrio C, Maietti F, Mucignat G, Bardhi A, Barbarossa A, Zaghini A, Pauletto M, Dacasto M, Giantin M. New insights into aflatoxin B1 mechanistic toxicology in cattle liver: an integrated approach using molecular docking and biological evaluation in CYP1A1 and CYP3A74 knockout BFH12 cell lines. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:3097-3108. [PMID: 38834875 PMCID: PMC11324698 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03799-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a pro-carcinogenic compound bioactivated in the liver by cytochromes P450 (CYPs). In mammals, CYP1A and CYP3A are responsible for AFB1 metabolism, with the formation of the genotoxic carcinogens AFB1-8,9-epoxide and AFM1, and the detoxified metabolite AFQ1. Due to climate change, AFB1 cereals contamination arose in Europe. Thus, cattle, as other farm animals fed with grains (pig, sheep and broiler), are more likely exposed to AFB1 via feed with consequent release of AFM1 in milk, posing a great concern to human health. However, knowledge about bovine CYPs involved in AFB1 metabolism is still scanty. Therefore, CYP1A1- and CYP3A74-mediated molecular mechanisms of AFB1 hepatotoxicity were here dissected. Molecular docking of AFB1 into CYP1A1 model suggested AFB1 8,9-endo- and 8,9-exo-epoxide, and AFM1 formation, while docking of AFB1 into CYP3A74 pointed to AFB1 8,9-exo-epoxide and AFQ1 synthesis. To biologically confirm these predictions, CYP1A1 and CYP3A74 knockout (KO) BFH12 cell lines were exposed to AFB1. LC-MS/MS investigations showed the abolished production of AFM1 in CYP1A1 KO cells and the strong increase of parent AFB1 in CYP3A74 KO cells; the latter result, coupled to a decreased cytotoxicity, suggested the major role of CYP3A74 in AFB1 8,9-exo-epoxide formation. Finally, RNA-sequencing analysis indirectly proved lower AFB1-induced cytotoxic effects in engineered cells versus naïve ones. Overall, this study broadens the knowledge on AFB1 metabolism and hepatotoxicity in cattle, and it provides the weight of evidence that CYP1A1 and CYP3A74 inhibition might be exploited to reduce AFM1 and AFBO synthesis, AFB1 toxicity, and AFM1 milk excretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Iori
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Viale Dell'Università 16, Legnaro, 35020, Padua, Italy
| | - Maija Lahtela-Kakkonen
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonrinne 3, 70210, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Caterina D'Onofrio
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Viale Dell'Università 16, Legnaro, 35020, Padua, Italy
| | - Federica Maietti
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Viale Dell'Università 16, Legnaro, 35020, Padua, Italy
| | - Greta Mucignat
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Viale Dell'Università 16, Legnaro, 35020, Padua, Italy
| | - Anisa Bardhi
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, Ozzano dell'Emilia, 40064, Bologna, Italy
| | - Andrea Barbarossa
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, Ozzano dell'Emilia, 40064, Bologna, Italy
| | - Anna Zaghini
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, Ozzano dell'Emilia, 40064, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marianna Pauletto
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Viale Dell'Università 16, Legnaro, 35020, Padua, Italy
| | - Mauro Dacasto
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Viale Dell'Università 16, Legnaro, 35020, Padua, Italy
| | - Mery Giantin
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Viale Dell'Università 16, Legnaro, 35020, Padua, Italy.
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6
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Theard PL, Linke AJ, Sealover NE, Daley BR, Yang J, Cox K, Kortum RL. SOS2 modulates the threshold of EGFR signaling to regulate osimertinib efficacy and resistance in lung adenocarcinoma. Mol Oncol 2024; 18:641-661. [PMID: 38073064 PMCID: PMC10920089 DOI: 10.1002/1878-0261.13564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Son of sevenless 1 and 2 (SOS1 and SOS2) are RAS guanine nucleotide exchange factors (RasGEFs) that mediate physiologic and pathologic receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK)-dependent RAS activation. Here, we show that SOS2 modulates the threshold of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling to regulate the efficacy of and resistance to the EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI) osimertinib in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). SOS2 deletion (SOS2KO ) sensitized EGFR-mutated cells to perturbations in EGFR signaling caused by reduced serum and/or osimertinib treatment to inhibit phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT pathway activation, oncogenic transformation, and survival. Bypassing RTK reactivation of PI3K/AKT signaling represents a common resistance mechanism to EGFR-TKIs; SOS2KO reduced PI3K/AKT reactivation to limit osimertinib resistance. In a forced HGF/MET-driven bypass model, SOS2KO inhibited hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)-stimulated PI3K signaling to block HGF-driven osimertinib resistance. Using a long-term in situ resistance assay, most osimertinib-resistant cultures exhibited a hybrid epithelial/mesenchymal phenotype associated with reactivated RTK/AKT signaling. In contrast, RTK/AKT-dependent osimertinib resistance was markedly reduced by SOS2 deletion; the few SOS2KO cultures that became osimertinib resistant primarily underwent non-RTK-dependent epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Since bypassing RTK reactivation and/or tertiary EGFR mutations represent most osimertinib-resistant cancers, these data suggest that targeting proximal RTK signaling, here exemplified by SOS2 deletion, has the potential to delay the development osimertinib resistance and enhance overall clinical responses for patients with EGFR-mutated LUAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia L. Theard
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular TherapeuticsUniformed Services University of the Health SciencesBethesdaMDUSA
| | - Amanda J. Linke
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular TherapeuticsUniformed Services University of the Health SciencesBethesdaMDUSA
| | - Nancy E. Sealover
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular TherapeuticsUniformed Services University of the Health SciencesBethesdaMDUSA
| | - Brianna R. Daley
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular TherapeuticsUniformed Services University of the Health SciencesBethesdaMDUSA
| | - Johnny Yang
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular TherapeuticsUniformed Services University of the Health SciencesBethesdaMDUSA
| | - Katherine Cox
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular TherapeuticsUniformed Services University of the Health SciencesBethesdaMDUSA
| | - Robert L. Kortum
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular TherapeuticsUniformed Services University of the Health SciencesBethesdaMDUSA
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7
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Lee KY. Membrane-Driven Dimerization of the Peripheral Membrane Protein KRAS: Implications for Downstream Signaling. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2530. [PMID: 38473778 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Transient homo-dimerization of the RAS GTPase at the plasma membrane has been shown to promote the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway essential for cell proliferation and oncogenesis. To date, numerous crystallographic studies have focused on the well-defined GTPase domains of RAS isoforms, which lack the disordered C-terminal membrane anchor, thus providing limited structural insight into membrane-bound RAS molecules. Recently, lipid-bilayer nanodisc platforms and paramagnetic relaxation enhancement (PRE) analyses have revealed several distinct structures of the membrane-anchored homodimers of KRAS, an isoform that is most frequently mutated in human cancers. The KRAS dimerization interface is highly plastic and altered by biologically relevant conditions, including oncogenic mutations, the nucleotide states of the protein, and the lipid composition. Notably, PRE-derived structures of KRAS homodimers on the membrane substantially differ in terms of the relative orientation of the protomers at an "α-α" dimer interface comprising two α4-α5 regions. This interface plasticity along with the altered orientations of KRAS on the membrane impact the accessibility of KRAS to downstream effectors and regulatory proteins. Further, nanodisc platforms used to drive KRAS dimerization can be used to screen potential anticancer drugs that target membrane-bound RAS dimers and probe their structural mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ki-Young Lee
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, CHA University, Pocheon-si 11160, Gyeonggi-Do, Republic of Korea
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8
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Sealover NE, Theard PT, Hughes JM, Linke AJ, Daley BR, Kortum RL. In situ modeling of acquired resistance to RTK/RAS-pathway-targeted therapies. iScience 2024; 27:108711. [PMID: 38226159 PMCID: PMC10788224 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Intrinsic and acquired resistance limit the window of effectiveness for oncogene-targeted cancer therapies. Here, we describe an in situ resistance assay (ISRA) that reliably models acquired resistance to RTK/RAS-pathway-targeted therapies across cell lines. Using osimertinib resistance in EGFR-mutated lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) as a model system, we show that acquired osimertinib resistance can be significantly delayed by inhibition of proximal RTK signaling using SHP2 inhibitors. Isolated osimertinib-resistant populations required SHP2 inhibition to resensitize cells to osimertinib and reduce MAPK signaling to block the effects of enhanced activation of multiple parallel RTKs. We additionally modeled resistance to targeted therapies including the KRASG12C inhibitors adagrasib and sotorasib, the MEK inhibitor trametinib, and the farnesyl transferase inhibitor tipifarnib. These studies highlight the tractability of in situ resistance assays to model acquired resistance to targeted therapies and provide a framework for assessing the extent to which synergistic drug combinations can target acquired drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy E. Sealover
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Patricia T. Theard
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Jacob M. Hughes
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Amanda J. Linke
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Brianna R. Daley
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Robert L. Kortum
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
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9
