How diverse is the genus Wolbachia? Multiple-gene sequencing reveals a putatively new Wolbachia supergroup recovered from spider mites (Acari: Tetranychidae)

Wolbachia of phylogenetic supergroup K identified in oribatid mite Nothrus anauniensis (Acari: Oribatida: Nothridae)

Heritable endosymbionts widely occur in arthropod and nematode hosts. Among these endosymbionts, Wolbachia has been extensively detected in many arthropods, such as insects and crustaceans. Maternal inheritance is the most basic and dominant mode of transmission of Wolbachia, and it might regulate the reproductive system of the host in four ways: feminization, parthenogenesis, male killing, and cytoplasmic incompatibility. There is a relatively high percentage (10%) of thelytokous species in Oribatida, a suborder under the subclass Acari of arthropods, but the study of the endosymbionts in oribatid mites is almost negligible. In this paper, we detected endosymbiotic bacteria in two parthenogenetic oribatid species, Nothrus anauniensis Canestrini and Fanzago, 1877, which has never been tested for endosymbionts, and Oppiella nova, in which Wolbachia and Cardinium have been reported before. The results showed that Wolbachia was first found in N. anauniensis with an infection rate of 100% across three populations. Phylogenetic analysis showed that Wolbachia in N. anauniensis belonged to the supergroup K, marking the second supergroup of Wolbachia found in oribatid mites. Unlike previous studies, our study did not detect Wolbachia in O. nova, leading to the exclusion of Wolbachia's role in mediating thelytoky in this species.

Further evidence of low infection frequencies of Wolbachia in soil arthropod communities

Endosymbiotic Alphaproteobacteria of the genus Wolbachia are exclusively transferred maternally from mother to offspring, but horizontal transfer across species boundaries seems to be frequent as well. However, the (ecological) mechanisms of how these bacteria are transferred between distantly related arthropod hosts remain unclear. Based on the observation that species that are part of the same ecological community often also share similar Wolbachia strains, host ecology has been hypothesized as an important factor enabling transmission and a key factor in explaining the global distribution of Wolbachia lineages. In this study, we focus on the diversity and abundance of Wolbachia strains in soil arthropods, a so far rather neglected community. We screened 82 arthropod morphotypes collected in the beech forest (dominated by Fagus sp.) soil in the area of Göttingen in central Germany for the presence of Wolbachia. By performing a PCR screen with Wolbachia-MLST markers (coxA, dnaA, fbpA, ftsZ, gatB, and hcpA), we found a rather low infection frequency of 12,2%. Additionally, we performed metagenomic screening of pooled individuals from the same sampling site and could not find evidence that this low infection frequency is an artefact due to PCR-primer bias. Phylogenetic analyses of the recovered Wolbachia strains grouped them in three known supergroups (A, B, and E), with the first report of Wolbachia in Protura (Hexapoda). Moreover, Wolbachia sequences from the pseudoscorpion Neobisium carcinoides cluster outside the currently known supergroup diversity. Our screening supports results from previous studies that the prevalence of Wolbachia infections seems to be lower in soil habitats than in above-ground terrestrial habitats. The reasons for this pattern are not completely understood but might stem from the low opportunity of physical contact and the prevalence of supergroups that are less suited for horizontal transfer.

A survey of Wolbachia infection in brachyceran flies from Iran

Wolbachia is a maternally inherited intracellular bacterium that is considered to be the most plentiful endosymbiont found in arthropods. It reproductively manipulates its host to increase the chances of being transmitted to the insect progeny; and it is currently used as a means of suppressing disease vector populations or controlling vector-borne diseases. Studies of the dissemination and prevalence of Wolbachia among its arthropod hosts are important for its possible use as a biological control agent. The molecular identification of Wolbachia relies on different primers sets due to Wolbachia strain variation. Here, we screened for the presence of Wolbachia in a broad range of Brachycera fly species (Diptera), collected from different regions of Iran, using nine genetic markers (wsp, ftsZ, fbpA, gatB, CoxA, gltA, GroEL dnaA, and 16s rRNA), for detecting, assessing the sensitivity of primers for detection, and phylogeny of this bacterium. The overall incidence of Wolbachia among 22 species from six families was 27.3%. The most commonly positive fly species were Pollenia sp. and Hydrotaea armipes. However, the bacterium was not found in the most medically important flies or in potential human disease vectors, including Musca domestica, Sarcophaga spp., Calliphora vicinia, Lucilia sericata, and Chrysomya albiceps. The primer sets of 16s rRNA with 53.0% and gatB with 52.0% were the most sensitive primers for detecting Wolbachia. Blast search, phylogenetic, and MLST analysis of the different locus sequences of Wolbachia show that all the six distantly related fly species likely belonging to supergroup A. Our study showed some primer sets generated false negatives in many of the samples, emphasizing the importance of using different loci in detecting Wolbachia. The study provides the groundwork for future studies of a Wolbachia-based program for control of flies.

Wolbachia supergroup A in Enoplognatha latimana (Araneae: Theridiidae) in Poland as an example of possible horizontal transfer of bacteria

Wolbachia (phylum Pseudomonadota, class Alfaproteobacteria, order Rickettsiales, family Ehrlichiaceae) is a maternally inherited bacterial symbiont infecting more than half of arthropod species worldwide and constituting an important force in the evolution, biology, and ecology of invertebrate hosts. Our study contributes to the limited knowledge regarding the presence of intracellular symbiotic bacteria in spiders. Specifically, we investigated the occurrence of Wolbachia infection in the spider species Enoplognatha latimana Hippa and Oksala, 1982 (Araneae: Theridiidae) using a sample collected in north-western Poland. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of Wolbachia infection in E. latimana. A phylogeny based on the sequence analysis of multiple genes, including 16S rRNA, coxA, fbpA, ftsZ, gatB, gltA, groEL, hcpA, and wsp revealed that Wolbachia from the spider represented supergroup A and was related to bacterial endosymbionts discovered in other spider hosts, as well as insects of the orders Diptera and Hymenoptera. A sequence unique for Wolbachia supergroup A was detected for the ftsZ gene. The sequences of Wolbachia housekeeping genes have been deposited in publicly available databases and are an important source of molecular data for comparative studies. The etiology of Wolbachia infection in E. latimana is discussed.