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Smith CR, Chen D, Christensen JG, Coulombe R, Féthière J, Gunn RJ, Hollander J, Jones B, Ketcham JM, Khare S, Kuehler J, Lawson JD, Marx MA, Olson P, Pearson KE, Ren C, Tsagris D, Ulaganathan T, Van’t Veer I, Wang X, Ivetac A. Discovery of Five SOS2 Fragment Hits with Binding Modes Determined by SOS2 X-Ray Cocrystallography. J Med Chem 2024; 67:774-781. [PMID: 38156904 PMCID: PMC10788894 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c02140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
SOS1 and SOS2 are guanine nucleotide exchange factors that mediate RTK-stimulated RAS activation. Selective SOS1:KRAS PPI inhibitors are currently under clinical investigation, whereas there are no reports to date of SOS2:KRAS PPI inhibitors. SOS2 activity is implicated in MAPK rebound when divergent SOS1 mutant cell lines are treated with the SOS1 inhibitor BI-3406; therefore, SOS2:KRAS inhibitors are of therapeutic interest. In this report, we detail a fragment-based screening strategy to identify X-ray cocrystal structures of five diverse fragment hits bound to SOS2.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dan Chen
- ZoBio
BV, J.H. Oortweg 19, Leiden 2333 CH, Netherlands
| | | | - René Coulombe
- Inixium, 3000-275 Armand Frappier, Laval, Quebec H7V 4A7, Canada
| | - James Féthière
- Inixium, 3000-275 Armand Frappier, Laval, Quebec H7V 4A7, Canada
| | - Robin J. Gunn
- Mirati
Therapeutics, San Diego, California 92130, United States
| | | | - Benjamin Jones
- Mirati
Therapeutics, San Diego, California 92130, United States
| | - John M. Ketcham
- Mirati
Therapeutics, San Diego, California 92130, United States
| | - Shilpi Khare
- Mirati
Therapeutics, San Diego, California 92130, United States
| | - Jon Kuehler
- Mirati
Therapeutics, San Diego, California 92130, United States
| | - J. David Lawson
- Mirati
Therapeutics, San Diego, California 92130, United States
| | - Matthew A. Marx
- Mirati
Therapeutics, San Diego, California 92130, United States
| | - Peter Olson
- Mirati
Therapeutics, San Diego, California 92130, United States
| | | | - Cynthia Ren
- Mirati
Therapeutics, San Diego, California 92130, United States
| | | | | | | | - Xiaolun Wang
- Mirati
Therapeutics, San Diego, California 92130, United States
| | - Anthony Ivetac
- Mirati
Therapeutics, San Diego, California 92130, United States
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10
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Daley BR, Sealover NE, Sheffels E, Hughes JM, Gerlach D, Hofmann MH, Kostyrko K, Mair B, Linke A, Beckley Z, Frank A, Dalgard C, Kortum RL. SOS1 inhibition enhances the efficacy of and delays resistance to G12C inhibitors in lung adenocarcinoma. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.12.07.570642. [PMID: 38106234 PMCID: PMC10723384 DOI: 10.1101/2023.12.07.570642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Clinical effectiveness of KRAS G12C inhibitors (G12Cis) is limited both by intrinsic and acquired resistance, necessitating the development of combination approaches. We found that targeting proximal receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) signaling using the SOS1 inhibitor (SOS1i) BI-3406 both enhanced the potency of and delayed resistance to G12Ci treatment, but the extent of SOS1i effectiveness was modulated by both SOS2 expression and the specific mutational landscape. SOS1i enhanced the efficacy of G12Ci and limited rebound RTK/ERK signaling to overcome intrinsic/adaptive resistance, but this effect was modulated by SOS2 protein levels. Survival of drug-tolerant persister (DTP) cells within the heterogeneous tumor population and/or acquired mutations that reactivate RTK/RAS signaling can lead to outgrowth of tumor initiating cells (TICs) that drive therapeutic resistance. G12Ci drug tolerant persister cells showed a 2-3-fold enrichment of TICs, suggesting that these could be a sanctuary population of G12Ci resistant cells. SOS1i re-sensitized DTPs to G12Ci and inhibited G12C-induced TIC enrichment. Co-mutation of the tumor suppressor KEAP1 limits the clinical effectiveness of G12Cis, and KEAP1 and STK11 deletion increased TIC frequency and accelerated the development of acquired resistance to G12Ci in situ. SOS1i both delayed acquired G12Ci resistance and limited the total number of resistant colonies regardless of KEAP1 and STK11 mutational status. These data suggest that SOS1i could be an effective strategy to both enhance G12Ci efficacy and prevent G12Ci resistance regardless of co-mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brianna R Daley
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814
| | - Nancy E Sealover
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814
| | - Erin Sheffels
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814
| | - Jacob M. Hughes
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814
| | | | | | - Kaja Kostyrko
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria
| | - Barbara Mair
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria
| | - Amanda Linke
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814
| | - Zaria Beckley
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814
| | - Andrew Frank
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine; Bethesda, MD, USA
- Student Bioinformatics Initiative, Center for Military Precision Health, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences; Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Clifton Dalgard
- The American Genome Center, Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology, and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814
| | - Robert L Kortum
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814
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11
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Daley BR, Vieira HM, Rao C, Hughes JM, Beckley ZM, Huisman DH, Chatterjee D, Sealover NE, Cox K, Askew JW, Svoboda RA, Fisher KW, Lewis RE, Kortum RL. SOS1 and KSR1 modulate MEK inhibitor responsiveness to target resistant cell populations based on PI3K and KRAS mutation status. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2313137120. [PMID: 37972068 PMCID: PMC10666034 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2313137120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023] Open
Abstract
KRAS is the most commonly mutated oncogene. Targeted therapies have been developed against mediators of key downstream signaling pathways, predominantly components of the RAF/MEK/ERK kinase cascade. Unfortunately, single-agent efficacy of these agents is limited both by intrinsic and acquired resistance. Survival of drug-tolerant persister cells within the heterogeneous tumor population and/or acquired mutations that reactivate receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK)/RAS signaling can lead to outgrowth of tumor-initiating cells (TICs) and drive therapeutic resistance. Here, we show that targeting the key RTK/RAS pathway signaling intermediates SOS1 (Son of Sevenless 1) or KSR1 (Kinase Suppressor of RAS 1) both enhances the efficacy of, and prevents resistance to, the MEK inhibitor trametinib in KRAS-mutated lung (LUAD) and colorectal (COAD) adenocarcinoma cell lines depending on the specific mutational landscape. The SOS1 inhibitor BI-3406 enhanced the efficacy of trametinib and prevented trametinib resistance by targeting spheroid-initiating cells in KRASG12/G13-mutated LUAD and COAD cell lines that lacked PIK3CA comutations. Cell lines with KRASQ61 and/or PIK3CA mutations were insensitive to trametinib and BI-3406 combination therapy. In contrast, deletion of the RAF/MEK/ERK scaffold protein KSR1 prevented drug-induced SIC upregulation and restored trametinib sensitivity across all tested KRAS mutant cell lines in both PIK3CA-mutated and PIK3CA wild-type cancers. Our findings demonstrate that vertical inhibition of RTK/RAS signaling is an effective strategy to prevent therapeutic resistance in KRAS-mutated cancers, but therapeutic efficacy is dependent on both the specific KRAS mutant and underlying comutations. Thus, selection of optimal therapeutic combinations in KRAS-mutated cancers will require a detailed understanding of functional dependencies imposed by allele-specific KRAS mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brianna R. Daley
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD20814
| | - Heidi M. Vieira
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE68198
| | - Chaitra Rao
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE68198
| | - Jacob M. Hughes
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD20814
| | - Zaria M. Beckley
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD20814
| | - Dianna H. Huisman
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE68198
| | - Deepan Chatterjee
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE68198
| | - Nancy E. Sealover
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD20814
| | - Katherine Cox
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD20814
| | - James W. Askew
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE68198
| | - Robert A. Svoboda
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE68198
| | - Kurt W. Fisher
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE68198
| | - Robert E. Lewis
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE68198
| | - Robert L. Kortum
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD20814
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12
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Baltanás FC, García-Navas R, Rodríguez-Ramos P, Calzada N, Cuesta C, Borrajo J, Fuentes-Mateos R, Olarte-San Juan A, Vidaña N, Castellano E, Santos E. Critical requirement of SOS1 for tumor development and microenvironment modulation in KRAS G12D-driven lung adenocarcinoma. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5856. [PMID: 37730692 PMCID: PMC10511506 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41583-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The impact of genetic ablation of SOS1 or SOS2 is evaluated in a murine model of KRASG12D-driven lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). SOS2 ablation shows some protection during early stages but only SOS1 ablation causes significant, specific long term increase of survival/lifespan of the KRASG12D mice associated to markedly reduced tumor burden and reduced populations of cancer-associated fibroblasts, macrophages and T-lymphocytes in the lung tumor microenvironment (TME). SOS1 ablation also causes specific shrinkage and regression of LUAD tumoral masses and components of the TME in pre-established KRASG12D LUAD tumors. The critical requirement of SOS1 for KRASG12D-driven LUAD is further confirmed by means of intravenous tail injection of KRASG12D tumor cells into SOS1KO/KRASWT mice, or of SOS1-less, KRASG12D tumor cells into wildtype mice. In silico analyses of human lung cancer databases support also the dominant role of SOS1 regarding tumor development and survival in LUAD patients. Our data indicate that SOS1 is critically required for development of KRASG12D-driven LUAD and confirm the validity of this RAS-GEF activator as an actionable therapeutic target in KRAS mutant LUAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando C Baltanás
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.
- Institute of Biomedicine of Seville (IBiS)/"Virgen del Rocío" University Hospital/CSIC/University of Seville and Department of Medical Physiology and Biophysics, University of Seville, Seville, Spain.
| | - Rósula García-Navas
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Pablo Rodríguez-Ramos
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Nuria Calzada
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Cristina Cuesta
- Lab 5. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Javier Borrajo
- Departament of Biomedical Sciences and Diagnostic, University of Salamanca, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Rocío Fuentes-Mateos
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Andrea Olarte-San Juan
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Nerea Vidaña
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Esther Castellano
- Lab 5. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Eugenio Santos
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.
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13
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Powis G, Meuillet EJ, Indarte M, Booher G, Kirkpatrick L. Pleckstrin Homology [PH] domain, structure, mechanism, and contribution to human disease. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 165:115024. [PMID: 37399719 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The pleckstrin homology [PH] domain is a structural fold found in more than 250 proteins making it the 11th most common domain in the human proteome. 25% of family members have more than one PH domain and some PH domains are split by one, or several other, protein domains although still folding to give functioning PH domains. We review mechanisms of PH domain activity, the role PH domain mutation plays in human disease including cancer, hyperproliferation, neurodegeneration, inflammation, and infection, and discuss pharmacotherapeutic approaches to regulate PH domain activity for the treatment of human disease. Almost half PH domain family members bind phosphatidylinositols [PIs] that attach the host protein to cell membranes where they interact with other membrane proteins to give signaling complexes or cytoskeleton scaffold platforms. A PH domain in its native state may fold over other protein domains thereby preventing substrate access to a catalytic site or binding with other proteins. The resulting autoinhibition can be released by PI binding to the PH domain, or by protein phosphorylation thus providing fine tuning of the cellular control of PH domain protein activity. For many years the PH domain was thought to be undruggable until high-resolution structures of human PH domains allowed structure-based design of novel inhibitors that selectively bind the PH domain. Allosteric inhibitors of the Akt1 PH domain have already been tested in cancer patients and for proteus syndrome, with several other PH domain inhibitors in preclinical development for treatment of other human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garth Powis
- PHusis Therapeutics Inc., 6019 Folsom Drive, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
| | | | - Martin Indarte
- PHusis Therapeutics Inc., 6019 Folsom Drive, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Garrett Booher
- PHusis Therapeutics Inc., 6019 Folsom Drive, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Lynn Kirkpatrick
- PHusis Therapeutics Inc., 6019 Folsom Drive, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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14
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Alem D, Yang X, Beato F, Sarcar B, Tassielli AF, Dai R, Hogenson TL, Park MA, Jiang K, Cai J, Yuan Y, Fernandez-Zapico ME, Tan AC, Fleming JB, Xie H. Translational relevance of SOS1 targeting for KRAS-mutant colorectal cancer. Mol Carcinog 2023; 62:1025-1037. [PMID: 37042566 PMCID: PMC10330439 DOI: 10.1002/mc.23543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
Abstract
It has been challenging to target mutant KRAS (mKRAS) in colorectal cancer (CRC) and other malignancies. Recent efforts have focused on developing inhibitors blocking molecules essential for KRAS activity. In this regard, SOS1 inhibition has arisen as an attractive approach for mKRAS CRC given its essential role as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for this GTPase. Here, we demonstrated the translational value of SOS1 blockade in mKRAS CRC. We used CRC patient-derived organoids (PDOs) as preclinical models to evaluate their sensitivity to SOS1 inhibitor BI3406. A combination of in silico analyses and wet lab techniques was utilized to define potential predictive markers for SOS1 sensitivity and potential mechanisms of resistance in CRC. RNA-seq analysis of CRC PDOs revealed two groups of CRC PDOs with differential sensitivities to SOS1 inhibitor BI3406. The resistant group was enriched in gene sets involving cholesterol homeostasis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and TNF-α/NFκB signaling. Expression analysis identified a significant correlation between SOS1 and SOS2 mRNA levels (Spearman's ρ 0.56, p < 0.001). SOS1/2 protein expression was universally present with heterogeneous patterns in CRC cells but only minimal to none in surrounding nonmalignant cells. Only SOS1 protein expression was associated with worse survival in patients with RAS/RAF mutant CRC (p = 0.04). We also found that SOS1/SOS2 protein expression ratio >1 by immunohistochemistry (p = 0.03) instead of KRAS mutation (p = 1) was a better predictive marker to BI3406 sensitivity of CRC PDOs, concordant with the significant positive correlation between SOS1/SOS2 protein expression ratio and SOS1 dependency. Finally, we showed that GTP-bound RAS level underwent rebound even in BI3406-sensitive PDOs with no change of KRAS downstream effector genes, thus suggesting upregulation of guanine nucleotide exchange factor as potential cellular adaptation mechanisms to SOS1 inhibition. Taken together, our results show that high SOS1/SOS2 protein expression ratio predicts sensitivity to SOS1 inhibition and support further clinical development of SOS1-targeting agents in CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Alem
- Department of Gastrointestinal Oncology, H Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Xinrui Yang
- Department of Gastrointestinal Oncology, H Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Francisca Beato
- Department of Gastrointestinal Oncology, H Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Bhaswati Sarcar
- Department of Gastrointestinal Oncology, H Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Alexandra F Tassielli
- Department of Gastrointestinal Oncology, H Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Ruifan Dai
- Department of Gastrointestinal Oncology, H Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Tara L Hogenson
- Department of Oncology, Schulze Center for Novel Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Margaret A Park
- Department of Gastrointestinal Oncology, H Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Kun Jiang
- Department of Pathology, H Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Jianfeng Cai
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Yu Yuan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, USA
| | - Martin E Fernandez-Zapico
- Department of Oncology, Schulze Center for Novel Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Aik Choon Tan
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, H Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Jason B Fleming
- Department of Gastrointestinal Oncology, H Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Hao Xie
- Department of Gastrointestinal Oncology, H Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA
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15
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Theard PL, Linke AJ, Sealover NE, Daley BR, Yang J, Cox K, Kortum RL. SOS2 regulates the threshold of mutant EGFR-dependent oncogenesis. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.01.20.524989. [PMID: 37425733 PMCID: PMC10327037 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.20.524989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
Son of Sevenless 1 and 2 (SOS1 and SOS2) are RAS guanine nucleotide exchange factors (RasGEFs) that mediate physiologic and pathologic RTK-dependent RAS activation. Here, we show that SOS2 modulates the threshold of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling to regulate the efficacy of and resistance to the EGFR-TKI osimertinib in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). SOS2 deletion sensitized EGFR-mutated cells to perturbations in EGFR signaling caused by reduced serum and/or osimertinib treatment to inhibit PI3K/AKT pathway activation, oncogenic transformation, and survival. Bypass RTK reactivation of PI3K/AKT signaling represents a common resistance mechanism to EGFR-TKIs; SOS2 KO reduced PI3K/AKT reactivation to limit osimertinib resistance. In a forced HGF/MET-driven bypass model, SOS2 KO inhibited HGF-stimulated PI3K signaling to block HGF-driven osimertinib resistance. Using a long term in situ resistance assay, a majority of osimertinib resistant cultures exhibited a hybrid epithelial/mesenchymal phenotype associated with reactivated RTK/AKT signaling. In contrast, RTK/AKT-dependent osimertinib resistance was markedly reduced by SOS2 deletion; the few SOS2 KO cultures that became osimertinib resistant primarily underwent non-RTK dependent EMT. Since bypass RTK reactivation and/or tertiary EGFR mutations represent the majority of osimertinib-resistant cancers, these data suggest that targeting SOS2 has the potential to eliminate the majority of osimertinib resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia L. Theard
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA 20814
| | - Amanda J. Linke
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA 20814
| | - Nancy E. Sealover
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA 20814
| | - Brianna R. Daley
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA 20814
| | - Johnny Yang
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA 20814
| | - Katherine Cox
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA 20814
| | - Robert L Kortum
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA 20814
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16
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Sealover NE, Theard PL, Hughes JM, Linke AJ, Daley BR, Kortum RL. In situ modeling of acquired resistance to RTK/RAS pathway targeted therapies. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.01.27.525958. [PMID: 36747633 PMCID: PMC9901014 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.27.525958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Intrinsic and acquired resistance limit the window of effectiveness for oncogene-targeted cancer therapies. Preclinical studies that identify synergistic combinations enhance therapeutic efficacy to target intrinsic resistance, however, methods to study acquired resistance in cell culture are lacking. Here, we describe a novel in situ resistance assay (ISRA), performed in a 96-well culture format, that models acquired resistance to RTK/RAS pathway targeted therapies. Using osimertinib resistance in EGFR-mutated lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) as a model system, we show acquired resistance can be reliably modeled across cell lines using objectively defined osimertinib doses. Similar to patient populations, isolated osimertinib-resistant populations showed resistance via enhanced activation of multiple parallel RTKs so that individual RTK inhibitors did not re-sensitize cells to osimertinib. In contrast, inhibition of proximal RTK signaling using the SHP2 inhibitor RMC-4550 both re-sensitized resistant populations to osimertinib and prevented the development of osimertinib resistance as a primary therapy. Similar, objectively defined drug doses were used to model resistance to additional RTK/RAS pathway targeted therapies including the KRASG12C inhibitors adagrasib and sotorasib, the MEK inhibitor trametinib, and the farnesyl transferase inhibitor tipifarnib. These studies highlight the tractability of in situ resistance assays to model acquired resistance to targeted therapies and provide a framework for assessing the extent to which synergistic drug combinations can target acquired drug resistance.