Genetic diversity of endosymbiotic bacteria Wolbachia infecting two mosquito species of the genus Eretmapodites occurring in sympatry in the Comoros archipelago

Introduction

The influence of Wolbachia on mosquito reproduction and vector competence has led to renewed interest in studying the genetic diversity of these bacteria and the phenotypes they induced in mosquito vectors. In this study, we focused on two species of Eretmapodites, namely Eretmapodites quinquevittatus and Eretmapodites subsimplicipes, from three islands in the Comoros archipelago (in the Southwestern Indian Ocean).

Methods

Using the COI gene, we examined the mitochondrial genetic diversity of 879 Eretmapodites individuals from 54 sites. Additionally, we investigated the presence and genetic diversity of Wolbachia using the wsp marker and the diversity of five housekeeping genes commonly used for genotyping through Multiple Locus Sequence Typing (MLST).

Results and discussion

Overall, Er. quinquevittatus was the most abundant species in the three surveyed islands and both mosquito species occurred in sympatry in most of the investigated sites. We detected a higher mitochondrial genetic diversity in Er. quinquevittatus with 35 reported haplotypes (N = 615 specimens, Hd = 0.481 and π = 0.002) while 13 haplotypes were found in Er. subsimplicipes (N = 205 specimens, Hd = 0.338 and π = 0.001), this difference is likely due to the bias in sampling size between the two species. We report for the first time the presence of Wolbachia in these two Eretmapodites species. The prevalence of Wolbachia infection varied significantly between species, with a low prevalence recorded in Er. quinquevittatus (0.8%, N = 5/627) while infection was close to fixation in Er. subsimplicipes (87.7%, N = 221/252). Both male and female individuals of the two mosquito species appeared to be infected. The analysis of MLST genes revealed the presence of two Wolbachia strains corresponding to two new strain types (STs) within the supergroups A and B, which have been named wEretA and wEretB. These strains were found as mono-infections and are closely related, phylogenetically, to Wolbachia strains previously reported in Drosophila species. Finally, we demonstrate that maternal transmission of Wolbachia is imperfect in Er. subsimplicipes, which could explain the presence of a minority of uninfected individuals in the field.

Detection and quantification of natural Wolbachia in Aedes aegypti in Metropolitan Manila, Philippines using locally designed primers

Background

The Philippines bears health and economic burden caused by high dengue cases annually. Presently, the Philippines still lack an effective and sustainable vector management. The use of Wolbachia, a maternally transmitted bacterium, that mitigate arbovirus transmission has been recommended. Cytoplasmic incompatibility and viral blocking, two characteristics that make Wolbachia suitable for vector control, depend on infection prevalence and density. There are no current Wolbachia release programs in the Philippines, and studies regarding the safety of this intervention. Here, we screened for Wolbachia in Aedes aegypti collected from Metropolitan Manila, Philippines. We designed location-specific primers for qPCR to test whether this improved Wolbachia detection in Ae. aegypti. We explored if host sex and Wolbachia strain could be potential factors affecting Wolbachia density.

Methods

Ae. aegypti mosquitoes (n=429) were screened for natural Wolbachia by taqman qPCR using location-specific Wolbachia surface protein primers (wspAAML) and known 16S rRNA primers. Samples positive for wspAAML (n=267) were processed for Sanger sequencing. We constructed a phylogenetic tree using IQ-TREE 2 to further characterize Wolbachia present in the Philippine Ae. aegypti. We then compared Wolbachia densities between Wolbachia groups and host sex. Statistical analyses were done using GraphPad Prism 9.0.

Results

Wolbachia prevalence for 16S rRNA (40%) and wspAAML (62%) markers were high. Wolbachia relative densities for 16S rRNA ranged from -3.84 to 2.71 and wspAAML from -4.02 to 1.81. Densities were higher in male than female mosquitoes. Wolbachia strains detected in Ae. aegypti clustered into supergroup B. Some 54% (123/226) of these sequences clustered under a group referred to here as "wAegML," that belongs to the supergroup B, which had a significantly lower density than wAegB/wAlbB, and wAlbA strains.

Conclusion

Location-specific primers improved detection of natural Wolbachia in Ae. aegypti and allowed for relative quantification. Wolbachia density is relatively low, and differed between host sexes and Wolbachia strains. An economical way of confirming sporadic or transient Wolbachia in Ae. aegypti is necessary while considering host sex and bacterial strain.

Genetic diversity and characterization of Wolbachia endosymbiont in canine filariasis

Canine filariasis is caused by nematodes from the family Onchocercidae, which is transmitted by arthropod vectors. The disease is commonly found in Southeast Asia and exists worldwide. Some filarial nematodes are associated with intracellular bacteria of the genus Wolbachia, which plays an important role in embryogenesis, molting, and the long-term survival of adult worms. This study aims to characterize Wolbachia sp. and determine the association between Wolbachia and canine filarial nematode species in Thailand. A total of 46 dog blood samples that were naturally infected with filarial nematodes were obtained to identify filarial nematode species by Giemsa stained under a light microscope and confirmed using the molecular technique. In order to characterize Wolbachia sp., the nested PCR assay targeting the 16S rRNA gene showed that all samples of Dirofilaria immitis and fifteen samples of Candidatus Dirofilaria hongkongensis were grouped into Wolbachia supergroup C. In addition, all samples of Brugia spp. and five samples of Candidatus Dirofilaria hongkongensis were classified into Wolbachia supergroup D. The genetic diversity analysis conducted using the 16S rRNA gene revealed a similar result when analyzed through phylogenetic tree analysis. This is the first genetic diversity study of Wolbachia of Candidatus Dirofilaria hongkongensis in infected dogs in Thailand.

Detection and Characterisation of Endosymbiont Wolbachia (Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae) in Elaeidobius kamerunicus (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea), Pollinating Agent of Oil Palm, and Its Relationships between Populations

Elaeidobius kamerunicus is the most efficient pollinator of oil palm. Wolbachia is an endosymbiotic bacteria associated with E. kamerunicus that has a potential to affect the fecundity and fitness of the E. kamerunicus. Despite their importance, no studies have been conducted to investigate its prevalence in E. kamerunicus. The objectives of this study were to detect and characterise Wolbachia in E. kamerunicus and determine the phylogenetic relationship of Wolbachia strains that infect E. kamerunicus by using three genetic markers namely Filamenting temperature-sensitive mutant Z (ftsZ), Chaperonin folding protein (groEL), and Citrate Synthase Coding Gene (gltA). DNA was extracted from 210 individuals of E. kamerunicus and the Wolbachia infections were detected using the wsp marker. The infected samples (n = 25, 11.9%) were then sequenced using ftsZ, gltA and groEL markers for strain characterization. In this study, a combination of four markers was used to construct the phylogeny of Wolbachia. Similar topologies were shown in all trees; Neighbour-Joining (NJ), Maximum Parsimony (MP), and Bayesian Inference (BI), which showed the mixing of individuals that harbor Wolbachia between populations. Interestingly, Wolbachia on E. kamerunicus was claded together with the species Drosophila simulans under supergroup B. This is the first report of Wolbachia infecting E. kamerunicus which is very valuable and significant as one of the parameters to evaluate the quality of the E. kamerunicus population for sustaining its function as a great pollinator for oil palm.