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17
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Luo G, Wang B, Hou Q, Wu X. Development of Son of Sevenless Homologue 1 (SOS1) Modulators To Treat Cancers by Regulating RAS Signaling. J Med Chem 2023; 66:4324-4341. [PMID: 36987571 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c01729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
Son of sevenless homologue 1 (SOS1) protein is universally expressed in cells and plays an important role in the RAS signaling pathway. Specifically, this protein interacts with RAS in response to upstream stimuli to promote guanine nucleotide exchange in RAS and activates the downstream signaling pathways. Thus, targeting SOS1 is a new approach for treating RAS-driven cancers. In this Perspective, we briefly summarize the structural and functional aspects of SOS1 and focus on recent advances in the discovery of activators, inhibitors, and PROTACs that target SOS1. This review aims to provide a timely and updated overview on the strategies for targeting SOS1 in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangmei Luo
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy and Institute of Innovative Drug Discovery and Development, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Bingrui Wang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy and Institute of Innovative Drug Discovery and Development, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Qiangqiang Hou
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy and Institute of Innovative Drug Discovery and Development, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Xiaoxing Wu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy and Institute of Innovative Drug Discovery and Development, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
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18
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Hebron KE, Wan X, Roth JS, Liewehr DJ, Sealover NE, Frye WJ, Kim A, Stauffer S, Perkins OL, Sun W, Isanogle KA, Robinson CM, James A, Awasthi P, Shankarappa P, Luo X, Lei H, Butcher D, Smith R, Edmondson EF, Chen JQ, Kedei N, Peer CJ, Shern JF, Figg WD, Chen L, Hall MD, Difilippantonio S, Barr FG, Kortum RL, Robey RW, Vaseva AV, Khan J, Yohe ME. The Combination of Trametinib and Ganitumab is Effective in RAS-Mutated PAX-Fusion Negative Rhabdomyosarcoma Models. Clin Cancer Res 2023; 29:472-487. [PMID: 36322002 PMCID: PMC9852065 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-22-1646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE PAX-fusion negative rhabdomyosarcoma (FN RMS) is driven by alterations in the RAS/MAP kinase pathway and is partially responsive to MEK inhibition. Overexpression of IGF1R and its ligands is also observed in FN RMS. Preclinical and clinical studies have suggested that IGF1R is itself an important target in FN RMS. Our previous studies revealed preclinical efficacy of the MEK1/2 inhibitor, trametinib, and an IGF1R inhibitor, BMS-754807, but this combination was not pursued clinically due to intolerability in preclinical murine models. Here, we sought to identify a combination of an MEK1/2 inhibitor and IGF1R inhibitor, which would be tolerated in murine models and effective in both cell line and patient-derived xenograft models of RAS-mutant FN RMS. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Using proliferation and apoptosis assays, we studied the factorial effects of trametinib and ganitumab (AMG 479), a mAb with specificity for human and murine IGF1R, in a panel of RAS-mutant FN RMS cell lines. The molecular mechanism of the observed synergy was determined using conventional and capillary immunoassays. The efficacy and tolerability of trametinib/ganitumab was assessed using a panel of RAS-mutated cell-line and patient-derived RMS xenograft models. RESULTS Treatment with trametinib and ganitumab resulted in synergistic cellular growth inhibition in all cell lines tested and inhibition of tumor growth in four of six models of RAS-mutant RMS. The combination had little effect on body weight and did not produce thrombocytopenia, neutropenia, or hyperinsulinemia in tumor-bearing SCID beige mice. Mechanistically, ganitumab treatment prevented the phosphorylation of AKT induced by MEK inhibition alone. Therapeutic response to the combination was observed in models without a mutation in the PI3K/PTEN axis. CONCLUSIONS We demonstrate that combined trametinib and ganitumab is effective in a genomically diverse panel of RAS-mutated FN RMS preclinical models. Our data also show that the trametinib/ganitumab combination likely has a favorable tolerability profile. These data support testing this combination in a phase I/II clinical trial for pediatric patients with relapsed or refractory RAS-mutated FN RMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie E. Hebron
- Pediatric Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892,Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Signaling, Center for Cancer Research, 8560 Progress Drive, Frederick, MD 21701
| | - Xiaolin Wan
- Pediatric Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Jacob S. Roth
- Early Translation Branch, Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - David J. Liewehr
- Biostatistics and Data Management Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Nancy E. Sealover
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Services, Bethesda, MD 20814
| | - William J.E. Frye
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Angela Kim
- Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Signaling, Center for Cancer Research, 8560 Progress Drive, Frederick, MD 21701
| | - Stacey Stauffer
- Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Signaling, Center for Cancer Research, 8560 Progress Drive, Frederick, MD 21701
| | - Olivia L. Perkins
- Pediatric Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Wenyue Sun
- Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Kristine A. Isanogle
- Laboratory Animal Sciences Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21701
| | - Christina M. Robinson
- Laboratory Animal Sciences Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21701
| | - Amy James
- Laboratory Animal Sciences Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21701
| | - Parirokh Awasthi
- Laboratory Animal Sciences Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21701
| | - Priya Shankarappa
- Genitourinary Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Xiaoling Luo
- Collaborative Protein Technology Resource, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Haiyan Lei
- Pediatric Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Donna Butcher
- Laboratory Animal Sciences Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21701
| | - Roberta Smith
- Laboratory Animal Sciences Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21701
| | - Elijah F. Edmondson
- Laboratory Animal Sciences Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21701
| | - Jin-Qiu Chen
- Collaborative Protein Technology Resource, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Noemi Kedei
- Collaborative Protein Technology Resource, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Cody J. Peer
- Genitourinary Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Jack F. Shern
- Pediatric Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - W. Douglas Figg
- Genitourinary Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Lu Chen
- Early Translation Branch, Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Matthew D. Hall
- Early Translation Branch, Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Simone Difilippantonio
- Laboratory Animal Sciences Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21701
| | - Frederic G. Barr
- Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Robert L. Kortum
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Services, Bethesda, MD 20814
| | - Robert W. Robey
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Angelina V. Vaseva
- Greehey Children’s Cancer Research Institute, UT Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Javed Khan
- Genetics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892,Co-corresponding authors Correspondence: Marielle Yohe, M.D., Ph.D., Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, 8560 Progress Drive Room D3026, Frederick, MD 27101, Phone: (240) 760-7436,
| | - Marielle E. Yohe
- Pediatric Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892,Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Signaling, Center for Cancer Research, 8560 Progress Drive, Frederick, MD 21701,Co-corresponding authors Correspondence: Marielle Yohe, M.D., Ph.D., Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, 8560 Progress Drive Room D3026, Frederick, MD 27101, Phone: (240) 760-7436,
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19
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Abstract
Although oncogenic driver mutations in RAS occur in 20% of cancers, heterogeneity in the biologic outputs of different RAS mutants has hampered efforts to develop effective treatments for RAS-mutated cancers. In this issue of Science Signaling, Huynh et al. show that even among KRASQ61 mutants, the specific amino acid that is substituted substantially affects mutant KRAS biologic activity and oncogenicity.