Complete De Novo Assembly of Wolbachia Endosymbiont of Frankliniella intonsa

As an endosymbiont, Wolbachia exerts significant effects on the host, including on reproduction, immunity, and metabolism. However, the study of Wolbachia in Thysanopteran insects, such as flower thrips Frankliniella intonsa, remains limited. Here, we assembled a gap-free looped genome assembly of Wolbachia strain wFI in a length of 1,463,884 bp (GC content 33.80%), using Nanopore long reads and Illumina short reads. The annotation of wFI identified a total of 1838 protein-coding genes (including 85 pseudogenes), 3 ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), 35 transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and 1 transfer-messenger RNA (tmRNA). Beyond this basic description, we identified mobile genetic elements, such as prophage and insertion sequences (ISs), which make up 17% of the entire wFI genome, as well as genes involved in riboflavin and biotin synthesis and metabolism. This research lays the foundation for understanding the nutritional mutualism between Wolbachia and flower thrips. It also serves as a valuable resource for future studies delving into the intricate interactions between Wolbachia and its host.

Playing Peekaboo with a Master Manipulator: Metagenetic Detection and Phylogenetic Analysis of Wolbachia Supergroups in Freshwater Invertebrates

The infamous "master manipulators"-intracellular bacteria of the genus Wolbachia-infect a broad range of phylogenetically diverse invertebrate hosts in terrestrial ecosystems. Wolbachia has an important impact on the ecology and evolution of their host with documented effects including induced parthenogenesis, male killing, feminization, and cytoplasmic incompatibility. Nonetheless, data on Wolbachia infections in non-terrestrial invertebrates are scarce. Sampling bias and methodological limitations are some of the reasons limiting the detection of these bacteria in aquatic organisms. In this study, we present a new metagenetic method for detecting the co-occurrence of different Wolbachia strains in freshwater invertebrates host species, i.e., freshwater Arthropoda (Crustacea), Mollusca (Bivalvia), and water bears (Tardigrada) by applying NGS primers designed by us and a Python script that allows the identification of Wolbachia target sequences from the microbiome communities. We also compare the results obtained using the commonly applied NGS primers and the Sanger sequencing approach. Finally, we describe three supergroups of Wolbachia: (i) a new supergroup V identified in Crustacea and Bivalvia hosts; (ii) supergroup A identified in Crustacea, Bivalvia, and Eutardigrada hosts, and (iii) supergroup E infection in the Crustacea host microbiome community.

Wolbachia springs eternal: symbiosis in Collembola is associated with host ecology

Wolbachia are endosymbiotic alpha-proteobacteria infecting a wide range of arthropods and nematode hosts with diverse interactions, from reproductive parasites to obligate mutualists. Their taxonomy is defined by lineages called supergroups (labelled by letters of the alphabet), while their evolutionary history is complex, with multiple horizontal transfers and secondary losses. One of the least recently derived, supergroup E, infects springtails (Collembola), widely distributed hexapods, with sexual and/or parthenogenetic populations depending on species. To better characterize the diversity of Wolbachia infecting springtails, the presence of Wolbachia was screened in 58 species. Eleven (20%) species were found to be positive, with three Wolbachia genotypes identified for the first time in supergroup A. The novel genotypes infect springtails ecologically and biologically different from those infected by supergroup E. To root the Wolbachia phylogeny, rather than distant other Rickettsiales, supergroup L infecting plant-parasitic nematodes was used here. We hypothesize that the ancestor of Wolbachia was consumed by soil-dwelling nematodes, and was transferred horizontally via plants into aphids, which then infected edaphic arthropods (e.g. springtails and oribatid mites) before expanding into most clades of terrestrial arthropods and filarial nematodes.

The phylogeny and distribution of Wolbachia in two pathogen vector insects, Asian citrus psyllid and Longan psyllid

Background

Wolbachia is the most abundant bacterial endosymbiont among insects. It can play a prominent role in the development, reproduction and immunity of its given insect host. To date, Wolbachia presence is well studied within aphids, whiteflies and planthoppers, but relatively few studies have investigated its presence in psyllids.

Methods

Here, the infection status of Wolbachia in five species of psyllid, including Asian citrus psyllid Diaphorina citri and longan psyllid Cornegenapsylla sinica was investigated. The phylogenetic relationships of different Wolbachia lines and their infection density and patterns in D. citri and C. sinica from different countries was also examined.

Results

The infection rates of Wolbachia in D. citri and C. sinica were both 100%, and their sequencing types are ST173 and ST532 respectively. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the Wolbachia lines in D. citri and C. sinica both belong to the Con subgroup of Wolbachia supergroup B. In addition, Wolbachia displayed a scattered localization pattern in the 5th instar nymphs and in the reproductive organs of both D. citri and C. sinica but differed in other tissues; it was highest in the midgut, lowest in the salivary glands and medium in both the testes and ovaries.

Conclusion

Our findings assist in further understanding the coevolution of Wolbachia and its psyllid hosts. Given that Wolbachia could play an important role in insect pest control and pathogen transmission inhibition, our findings may also provide new insights for development of control strategies for D. citri and C. sinica.

Evidence of new strains of Wolbachia symbiont colonising semiaquatic bugs (Hemiptera: Gerroidea) in mangrove environment of the Lesser Antilles

Wolbachia Hertig, 1936 is an intracellular bacterial symbiont colonizing many arthropods. Of the studies done on the bacteria present in the superfamily Gerroidea Leach, 1815, no report of Wolbachia infection had yet been made. Thus, we checked the presence of Wolbachia in six Gerroidea species which colonize tropical aquatic environments by PCR using wsp primer set before sequencing and phylogenetic analyses. Insects were collected in the marine fringe of mangroves, in river estuaries, in swampy mangroves, and in ponds from Guadeloupe islands (Caribbean). Two new strains of Wolbachia were detected in these Gerroidea. They were named wLfran and wRmang. The wsp sequences suggest that the strains belong to the already described E supergroup or similar. wLfran is present in Limnogonus franciscanus Stål, 1859 and Rheumatobates trinitatis (China, 1943) while wRmang appears to be present exclusively in R. mangrovensis (China, 1943). Three other species were analysed, but did not appear to be infected: Brachymetra albinerva (Amyot & Serville, 1843), Halobates micans Eschscheltz, 1822, and Microvelia pulchella Westwood, 1834. The results presented here highlight for the first time the presence of new intracellular Wolbachia strains in Gerroidea colonising tropical aquatic environments like mangrove habitats from inlands to sea shore.