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20
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Marjanovic J, Ramirez HA, Jozic I, Stone RC, Wikramanayake TC, Head CR, Abdo Abujamra B, Ojeh N, Kirsner RS, Lev-Tov H, Pastar I, Tomic-Canic M. Dichotomous role of miR193b-3p in diabetic foot ulcers maintains inhibition of healing and suppression of tumor formation. Sci Transl Med 2022; 14:eabg8397. [PMID: 35544594 PMCID: PMC9707408 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abg8397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Despite the hyperproliferative environment marked by activation of β-catenin and overexpression of c-myc, the epidermis surrounding chronic diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) is clinically hypertrophic and nonmigratory yet does not undergo malignant transformation. We identified miR193b-3p as a master regulator that contributes to this unique cellular phenotype. We determined that induction of tumor suppressor miR193b-3p is a unique feature of DFUs that is not found in venous leg ulcers, acute wounds, or cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). Genomic analyses of DFUs identified suppression of the miR193b-3p target gene network that orchestrates cell motility. Inhibition of migration and wound closure was further confirmed by overexpression of miR193b-3p in human organotypic and murine in vivo wound models, whereas miR193b-3p knockdown accelerated wound reepithelialization in human ex vivo and diabetic murine wounds in vivo. The dominant negative effect of miR193b-3p on keratinocyte migration was maintained in the presence of promigratory miR31-5p and miR15b-5p, which were also overexpressed in DFUs. miR193b-3p mediated antimigratory activity by disrupting stress fiber formation and by decreasing activity of GTPase RhoA. Conversely, miR193b-3p targets that typically participate in malignant transformation were found to be differentially regulated between DFUs and SCC, including the proto-oncogenes KRAS (Kirsten rat sarcoma viral proto-oncogene) and KIT (KIT proto-oncogene). Although miR193b-3p acts as a tumor suppressor contributing to low tumor incidence in DFUs, it also acts as a master inhibitor of cellular migration and epithelialization in DFUs. Thus, miR193b-3p may represent a target for wound healing induction, cancer therapeutics, and diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelena Marjanovic
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Horacio A Ramirez
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Ivan Jozic
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Rivka C Stone
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Tongyu C Wikramanayake
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Cheyanne R Head
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Beatriz Abdo Abujamra
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Nkemcho Ojeh
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.,Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, Bridgetown BB11000, Barbados
| | - Robert S Kirsner
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Hadar Lev-Tov
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Irena Pastar
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Marjana Tomic-Canic
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
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21
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Abstract
RAS proteins play major roles in many human cancers, but programs to develop direct RAS inhibitors so far have only been successful for the oncogenic KRAS mutant G12C. As an alternative approach, inhibitors for the RAS guanine nucleotide exchange factor SOS1 have been investigated by several academic groups and companies, and major progress has been achieved in recent years in the optimization of small molecule activators and inhibitors of SOS1. Here, we review the discovery and development of small molecule modulators of SOS1 and their molecular binding modes and modes of action. As targeting the RAS pathway is expected to result in the development of resistance mechanisms, SOS1 inhibitors will most likely be best applied in vertical combination approaches where two nodes of the RAS signaling pathway are hit simultaneously. We summarize the current understanding of which combination partners may be most beneficial for patients with RAS driven tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Benjamin Bader
- Screening, Lead Discovery, Nuvisan ICB GmbH, Berlin, Germany
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22
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Hu H, Zhao M, Li Z, Nie H, He J, Chen Z, Yuan J, Guo H, Zhang X, Yang H, Wu T, He M. Plasma miR-193b-3p Is Elevated in Type 2 Diabetes and Could Impair Glucose Metabolism. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:814347. [PMID: 35712251 PMCID: PMC9197112 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.814347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To explore differentially expressed miRNAs in type 2 diabetes and their potential cellular functions. METHODS We screened plasma miRNAs by miRNA array analysis and validated them by TaqMan real-time PCR in 113 newly diagnosed, untreated type 2 diabetes cases and 113 healthy controls. Low-abundance plasma proteins encoded by miR-193b-3p target genes were explored in this study population. We further investigated the potential cellular functions of the differentially expressed miRNAs in HepG2 cells. RESULTS miR-193b-3p was differentially expressed in type 2 diabetes cases compared to healthy controls (fold change = 2.01, P = 0.006). Plasma levels of triosephosphate isomerase (TPI1, a protein involved in the glycolytic pathway) decreased in type 2 diabetes cases (fold change = 1.37, P = 0.002). The effect of miR-193b-3p on TPI1 was verified by transfection of miR-193b-3p into HepG2 cells. miR-193b-3p inhibited the expression of YWHAZ/14-3-3ζ in the PI3K-AKT pathway, subsequently altering the expression of FOXO1 and PCK1. After transfection, cells were incubated in glucose-free medium for another 4 h. Glucose levels in medium from cells with elevated miR-193b-3p levels were significantly higher than those in medium from negative control cells (P = 0.016). In addition, elevated miR-193b-3p reduced glucose uptake by inhibiting insulin receptor (IR) and GLUT2 expression. CONCLUSION Plasma miR-193b-3p levels increased in type 2 diabetes cases, and TPI1 levels decreased in both plasma and HepG2 cells with increased miR-193b-3p levels, while extracellular lactate levels did not significantly changed. Moreover, miR-193b-3p may affect glucose metabolism by directly targeting YWHAZ/14-3-3ζ and upregulating the transcription factor FOXO1 downstream of the PI3K-AKT pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Hu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health for Incubating, School of Public Health, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Meng Zhao
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health for Incubating, School of Public Health, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhaoyang Li
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health for Incubating, School of Public Health, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Hongli Nie
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health for Incubating, School of Public Health, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jia He
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health for Incubating, School of Public Health, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhuo Chen
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health for Incubating, School of Public Health, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jing Yuan
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health for Incubating, School of Public Health, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Huan Guo
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health for Incubating, School of Public Health, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaomin Zhang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health for Incubating, School of Public Health, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Handong Yang
- Dongfeng Central Hospital, Dongfeng Motor Corporation and Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan, China
| | - Tangchun Wu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health for Incubating, School of Public Health, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Meian He
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health for Incubating, School of Public Health, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- *Correspondence: Meian He,
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23
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Qi F, Qin W, Zhang Y, Luo Y, Niu B, An Q, Yang B, Shi K, Yu Z, Chen J, Cao X, Xia J. Sulfarotene, a synthetic retinoid, overcomes stemness and sorafenib resistance of hepatocellular carcinoma via suppressing SOS2-RAS pathway. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2021; 40:280. [PMID: 34479623 PMCID: PMC8418008 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-021-02085-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) shows strong resistance to sorafenib, and the tumor-repopulating cells (TRCs) with cancer stem cell-like properties are considered a driver for its high recurrent rate and drug resistance. METHODS Suppression of TRCs may thus be an effective therapeutic strategy for treating this fatal disease. We evaluated the pharmacology and mechanism of sulfarotene, a new type of synthetic retinoid, on the cancer stem cell-like properties of HCC TRCs, and assessed its preclinical efficacy in models of HCC patient-derived xenografts (PDXs). RESULTS Sulfarotene selectively inhibited the growth of HCC TRCs in vitro and significantly deterred TRC-mediated tumor formation and lung metastasis in vivo without apparent toxicity, with an IC50 superior to that of acyclic retinoid and sorafenib, to which the recurrent HCC exhibits significant resistance at advanced stage. Sulfarotene promoted the expression and activation of RARα, which down-regulated SOS2, a key signal mediator associated with RAS activation and signal transduction involved in multiple downstream pathways. Moreover, sulfarotene selectively inhibited tumorigenesis of HCC PDXs with high expression for SOS2. CONCLUSIONS Our study identified sulfarotene as a selective inhibitor for the TRCs of HCC, which targets a novel RARα-SOS2-RAS signal nexus, shedding light on a new, promising strategy of target therapy for advanced liver cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Qi
- Institute of Clinical Science, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, 180 Fenglin Road, 200032, Shanghai, China.,Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, 180 Fenglin Road, 200032, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenxing Qin
- Department of Oncology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Naval Medical University, 200003, Shanghai, China
| | - Yao Zhang
- Laboratory for Cellular Biomechanics and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, 430074, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yongde Luo
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, 325000, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China.,School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, 325000, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Bing Niu
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 200444, Shanghai, China
| | - Quanlin An
- Institute of Clinical Science, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, 180 Fenglin Road, 200032, Shanghai, China
| | - Biwei Yang
- Institute of Clinical Science, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, 180 Fenglin Road, 200032, Shanghai, China.,Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, 180 Fenglin Road, 200032, Shanghai, China
| | - Keqing Shi
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, 325000, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zhijie Yu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, 325000, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Junwei Chen
- Laboratory for Cellular Biomechanics and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, 430074, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
| | - Xin Cao
- Institute of Clinical Science, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, 180 Fenglin Road, 200032, Shanghai, China.
| | - Jinglin Xia
- Institute of Clinical Science, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, 180 Fenglin Road, 200032, Shanghai, China. .,Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, 180 Fenglin Road, 200032, Shanghai, China. .,The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, 325000, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China.