Australian Bryobia mites (Trombidiformes: Tetranychidae) form a complex of cryptic taxa with unique climatic niches and insecticide responses

BACKGROUND

Bryobia (Koch) mites belong to the economically important spider mite family, the Tetranychidae, with >130 species described worldwide. Due to taxonomic difficulties and most species being asexual, species identification relies heavily on genetic markers. Multiple putative Bryobia mite species have been identified attacking pastures and grain crops in Australia. In this study, we collected 79 field populations of Bryobia mites and combined these with 134 populations that were collected previously. We characterised taxonomic variation of mites using 28S rDNA amplicon-based DNA metabarcoding using next-generation sequencing approaches and direct Sanger sequencing. We then undertook species distribution modelling of the main genetic lineages and examined the chemical responses of multiple field populations.

RESULTS

We identified 47 unique haplotypes across all mites sampled that grouped into four distinct genetic lineages. These lineages have different distributions, with three of the four putative lineages showing different climatic envelopes, as inferred from species distribution modelling. Bryobia mite populations also showed different responses to a widely used insecticide (the organophosphate, omethoate), but not to another chemical (the pyrethroid, bifenthrin) when examined using laboratory bioassays.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that cryptic diversity is likely to complicate the formulation of management strategies for Bryobia mites. Although focussed on Australia, this study demonstrates the challenges of studying Bryobia and highlights the importance of further research into this complex group of mites across the world. © 2022 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Morphological, Molecular and MALDI-TOF MS Identification of Bedbugs and Associated Wolbachia Species in Rural Senegal

Bed bugs are known to carry several microorganisms. The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of bed bug infestation in two rural areas of Senegal and determine the species present in the population. A screening was conducted to detect some arthropod associated pathogenic bacteria in bed bugs and to evaluate the prevalence of endosymbiont carriage. One survey took place in 17 villages in Niakhar and two surveys in Dielmo and Ndiop and surroundings area in the same 20 villages. Bed bugs collected were identified morphologically and by MALDI-TOF MS tools. Microorganisms screening was performed by qPCR and confirmed by sequencing. During the survey in the Niakhar region, only one household 1/255 (0.4%) in the village of Ngayokhem was found infested by bed bugs. In a monitoring survey of the surroundings of Dielmo and Ndiop area, high prevalence was found during the two rounds of surveys in 65/314 (21%) in 16/20 villages (January-March) and 93/351 (26%) in 19/20 villages (December). All bed bugs were morphologically identified as the species Cimex hemipterus, of which 285/1,637 (17%) were randomly selected for MALDI-TOF MS analysis and bacteria screening. Among the Bacteria tested only Wolbachia (Alphaproteobacteria, Rickettsiales, Rickettsiaceae) DNA was found in 248/276 (90%) of the bedbugs. We briefly describe a high level of non-generalized bed bug infestation in rural Senegal and the diversity of Wolbachia strains carried by C. hemipterus. This study opens perspectives for raising household awareness of bed bug infestations and possibilities for appropriate control.

Molecular and MALDI-TOF MS identification of swallow bugs Cimex hirundinis (Heteroptera: Cimicidae) and endosymbionts in France

Background

The Cimicidae are obligatory blood-feeding ectoparasites of medical and veterinary importance. We aim in the current study to assess the ability of MALDI-TOF MS to identify Cimex hirundinis swallow bugs collected in house martin nests.

Methods

Swallow bugs were picked out from abandoned nests of house martin swallows and identified morphologically to the species level. The bugs were randomly selected, dissected and then subjected to MALDI-TOF MS and molecular analyses.

Results

A total of 65 adults and 50 nymphs were used in the attempt to determine whether this tool could identify the bug species and discriminate their developmental stages. Five adults and four nymphs of C. hirundinis specimens were molecularly identified to update our MS homemade arthropod database. BLAST analysis of COI gene sequences from these C. hirundinis revealed 98.66–99.12% identity with the corresponding sequences of C. hirundinis of the GenBank. The blind test against the database supplemented with MS reference spectra showed 100% (57/57) C. hirundinis adults and 100% (46/46) C. hirundinis nymphs were reliably identified and in agreement with morphological identification with logarithmic score values between 1.922 and 2.665. Ninety-nine percent of C. hirundinis specimens tested were positive for Wolbachia spp. The sequencing results revealed that they were identical to Wolbachia massiliensis, belonging to the new T-supergroup strain and previously isolated from C. hemipterus.

Conclusions

We report for the first time to our knowledge a case of human infestation by swallow bugs (C. hirundinis) in France. We also show the usefulness of MALDI-TOF MS in the rapid identification of C. hirundinis specimens and nymphs with minimal sample requirements. We phylogenetically characterized the novel Wolbachia strain (W. massiliensis) infecting C. hirundinis and compared it to other recognized Wolbachia clades.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-021-05073-x.

RNA virome diversity and Wolbachia infection in individual Drosophila simulans flies

The endosymbiont bacteria of the genus Wolbachia are associated with multiple mutualistic effects on insect biology, including nutritional and antiviral properties. Members of the genus Wolbachia naturally occur in fly species of the genus Drosophila, providing an operational model host for studying how virome composition may be affected by its presence. Drosophila simulans populations can carry a variety of strains of members of the genus Wolbachia, with the wAu strain associated with strong antiviral protection under experimental conditions. We used D. simulans sampled from the Perth Hills, Western Australia, to investigate the potential virus protective effect of the wAu strain of Wolbachia on individual wild-caught flies. Our data revealed no appreciable variation in virus composition and abundance between individuals infected or uninfected with Wolbachia associated with the presence or absence of wAu. However, it remains unclear whether wAu might affect viral infection and host survival by increasing tolerance rather than inducing complete resistance. These data also provide new insights into the natural virome diversity of D. simulans. Despite the small number of individuals sampled, we identified a repertoire of RNA viruses, including nora virus, galbut virus, thika virus and La Jolla virus, that have been identified in other species of the genus Drosophila. Chaq virus-like sequences associated with galbut virus were also detected. In addition, we identified five novel viruses from the families Reoviridae, Tombusviridae, Mitoviridae and Bunyaviridae. Overall, this study highlights the complex interaction between Wolbachia and RNA virus infections and provides a baseline description of the natural virome of D. simulans.