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24
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Thompson SK, Buckl A, Dossetter AG, Griffen E, Gill A. Small molecule Son of Sevenless 1 (SOS1) inhibitors: a review of the patent literature. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2021; 31:1189-1204. [PMID: 34253125 DOI: 10.1080/13543776.2021.1952984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: Up to 30% of all human cancers are driven by the overactivation of RAS signaling. Son of Sevenless 1 (SOS1) is a central node in RAS signaling pathways and modulation of SOS1-mediated RAS activation represents a unique opportunity for treating RAS-addicted cancers. Several recent publications and patent documents have demonstrated the ability of small molecules to affect the activation of RAS by SOS1 and have shown their potential for the treatment of cancers driven by RAS mutants.Areas covered: Documents focusing on both small-molecule inhibitors and activators of the SOS1:RAS interaction and their potential use as cancer therapeutics are covered. A total of 10 documents from 4 applicants are evaluated with discussion focusing on structural modifications of these compounds as well as relevant preclinical data.Expert opinion: The last decade has seen a significant increase in research and disclosures in the development of small-molecule SOS1 inhibitors. Considering the promising data that have been disclosed, interest in this area of research will likely remain strong for the foreseeable future. With the first SOS1 inhibitor currently in phase I clinical trials, the outcome of these trials will likely influence future development of SOS1 inhibitors for treatment of RAS-driven cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Severin K Thompson
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Revolution Medicines Inc., Redwood City, CA, USA
| | - Andreas Buckl
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Revolution Medicines Inc., Redwood City, CA, USA
| | | | - Ed Griffen
- Medchemica Limited, Biohub, Mereside, Cheshire, UK
| | - Adrian Gill
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Revolution Medicines Inc., Redwood City, CA, USA
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25
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Baltanás FC, García-Navas R, Santos E. SOS2 Comes to the Fore: Differential Functionalities in Physiology and Pathology. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22126613. [PMID: 34205562 PMCID: PMC8234257 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22126613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The SOS family of Ras-GEFs encompasses two highly homologous and widely expressed members, SOS1 and SOS2. Despite their similar structures and expression patterns, early studies of constitutive KO mice showing that SOS1-KO mutants were embryonic lethal while SOS2-KO mice were viable led to initially viewing SOS1 as the main Ras-GEF linking external stimuli to downstream RAS signaling, while obviating the functional significance of SOS2. Subsequently, different genetic and/or pharmacological ablation tools defined more precisely the functional specificity/redundancy of the SOS1/2 GEFs. Interestingly, the defective phenotypes observed in concomitantly ablated SOS1/2-DKO contexts are frequently much stronger than in single SOS1-KO scenarios and undetectable in single SOS2-KO cells, demonstrating functional redundancy between them and suggesting an ancillary role of SOS2 in the absence of SOS1. Preferential SOS1 role was also demonstrated in different RASopathies and tumors. Conversely, specific SOS2 functions, including a critical role in regulation of the RAS-PI3K/AKT signaling axis in keratinocytes and KRAS-driven tumor lines or in control of epidermal stem cell homeostasis, were also reported. Specific SOS2 mutations were also identified in some RASopathies and cancer forms. The relevance/specificity of the newly uncovered functional roles suggests that SOS2 should join SOS1 for consideration as a relevant biomarker/therapy target.
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26
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Analysis of the genomic landscape of yolk sac tumors reveals mechanisms of evolution and chemoresistance. Nat Commun 2021; 12:3579. [PMID: 34117242 PMCID: PMC8196104 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23681-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Yolk sac tumors (YSTs) are a major histological subtype of malignant ovarian germ cell tumors with a relatively poor prognosis. The molecular basis of this disease has not been thoroughly characterized at the genomic level. Here we perform whole-exome and RNA sequencing on 41 clinical tumor samples from 30 YST patients, with distinct responses to cisplatin-based chemotherapy. We show that microsatellite instability status and mutational signatures are informative of chemoresistance. We identify somatic driver candidates, including significantly mutated genes KRAS and KIT and copy-number alteration drivers, including deleted ARID1A and PARK2, and amplified ZNF217, CDKN1B, and KRAS. YSTs have very infrequent TP53 mutations, whereas the tumors from patients with abnormal gonadal development contain both KRAS and TP53 mutations. We further reveal a role of OVOL2 overexpression in YST resistance to cisplatin. This study lays a critical foundation for understanding key molecular aberrations in YSTs and developing related therapeutic strategies.
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27
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Sheffels E, Kortum RL. Breaking Oncogene Addiction: Getting RTK/RAS-Mutated Cancers off the SOS. J Med Chem 2021; 64:6566-6568. [PMID: 33961431 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In RTK/RAS-mutated cancers, therapeutic resistance is driven by rebound activation of multiple RTKs; broad inhibition of RTK signaling can potentially delay therapeutic resistance for a majority of patients. A new SOS1 inhibitor, BI-3406, broadly inhibits proximal RTK signaling will greatly expand the efficacy of therapies used to treat RTK/RAS-mutated cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin Sheffels
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, United States
| | - Robert L Kortum
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, United States
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28
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Baltanás FC, Mucientes-Valdivieso C, Lorenzo-Martín LF, Fernández-Parejo N, García-Navas R, Segrelles C, Calzada N, Fuentes-Mateos R, Paramio JM, Bustelo XR, Santos E. Functional Specificity of the Members of the Sos Family of Ras-GEF Activators: Novel Role of Sos2 in Control of Epidermal Stem Cell Homeostasis. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13092152. [PMID: 33946974 PMCID: PMC8124217 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13092152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The Sos Ras-GEFs are known to participate in a wide range of skin-related diseases including cutaneous cancers, cardio-facio-cutaneous syndromes, or hirsutism. However, the specific functional roles played by the Sos1 and/or Sos2 family members in specific skin compartments remain largely unknown. This report aimed at precisely characterizing the specific functions played by Sos1 and/or Sos2 in keratinocytes, an essential cellular component of the skin. Our data show that Sos1 and Sos2 make overlapping contributions to both keratinocyte proliferation and survival. However, Sos1 seems to have a preferential involvement in regulating the ERK axis, whereas Sos2 seems to control the signaling output from the PI3K axis. We also uncovered an essential role of Sos2 in the control of the population of epidermal stem cells. Abstract Prior reports showed the critical requirement of Sos1 for epithelial carcinogenesis, but the specific functionalities of the homologous Sos1 and Sos2 GEFs in skin homeostasis and tumorigenesis remain unclear. Here, we characterize specific mechanistic roles played by Sos1 or Sos2 in primary mouse keratinocytes (a prevalent skin cell lineage) under different experimental conditions. Functional analyses of actively growing primary keratinocytes of relevant genotypes—WT, Sos1-KO, Sos2-KO, and Sos1/2-DKO—revealed a prevalent role of Sos1 regarding transcriptional regulation and control of RAS activation and mechanistic overlapping of Sos1 and Sos2 regarding cell proliferation and survival, with dominant contribution of Sos1 to the RAS-ERK axis and Sos2 to the RAS-PI3K/AKT axis. Sos1/2-DKO keratinocytes could not grow under 3D culture conditions, but single Sos1-KO and Sos2-KO keratinocytes were able to form pseudoepidermis structures that showed disorganized layer structure, reduced proliferation, and increased apoptosis in comparison with WT 3D cultures. Remarkably, analysis of the skin of both newborn and adult Sos2-KO mice uncovered a significant reduction of the population of stem cells located in hair follicles. These data confirm that Sos1 and Sos2 play specific, cell-autonomous functions in primary keratinocytes and reveal a novel, essential role of Sos2 in control of epidermal stem cell homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando C. Baltanás
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
- Correspondence: (F.C.B.); (E.S.)
| | - Cynthia Mucientes-Valdivieso
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
| | - L. Francisco Lorenzo-Martín
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Natalia Fernández-Parejo
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Rósula García-Navas
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Carmen Segrelles
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
- Molecular Oncology Division, CIEMAT and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, E-28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Nuria Calzada
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Rocío Fuentes-Mateos
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Jesús M. Paramio
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
- Molecular Oncology Division, CIEMAT and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, E-28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Xosé R. Bustelo
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Eugenio Santos
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
- Correspondence: (F.C.B.); (E.S.)