The Incidence of Wolbachia Bacterial Endosymbiont in Bisexual and Parthenogenetic Populations of the Psyllid Genus Cacopsylla (Hemiptera, Psylloidea)

Wolbachia is one of the most common intracellular bacteria; it infects a wide variety of insects, other arthropods, and some nematodes. Wolbachia is ordinarily transmitted vertically from mother to offspring and can manipulate physiology and reproduction of their hosts in different ways, e.g., induce feminization, male killing, and parthenogenesis. Despite the great interest in Wolbachia, many aspects of its biology remain unclear and its incidence across many insect orders, including Hemiptera, is still poorly understood. In this report, we present data on Wolbachia infection in five jumping plant-lice species (Hemiptera, Psylloidea) of the genus Cacopsylla Ossiannilsson, 1970 with different reproductive strategies and test the hypothesis that Wolbachia mediates parthenogenetic and bisexual patterns observed in some Cacopsylla species. We show that the five species studied are infected with a single Wolbachia strain, belonging to the supergroup B. This strain has also been found in different insect orders (Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, Plecoptera, Orthoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera) and even in acariform mites (Trombidiformes), suggesting extensive horizontal transmission of Wolbachia between representatives of these taxa. Our survey did not reveal significant differences in infection frequency between parthenogenetic and bisexual populations or between males and females within bisexual populations. However, infection rate varied notably in different Cacopsylla species or within distinct populations of the same species. Overall, we demonstrate that Wolbachia infects a high proportion of Cacopsylla individuals and populations, suggesting the essential role of this bacterium in their biology.

Molecular detection of Wolbachia endosymbiont in reptiles and their ectoparasites

Wolbachia, a maternally transmitted Gram-negative endosymbiont of onchocercid nematodes and arthropods, has a role in the biology of their host; thus it has been exploited for the filariasis treatment in humans. To assess the presence and prevalence of this endosymbiont in reptiles and their ectoparasites, blood and tail tissue as well as ticks and mites collected from them were molecularly screened for Wolbachia DNA using two sets of primers targeting partial 16S rRNA and Wolbachia surface protein (wsp) genes. Positive samples were screened for the partial 12S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) genes for filarioids. Of the different species of lizards (Podarcis siculus, Podarcis muralis and Lacerta bilineata) and snakes (Elaphe quatuorlineata and Boa constrictor constrictor) screened from three collection sites, only P. siculus scored positive for Wolbachia 16S rRNA. Among ectoparasites collected from reptiles (Ixodes ricinus ticks and Neotrombicula autumnalis, Ophionyssus sauracum and Ophionyssus natricis mites), I. ricinus (n = 4; 2.8%; 95% CI, 0.9–7) from P. siculus, N. autumnalis (n = 2 each; 2.8%; 95% CI, 0.9–6.5) from P. siculus and P. muralis and O. natricis (n = 1; 14.3%; 95% CI, 0.7–55.4) from Boa constrictor constrictor scored positive for Wolbachia DNA. None of the positive Wolbachia samples scored positive for filarioids. This represents the first report of Wolbachia in reptilian hosts and their ectoparasites, which follows a single identification in the intestinal cells of a filarioid associated with a gecko. This data could contribute to better understand the reptile filarioid-Wolbachia association and to unveil the evolutionary pattern of Wolbachia in its filarial host.

Wolbachia Strain wGri From the Tea Geometrid Moth Ectropis grisescens Contributes to Its Host's Fecundity

Members of the Wolbachia genus manipulate insect-host reproduction and are the most abundant bacterial endosymbionts of insects. The tea Geometrid moth Ectropis grisescens (Warren) (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) is the most devastating insect pest of tea plants [Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze] in China. However, limited data on the diversity, typing, or phenotypes of Wolbachia in E. grisescens are available. Here, we used a culture-independent method to compare the gut bacteria of E. grisescens and other tea Geometridae moths. The results showed that the composition of core gut bacteria in larvae of the three Geometridae moth species was similar, except for the presence of Wolbachia. Moreover, Wolbachia was also present in adult female E. grisescens samples. A Wolbachia strain was isolated from E. grisescens and designated as wGri. Comparative analyses showed that this strain shared multilocus sequence types and Wolbachia surface protein hypervariable region profiles with cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI)-inducing strains in supergroup B; however, the wGri-associated phenotypes were undetermined. A reciprocal cross analysis showed that Wolbachia-uninfected females mated with infected males resulted in 100% embryo mortality (0% eggs hatched per female). Eggs produced by mating between uninfected males and infected females hatched normally. These findings indicated that wGri induces strong unidirectional CI in E. grisescens. Additionally, compared with uninfected females, Wolbachia-infected females produced approximately 30-40% more eggs. Together, these results show that this Wolbachia strain induces reproductive CI in E. grisescens and enhances the fecundity of its female host. We also demonstrated that wGri potential influences reproductive communication between E. grisescens and Ectropis obliqua through CI.

Wolbachia: endosymbiont of onchocercid nematodes and their vectors

Background

Wolbachia is an obligate intracellular maternally transmitted, gram-negative bacterium which forms a spectrum of endosymbiotic relationships from parasitism to obligatory mutualism in a wide range of arthropods and onchocercid nematodes, respectively. In arthropods Wolbachia produces reproductive manipulations such as male killing, feminization, parthenogenesis and cytoplasmic incompatibility for its propagation and provides an additional fitness benefit for the host to protect against pathogens, whilst in onchocercid nematodes, apart from the mutual metabolic dependence, this bacterium is involved in moulting, embryogenesis, growth and survival of the host.

Methods

This review details the molecular data of Wolbachia and its effect on host biology, immunity, ecology and evolution, reproduction, endosymbiont-based treatment and control strategies exploited for filariasis. Relevant peer-reviewed scientic papers available in various authenticated scientific data bases were considered while writing the review.

Conclusions

The information presented provides an overview on Wolbachia biology and its use in the control and/or treatment of vectors, onchocercid nematodes and viral diseases of medical and veterinary importance. This offers the development of new approaches for the control of a variety of vector-borne diseases.

Graphic Abstract

Diversification, selective sweep, and body size in the invasive Palearctic alfalfa weevil infected with Wolbachia

The alfalfa weevil Hypera postica, native to the Western Palearctic, is an invasive legume pest with two divergent mitochondrial clades in its invading regions, the Western clade and the Eastern/Egyptian clade. However, knowledge regarding the native populations is limited. The Western clade is infected with the endosymbiotic bacteria Wolbachia that cause cytoplasmic incompatibility in host weevils. Our aim was to elucidate the spatial genetic structure of this insect and the effect of Wolbachia on its population diversity. We analyzed two mitochondrial and two nuclear genes of the weevil from its native ranges. The Western clade was distributed in western/central Europe, whereas the Eastern/Egyptian clade was distributed from the Mediterranean basin to central Asia. Intermediate mitotypes were found from the Balkans to central Asia. Most Western clade individuals in western Europe were infected with an identical Wolbachia strain. Mitochondrial genetic diversity of the infected individuals was minimal. The infected clades demonstrated a higher nonsynonymous/synonymous substitution rate ratio than the uninfected clades, suggesting a higher fixation of nonsynonymous mutations due to a selective sweep by Wolbachia. Trans-Mediterranean and within-European dispersal routes were supported. We suggest that the ancestral populations diversified by geographic isolation due to glaciations and that the diversity was reduced in the west by a recent Wolbachia-driven sweep(s). The intermediate clade exhibited a body size and host plant that differed from the other clades. Pros and cons of the possible use of infected-clade males to control uninfected populations are discussed.

Wolbachia supergroup E found in Hypochthonius rufulus (Acari: Oribatida) in Poland

Data on the spread of intracellular bacteria in oribatid mites (Acari: Oribatida) are scarce. Our work fills a gap in the research on endosymbionts in this group of invertebrates and provides information on Wolbachia infection in Hypochthonius rufulus (Acari: Oribatida) from soil, litter and moss sample collected in south-eastern Poland. This is the first report of Wolbachia in H. rufulus. Phylogeny based on the analysis of the 16S rRNA, gatB, fbpA, gltA, ftsZ and hcpA gene sequences revealed that Wolbachia from H. rufulus represented supergroup E and was related to bacterial endosymbionts of Collembola. The unique sequence within Wolbachia supergroup E was detected for the 16S rRNA gene of the bacteria from H. rufulus. The sequences of Wolbachia 16S rRNA and housekeeping genes have been deposited in publicly available databases and are an important source of molecular data for comparative studies.

Bacterial Symbionts of Tsetse Flies: Relationships and Functional Interactions Between Tsetse Flies and Their Symbionts

Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) act as the sole vectors of the African trypanosome species that cause Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT or African Sleeping Sickness) and Nagana in animals. These flies have undergone a variety of specializations during their evolution including an exclusive diet consisting solely of vertebrate blood for both sexes as well as an obligate viviparous reproductive biology. Alongside these adaptations, Glossina species have developed intricate relationships with specific microbes ranging from mutualistic to parasitic. These relationships provide fundamental support required to sustain the specializations associated with tsetse's biology. This chapter provides an overview on the knowledge to date regarding the biology behind these relationships and focuses primarily on four bacterial species that are consistently associated with Glossina species. Here their interactions with the host are reviewed at the morphological, biochemical and genetic levels. This includes: the obligate symbiont Wigglesworthia, which is found in all tsetse species and is essential for nutritional supplementation to the blood-specific diet, immune system maturation and facilitation of viviparous reproduction; the commensal symbiont Sodalis, which is a frequently associated symbiont optimized for survival within the fly via nutritional adaptation, vertical transmission through mating and may alter vectorial capacity of Glossina for trypanosomes; the parasitic symbiont Wolbachia, which can manipulate Glossina via cytoplasmic incompatibility and shows unique interactions at the genetic level via horizontal transmission of its genetic material into the genome in two Glossina species; finally, knowledge on recently observed relations between Spiroplasma and Glossina is explored and potential interactions are discussed based on knowledge of interactions between this bacterial Genera and other insect species. These flies have a simple microbiome relative to that of other insects. However, these relationships are deep, well-studied and provide a window into the complexity and function of host/symbiont interactions in an important disease vector.

The Wolbachia Symbiont: Here, There and Everywhere

Wolbachia symbionts, first observed in the 1920s, are now known to be present in about 30-70% of tested arthropod species, in about half of tested filarial nematodes (including the majority of human filarial nematodes), and some plant-parasitic nematodes. In arthropods, they are generally viewed as parasites while in nematodes they appear to be mutualists although this demarcation is not absolute. Their presence in arthropods generally leads to reproductive anomalies, while in nematodes, they are generally required for worm development and reproduction. In mosquitos, Wolbachia inhibit RNA viral infections, leading to populational reductions in human RNA virus pathogens, whereas in filarial nematodes, their requirement for worm fertility and survival has been channeled into their use as drug targets for filariasis control. While much more research on these ubiquitous symbionts is needed, they are viewed as playing significant roles in biological processes, ranging from arthropod speciation to human health.

Supergroup F Wolbachia in terrestrial isopods: Horizontal transmission from termites?

Horizontal transmission between distantly related species has been used to explain how Wolbachia infect multiple species at astonishing rates despite the selection for resistance. Recently, a terrestrial isopod species was found to be infected by an unusual strain of supergroup F Wolbachia. However, only Wolbachia of supergroup B is typically found in isopods. One possibility is that these isopods acquired the infection because of their recurrent contact with termites—a group with strong evidence of infection by supergroup F Wolbachia. Thus, our goals were: (1) check if the infection was an isolated case in isopods, or if it revealed a broader pattern; (2) search for Wolbachia infection in the termites within Brazil; and (3) look for evidence consistent with horizontal transmission between isopods and termites. We collected Neotroponiscus terrestrial isopods and termites along the Brazilian coastal Atlantic forest. We sequenced and identified the Wolbachia strains found in these groups using coxA, dnaA, and fpbA genes. We constructed phylogenies for both bacteria and host taxa and tested for coevolution. We found the supergroup F Wolbachia in other species and populations of Neotroponiscus, and also in Nasutitermes and Procornitermes termites. The phylogenies showed that, despite the phylogenetic distance between isopods and termites, the Wolbachia strains clustered together. Furthermore, cophylogenetic analyses showed significant jumps of Wolbachia between terrestrial isopods and termites. Thus, our study suggests that the horizontal transmission of supergroup F Wolbachia between termites and terrestrial isopods is likely. Our study also helps understanding the success and worldwide distribution of this symbiont.