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Sheffels E, Kortum RL. The Role of Wild-Type RAS in Oncogenic RAS Transformation. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12050662. [PMID: 33924994 PMCID: PMC8146411 DOI: 10.3390/genes12050662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The RAS family of oncogenes (HRAS, NRAS, and KRAS) are among the most frequently mutated protein families in cancers. RAS-mutated tumors were originally thought to proliferate independently of upstream signaling inputs, but we now know that non-mutated wild-type (WT) RAS proteins play an important role in modulating downstream effector signaling and driving therapeutic resistance in RAS-mutated cancers. This modulation is complex as different WT RAS family members have opposing functions. The protein product of the WT RAS allele of the same isoform as mutated RAS is often tumor-suppressive and lost during tumor progression. In contrast, RTK-dependent activation of the WT RAS proteins from the two non-mutated WT RAS family members is tumor-promoting. Further, rebound activation of RTK–WT RAS signaling underlies therapeutic resistance to targeted therapeutics in RAS-mutated cancers. The contributions of WT RAS to proliferation and transformation in RAS-mutated cancer cells places renewed interest in upstream signaling molecules, including the phosphatase/adaptor SHP2 and the RasGEFs SOS1 and SOS2, as potential therapeutic targets in RAS-mutated cancers.
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30
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Ramharter J, Kessler D, Ettmayer P, Hofmann MH, Gerstberger T, Gmachl M, Wunberg T, Kofink C, Sanderson M, Arnhof H, Bader G, Rumpel K, Zöphel A, Schnitzer R, Böttcher J, O'Connell JC, Mendes RL, Richard D, Pototschnig N, Weiner I, Hela W, Hauer K, Haering D, Lamarre L, Wolkerstorfer B, Salamon C, Werni P, Munico-Martinez S, Meyer R, Kennedy MD, Kraut N, McConnell DB. One Atom Makes All the Difference: Getting a Foot in the Door between SOS1 and KRAS. J Med Chem 2021; 64:6569-6580. [PMID: 33719426 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c01949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
KRAS, the most common oncogenic driver in human cancers, is controlled and signals primarily through protein-protein interactions (PPIs). The interaction between KRAS and SOS1, crucial for the activation of KRAS, is a typical, challenging PPI with a large contact surface area and high affinity. Here, we report that the addition of only one atom placed between Y884SOS1 and A73KRAS is sufficient to convert SOS1 activators into SOS1 inhibitors. We also disclose the discovery of BI-3406. Combination with the upstream EGFR inhibitor afatinib shows in vivo efficacy against KRASG13D mutant colorectal tumor cells, demonstrating the utility of BI-3406 to probe SOS1 biology. These findings challenge the dogma that large molecules are required to disrupt challenging PPIs. Instead, a "foot in the door" approach, whereby single atoms or small functional groups placed between key PPI interactions, can lead to potent inhibitors even for challenging PPIs such as SOS1-KRAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juergen Ramharter
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Dirk Kessler
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter Ettmayer
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Marco H Hofmann
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Gerstberger
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Gmachl
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Tobias Wunberg
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Christiane Kofink
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Sanderson
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Heribert Arnhof
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerd Bader
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Klaus Rumpel
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Andreas Zöphel
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Renate Schnitzer
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jark Böttcher
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jonathan C O'Connell
- Forma Therapeutics, 500 Arsenal Street, Suite 100, Watertown, Massachusetts 02472, United States
| | - Rachel L Mendes
- Forma Therapeutics, 500 Arsenal Street, Suite 100, Watertown, Massachusetts 02472, United States
| | - David Richard
- Forma Therapeutics, 500 Arsenal Street, Suite 100, Watertown, Massachusetts 02472, United States
| | - Nikolai Pototschnig
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Irene Weiner
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Hela
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Katja Hauer
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Daniela Haering
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Lyne Lamarre
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Bernhard Wolkerstorfer
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Christian Salamon
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Patrick Werni
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Silvia Munico-Martinez
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Reiner Meyer
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthew D Kennedy
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Norbert Kraut
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
| | - Darryl B McConnell
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, A-1121 Vienna, Austria
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Sheffels E, Sealover NE, Theard PL, Kortum RL. Anchorage-independent growth conditions reveal a differential SOS2 dependence for transformation and survival in RAS-mutant cancer cells. Small GTPases 2021; 12:67-78. [PMID: 31062644 PMCID: PMC7781674 DOI: 10.1080/21541248.2019.1611168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The RAS family of genes (HRAS, NRAS, and KRAS) is mutated in around 30% of human tumours. Wild-type RAS isoforms play an important role in mutant RAS-driven oncogenesis, indicating that RasGEFs may play a significant role in mutant RAS-driven transformation. We recently reported a hierarchical requirement for SOS2 in mutant RAS-driven transformation in mouse embryonic fibroblasts, with KRAS>NRAS>HRAS (Sheffels et al., 2018). However, whether SOS2 deletion differentially affects mutant RAS isoform-dependent transformation in human tumour cell lines has not been tested. After validating sgRNAs that efficiently deleted HRAS and NRAS, we showed that the differential requirement for SOS2 to support anchorage-independent (3D) growth, which we previously demonstrated in MEFs, held true in cancer cells. KRAS-mutant cells showed a high dependence on SOS2 for 3D growth, as previously shown, whereas HRAS-mutant cells did not require SOS2 for 3D growth. This differential requirement was not due to differences in RTK-stimulated WT RAS activation, as SOS2 deletion reduced RTK-stimulated WT RAS/PI3K/AKT signalling in both HRAS and KRAS mutated cell lines. Instead, this differential requirement of SOS2 to promote transformation was due to the differential sensitivity of RAS-mutated cancer cells to reductions in WT RAS/PI3K/AKT signalling. KRAS mutated cancer cells required SOS2/PI3K signaling to protect them from anoikis, whereas survival of both HRAS and NRAS mutated cancer cells was not altered by SOS2 deletion. Finally, we present an integrated working model of SOS signaling in the context of mutant KRAS based on our findings and those of others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin Sheffels
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Nancy E. Sealover
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Patricia L. Theard
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Robert L. Kortum
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Baltanás FC, Zarich N, Rojas-Cabañeros JM, Santos E. SOS GEFs in health and disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2020; 1874:188445. [PMID: 33035641 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2020.188445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
SOS1 and SOS2 are the most universal and widely expressed family of guanine exchange factors (GEFs) capable or activating RAS or RAC1 proteins in metazoan cells. SOS proteins contain a sequence of modular domains that are responsible for different intramolecular and intermolecular interactions modulating mechanisms of self-inhibition, allosteric activation and intracellular homeostasis. Despite their homology, analyses of SOS1/2-KO mice demonstrate functional prevalence of SOS1 over SOS2 in cellular processes including proliferation, migration, inflammation or maintenance of intracellular redox homeostasis, although some functional redundancy cannot be excluded, particularly at the organismal level. Specific SOS1 gain-of-function mutations have been identified in inherited RASopathies and various sporadic human cancers. SOS1 depletion reduces tumorigenesis mediated by RAS or RAC1 in mouse models and is associated with increased intracellular oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Since WT RAS is essential for development of RAS-mutant tumors, the SOS GEFs may be considered as relevant biomarkers or therapy targets in RAS-dependent cancers. Inhibitors blocking SOS expression, intrinsic GEF activity, or productive SOS protein-protein interactions with cellular regulators and/or RAS/RAC targets have been recently developed and shown preclinical and clinical effectiveness blocking aberrant RAS signaling in RAS-driven and RTK-driven tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando C Baltanás
- Centro de Investigación del Cáncer - IBMCC (CSIC-USAL) and CIBERONC, Universidad de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Natasha Zarich
- Unidad Funcional de Investigación de Enfermedades Crónicas (UFIEC) and CIBERONC, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28220, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose M Rojas-Cabañeros
- Unidad Funcional de Investigación de Enfermedades Crónicas (UFIEC) and CIBERONC, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28220, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Eugenio Santos
- Centro de Investigación del Cáncer - IBMCC (CSIC-USAL) and CIBERONC, Universidad de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain.
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Theard PL, Sheffels E, Sealover NE, Linke AJ, Pratico DJ, Kortum RL. Marked synergy by vertical inhibition of EGFR signaling in NSCLC spheroids shows SOS1 is a therapeutic target in EGFR-mutated cancer. eLife 2020; 9:58204. [PMID: 32897190 PMCID: PMC7478890 DOI: 10.7554/elife.58204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug treatment of 3D cancer spheroids more accurately reflects in vivo therapeutic responses compared to adherent culture studies. In EGFR-mutated lung adenocarcinoma, EGFR-TKIs show enhanced efficacy in spheroid cultures. Simultaneous inhibition of multiple parallel RTKs further enhances EGFR-TKI effectiveness. We show that the common RTK signaling intermediate SOS1 was required for 3D spheroid growth of EGFR-mutated NSCLC cells. Using two distinct measures of pharmacologic synergy, we demonstrated that SOS1 inhibition strongly synergized with EGFR-TKI treatment only in 3D spheroid cultures. Combined EGFR- and SOS1-inhibition markedly inhibited Raf/MEK/ERK and PI3K/AKT signaling. Finally, broad assessment of the pharmacologic landscape of drug-drug interactions downstream of mutated EGFR revealed synergy when combining an EGFR-TKI with inhibitors of proximal signaling intermediates SOS1 and SHP2, but not inhibitors of downstream RAS effector pathways. These data indicate that vertical inhibition of proximal EGFR signaling should be pursued as a potential therapy to treat EGFR-mutated tumors. Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. In non-smokers, this disease is usually caused by a mutation in a protein found on the surface of a cell, called EGFR. In healthy lung cells, these proteins trigger a chain of chemical signals that tell the cells to multiply. However, faulty forms of EFGR make the cells grow uncontrollably, leading to the formation of tumors. Current treatments use EGFR inhibitors that block the activity of these proteins. But cancer cells often become resistant to these treatments by activating other types of growth proteins. One way to overcome this resistance has been by targeting the signaling pathways within individual tumors. But since those pathways differ between tumors, it has been challenging to find a single therapy that can treat all drug-resistant cancer cells. Now, Theard et al. assessed the therapeutic effects of blocking a specific protein inside lung cells, called SOS1, which is involved in growth signaling in all tumor cells. Six different types of human lung cancer cells were used, all of which had faulty forms of EGFR, with three of the cell types showing drug resistance to current therapies. The cancer cells were either exposed to EGFR inhibitors only or to a combination of EGFR and SOS1 inhibitors. The most effective treatment was found to be through combinational therapy, with enhanced killing of drug-resistant cells. Theard et al. further assessed the effect of combinational therapy using cells kept in two different ways. Cancer cells were either grown in a two-dimensional format, with cells forming a single cell layer, or in a three-dimensional format, where cells were multi-layered and grew on top of each other as self-aggregating spheroids. Combinational therapy treatment was only successful when the cells where grown in a three-dimensional format. These findings highlight that future drug development studies should give consideration to the way cells are grown, as it can impact the results. They also provide a steppingstone towards tackling drug resistance in lung cancers that arise from EGFR mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia L Theard
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, United States
| | - Erin Sheffels
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, United States
| | - Nancy E Sealover
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, United States
| | - Amanda J Linke
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, United States
| | - David J Pratico
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, United States
| | - Robert L Kortum
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, United States
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Stalnecker CA, Der CJ. RAS, wanted dead or alive: Advances in targeting RAS mutant cancers. Sci Signal 2020; 13:13/624/eaay6013. [PMID: 32209699 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.aay6013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Oncogenic RAS proteins, which are mutated in approximately 24% of all human cancers, have earned a well-deserved reputation as being "undruggable." However, several studies have challenged that reputation. With the first small molecules that directly target one oncogenic RAS mutant (G12C) undergoing clinical evaluation, there have been substantial advances in finding anti-RAS therapeutic strategies. Furthermore, new insights have come from the growing appreciation that neither all RAS proteins (HRAS, NRAS, and KRAS4A/KRAS4B) nor all oncogenic RAS mutations (such as at residues Gly12, Gly13, and Gln61) have the same impact on RAS signaling and function. The role of the nonmutated, wild-type RAS proteins in the context of mutant RAS is increasingly considered to be targetable, with reports of strategies that directly disrupt either the RAS interaction with activating guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) or receptor tyrosine kinase-mediated and GEF-dependent RAS activation (such as by targeting the scaffolding phosphatase SHP2). Last, the development of agents that target downstream effectors of RAS signaling has advanced substantially. In this review, we highlight some important trends in the targeting of RAS proteins in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clint A Stalnecker
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Channing J Der
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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Zou A, Wu A, Luo M, Zhou C, Lu Y, Yu X. SHCBP1 promotes cisplatin induced apoptosis resistance, migration and invasion through activating Wnt pathway. Life Sci 2019; 235:116798. [PMID: 31472149 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.116798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Lung cancer is the leading cause for cancer death due to refractory nature to current treatment strategies, understanding the regulatory mechanism of therapy resistance of lung cancer is important for lung cancer therapy. Here, we aimed to study the role of SHCBP1 in lung cancer cisplatin resistance, we found SHCBP1 was upregulated in lung cancer tissues and cells, patients with high SHCBP1 had poor prognosis. SHC binding and spindle associated 1 (SHCBP1) overexpression promoted cisplatin induced apoptosis resistance, migration and invasion determined by apoptosis assay and transwell assay with or without Matrigel, while SHCBP1 knockdown inhibited cisplatin induced apoptosis resistance, migration and invasion. Wnt pathway promoted lung cancer progression, we found SHCBP1 activated Wnt pathway, characterized by promoting β-catenin nuclear translocation. Inhibition of Wnt pathway in SHCBP1 overexpression cells reversed the effect of SHCBP1 overexpression, confirming SHCBP1 promoted lung cancer progression through activating Wnt pathway. We also found SHCBP1 expression was positively corrected with Wnt pathway activity in lung cancer samples. In summary, we found SHCBP1 promoted cisplatin induced apoptosis resistance, migration and invasion through activating Wnt pathway, providing a potential target for lung cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimei Zou
- Department of Oncology, Shunde Hospital of Southern Medical University (The First People's Hospital of Shunde, Foshan, China
| | - Aibing Wu
- Department of Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Meihua Luo
- Department of Oncology, Shunde Hospital of Southern Medical University (The First People's Hospital of Shunde, Foshan, China
| | - Chengyu Zhou
- Department of Oncology, Shunde Hospital of Southern Medical University (The First People's Hospital of Shunde, Foshan, China
| | - Yan Lu
- International Translational Medical Research Center, Shunde Hospital of Southern Medical University (The First People's Hospital of Shunde, Foshan, China.
| | - Xinfa Yu
- Department of Oncology, Shunde Hospital of Southern Medical University (The First People's Hospital of Shunde, Foshan, China.
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36
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Schulten HJ, Bakhashab S. Meta-Analysis of Microarray Expression Studies on Metformin in Cancer Cell Lines. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20133173. [PMID: 31261735 PMCID: PMC6650866 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20133173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Several studies have demonstrated that metformin (MTF) acts with variable efficiency as an anticancer agent. The pleiotropic anticancer effects of MTF on cancer cells have not been fully explored yet. By interrogating the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) for microarray expression data, we identified eight eligible submissions, representing five different studies, that employed various conditions including different cell lines, MTF concentrations, treatment durations, and cellular components. A compilation of the data sets of 13 different conditions contained 443 repeatedly up- and 387 repeatedly down-regulated genes; the majority of these 830 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were associated with higher MTF concentrations and longer MTF treatment. The most frequently upregulated genes include DNA damage inducible transcript 4 (DDIT4), chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 2 (CHD2), endoplasmic reticulum to nucleus signaling 1 (ERN1), and growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15). The most commonly downregulated genes include arrestin domain containing 4 (ARRDC4), and thioredoxin interacting protein (TXNIP). The most significantly (p-value < 0.05, Fisher’s exact test) overrepresented protein class was entitled, nucleic acid binding. Cholesterol biosynthesis and other metabolic pathways were specifically affected by downregulated pathway molecules. In addition, cell cycle pathways were significantly related to the data set. Generated networks were significantly related to, e.g., carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, cancer, cell cycle, and DNA replication, recombination, and repair. A second compilation comprised genes that were at least under one condition up- and in at least another condition down-regulated. Herein, the most frequently deregulated genes include nuclear paraspeckle assembly transcript 1 (NEAT1) and insulin induced gene 1 (INSIG1). The most significantly overrepresented protein classes in this compilation were entitled, nucleic acid binding, ubiquitin-protein ligase, and mRNA processing factor. In conclusion, this study provides a comprehensive list of deregulated genes and biofunctions related to in vitro MTF application and individual responses to different conditions. Biofunctions affected by MTF include, e.g., cholesterol synthesis and other metabolic pathways, cell cycle, and DNA replication, recombination, and repair. These findings can assist in defining the conditions in which MTF exerts additive or synergistic effects in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Juergen Schulten
- Center of Excellence in Genomic Medicine Research, Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80216, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Sherin Bakhashab
- Biochemistry Department, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80218, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
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