Systematic Review of Wolbachia Symbiont Detection in Mosquitoes: An Entangled Topic about Methodological Power and True Symbiosis

Wolbachia is an endosymbiotic bacterium that naturally infects several arthropods and nematode species. Wolbachia gained particular attention due to its impact on their host fitness and the capacity of specific Wolbachia strains in reducing pathogen vector and agricultural pest populations and pathogens transmission. Despite the success of mosquito/pathogen control programs using Wolbachia-infected mosquito release, little is known about the abundance and distribution of Wolbachia in most mosquito species, a crucial knowledge for planning and deployment of mosquito control programs and that can further improve our basic biology understanding of Wolbachia and host relationships. In this systematic review, Wolbachia was detected in only 30% of the mosquito species investigated. Fourteen percent of the species were considered positive by some studies and negative by others in different geographical regions, suggesting a variable infection rate and/or limitations of the Wolbachia detection methods employed. Eighty-three percent of the studies screened Wolbachia with only one technique. Our findings highlight that the assessment of Wolbachia using a single approach limited the inference of true Wolbachia infection in most of the studied species and that researchers should carefully choose complementary methodologies and consider different Wolbachia-mosquito population dynamics that may be a source of bias to ascertain the correct infectious status of the host species.

Evolution of Wolbachia mutualism and reproductive parasitism: insight from two novel strains that co-infect cat fleas

Wolbachiae are obligate intracellular bacteria that infect arthropods and certain nematodes. Usually maternally inherited, they may provision nutrients to (mutualism) or alter sexual biology of (reproductive parasitism) their invertebrate hosts. We report the assembly of closed genomes for two novel wolbachiae, wCfeT and wCfeJ, found co-infecting cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis) of the Elward Laboratory colony (Soquel, CA, USA). wCfeT is basal to nearly all described Wolbachia supergroups, while wCfeJ is related to supergroups C, D and F. Both genomes contain laterally transferred genes that inform on the evolution of Wolbachia host associations. wCfeT carries the Biotin synthesis Operon of Obligate intracellular Microbes (BOOM); our analyses reveal five independent acquisitions of BOOM across the Wolbachia tree, indicating parallel evolution towards mutualism. Alternately, wCfeJ harbors a toxin-antidote operon analogous to the wPip cinAB operon recently characterized as an inducer of cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) in flies. wCfeJ cinB and three adjacent genes are collectively similar to large modular toxins encoded in CI-like operons of certain Wolbachia strains and Rickettsia species, signifying that CI toxins streamline by fission of large modular toxins. Remarkably, the C. felis genome itself contains two CI-like antidote genes, divergent from wCfeJ cinA, revealing episodic reproductive parasitism in cat fleas and evidencing mobility of CI loci independent of WO-phage. Additional screening revealed predominant co-infection (wCfeT/wCfeJ) amongst C. felis colonies, though fleas in wild populations mostly harbor wCfeT alone. Collectively, genomes of wCfeT, wCfeJ, and their cat flea host supply instances of lateral gene transfers that could drive transitions between parasitism and mutualism.

Diminutive, degraded but dissimilar: Wolbachia genomes from filarial nematodes do not conform to a single paradigm

Wolbachia are alpha-proteobacteria symbionts infecting a large range of arthropod species and two different families of nematodes. Interestingly, these endosymbionts are able to induce diverse phenotypes in their hosts: they are reproductive parasites within many arthropods, nutritional mutualists within some insects and obligate mutualists within their filarial nematode hosts. Defining Wolbachia 'species' is controversial and so they are commonly classified into 17 different phylogenetic lineages, termed supergroups, named A-F, H-Q and S. However, available genomic data remain limited and not representative of the full Wolbachia diversity; indeed, of the 24 complete genomes and 55 draft genomes of Wolbachia available to date, 84 % belong to supergroups A and B, exclusively composed of Wolbachia from arthropods. For the current study, we took advantage of a recently developed DNA-enrichment method to produce four complete genomes and two draft genomes of Wolbachia from filarial nematodes. Two complete genomes, wCtub and wDcau, are the smallest Wolbachia genomes sequenced to date (863 988 bp and 863 427 bp, respectively), as well as the first genomes representing supergroup J. These genomes confirm the validity of this supergroup, a controversial clade due to weaknesses of the multilocus sequence typing approach. We also produced the first draft Wolbachia genome from a supergroup F filarial nematode representative (wMhie), two genomes from supergroup D (wLsig and wLbra) and the complete genome of wDimm from supergroup C. Our new data confirm the paradigm of smaller Wolbachia genomes from filarial nematodes containing low levels of transposable elements and the absence of intact bacteriophage sequences, unlike many Wolbachia from arthropods, where both are more abundant. However, we observe differences among the Wolbachia genomes from filarial nematodes: no global co-evolutionary pattern, strong synteny between supergroup C and supergroup J Wolbachia, and more transposable elements observed in supergroup D Wolbachia compared to the other supergroups. Metabolic pathway analysis indicates several highly conserved pathways (haem and nucleotide biosynthesis, for example) as opposed to more variable pathways, such as vitamin B biosynthesis, which might be specific to certain host-symbiont associations. Overall, there appears to be no single Wolbachia-filarial nematode pattern of co-evolution or symbiotic relationship.

Spatial and temporal sex ratio bias and Wolbachia-infection in New Zealand Crambidae (Lepidoptera: Pyraloidea)

The New Zealand fauna of snout moths (Pyraloidea) predominantly consists of endemic species. During 2017 and 2018, 56 species of Pyraloidea in 1,749 individuals were collected at 14 localities. All species were screened for Wolbachia-infection, with specimens of eight species (14%) being positive, of which six species belong to Scopariinae. This is the first record of Wolbachia-infection amongst New Zealand Lepidoptera. The most common pyraloid species, Eudonia submarginalis and Orocrambus flexuosellus, were analysed for a larger set of individuals looking for sex ratio and Wolbachia-infection. There is a sex ratio bias towards females in both species, but it varies in space and time. Wolbachia is found in all populations of E. submarginalis with 10-80% of the tested individuals being positive, depending on locality. No Wolbachia-infection has been found in O. flexuosellus. Thus, sex ratio bias might be linked to Wolbachia-infection in E. submarginalis, but not in O. flexuosellus.

Molecular characterization of Cardinium, Rickettsia, Spiroplasma and Wolbachia in mite species from citrus orchards

Tetranychidae spider mites are considered key citrus pests in some production areas, especially Tetranychus urticae Koch. Over the past decades, pesticide overuse seems to have promoted T. urticae population selection in citrus orchards. However, the microbiota has also been pointed out as a plausible explanation for population structure or plant host specialisation observed in several arthropod species. In this work, we have determined the incidence of Cardinium, Rickettsia, Spiroplasma and Wolbachia as representatives of major distorter bacteria genera in Aplonobia histricina (Berlese), Eutetranychus banksi (McGregor), Eutetranychus orientalis (Klein), Panonychus citri (McGregor), Tetranychus evansi Baker and Pritchard, Tetranychus turkestani Ugarov and Nikolskii, and T. urticae populations from Spanish citrus orchards. Only Wolbachia was detected by PCR. The multilocus alignment approach and phylogenetic inference indicated that all detected Wolbachia belong to supergroup B. The deep analysis of each 16S rDNA, ftsZ and wsp gene sequences allowed identifying several phylogenetically different Wolbachia sequences. It probably indicates the presence of several different races or strains, all of them belonging to supergroup B. The wsp sequence typing analysis unveiled the presence of the two already identified alleles (61 and 370) and allowed to contribute with five new alleles, supporting the presence of different but related B-races in the studied mite populations. The results are discussed and related to T. urticae population structure, previously observed in Spanish citrus orchards.

Pseudoscorpion Wolbachia symbionts: diversity and evidence for a new supergroup S

Background

Wolbachia are the most widely spread endosymbiotic bacteria, present in a wide variety of insects and two families of nematodes. As of now, however, relatively little genomic data has been available. The Wolbachia symbiont can be parasitic, as described for many arthropod systems, an obligate mutualist, as in filarial nematodes or a combination of both in some organisms. They are currently classified into 16 monophyletic lineage groups (“supergroups”). Although the nature of these symbioses remains largely unknown, expanded Wolbachia genomic data will contribute to understanding their diverse symbiotic mechanisms and evolution.

Results

This report focuses on Wolbachia infections in three pseudoscorpion species infected by two distinct groups of Wolbachia strains, based upon multi-locus phylogenies. Geogarypus minor harbours wGmin and Chthonius ischnocheles harbours wCisc, both closely related to supergroup H, while Atemnus politus harbours wApol, a member of a novel supergroup S along with Wolbachia from the pseudoscorpion Cordylochernes scorpioides (wCsco). Wolbachia supergroup S is most closely related to Wolbachia supergroups C and F. Using target enrichment by hybridization with Wolbachia-specific biotinylated probes to capture large fragments of Wolbachia DNA, we produced two draft genomes of wApol. Annotation of wApol highlights presence of a biotin operon, which is incomplete in many sequenced Wolbachia genomes.

Conclusions

The present study highlights at least two symbiont acquisition events among pseudoscorpion species. Phylogenomic analysis indicates that the Wolbachia from Atemnus politus (wApol), forms a separate supergroup (“S”) with the Wolbachia from Cordylochernes scorpioides (wCsco). Interestingly, the biotin operon, present in wApol, appears to have been horizontally transferred multiple times along Wolbachia evolutionary history.

Wolbachia pipientis Associated With Tephritid Fruit Fly Pests: From Basic Research to Applications

Members of the true fruit flies (family Tephritidae) are among the most serious agricultural pests worldwide, whose control and management demands large and costly international efforts. The need for cost-effective and environmentally friendly integrated pest management (IPM) has led to the development and implementation of autocidal control strategies. These approaches include the widely used sterile insect technique and the incompatible insect technique (IIT). IIT relies on maternally transmitted bacteria (namely Wolbachia) to cause a conditional sterility in crosses between released mass-reared Wolbachia-infected males and wild females, which are either uninfected or infected with a different Wolbachia strain (i.e., cytoplasmic incompatibility; CI). Herein, we review the current state of knowledge on Wolbachia-tephritid interactions including infection prevalence in wild populations, phenotypic consequences, and their impact on life history traits. Numerous pest tephritid species are reported to harbor Wolbachia infections, with a subset exhibiting high prevalence. The phenotypic effects of Wolbachia have been assessed in very few tephritid species, due in part to the difficulty of manipulating Wolbachia infection (removal or transinfection). Based on recent methodological advances (high-throughput DNA sequencing) and breakthroughs concerning the mechanistic basis of CI, we suggest research avenues that could accelerate generation of necessary knowledge for the potential use of Wolbachia-based IIT in area-wide integrated pest management (AW-IPM) strategies for the population control of tephritid pests.

Detection of Wolbachia Infections in Natural and Laboratory Populations of the Moroccan Hessian Fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say)

Mayetiola destructor (Hessian fly) is a destructive pest of wheat in several parts of the world. Here, we investigated the presence of reproductive symbionts and the effect of the geographical location on the bacterial community associated to adult Hessian flies derived from four major wheat producing areas in Morocco. Using specific 16S rDNA PCR assay, Wolbachia infection was observed in 3% of the natural populations and 10% of the laboratory population. High throughput sequencing of V3-V4 region of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene revealed that the microbiota of adult Hessian flies was significantly influenced by their native regions. A total of 6 phyla, 10 classes and 79 genera were obtained from all the samples. Confirming the screening results, Wolbachia was identified as well in the natural Hessian flies. Phylogenetic analysis using the sequences obtained in this study indicated that there is one Wolbachia strain belonging to supergroup A. To our knowledge, this is the first report of Wolbachia in Hessian fly populations. The observed low abundance of Wolbachia most likely does not indicate induction of reproductive incompatibility. Yet, this infection may give a new insight into the use of Wolbachia for the fight against Hessian fly populations.

Promising Role of Wolbachia as Anti-parasitic Drug Target and Eco-Friendly Biocontrol Agent

BACKGROUND

Wolbachia is the most common endosymbiotic bacteria in insectborne parasites and it is the most common reproductive parasite in the world. Wolbachia has been found worldwide in numerous arthropod and parasite species, including insects, terrestrial isopods, spiders, mites and filarial nematodes. There is a complicated relationship between Wolbachia and its hosts and in some cases, they create a mutual relationship instead of a parasitic relationship. Some species are not able to reproduce in the absence of infection with Wolbachia. Thus, the use of existing strains of Wolbachia bacteria offers a potential strategy for the control of the population of mosquitoes and other pests and diseases.

METHODS

We searched ten databases and reviewed published papers regarding the role of Wolbachia as a promising drug target and emerging biological control agents of parasitic diseases between 1996 and 2017 (22 years) were considered eligible. Also, in the current study several patents (WO008652), (US7723062), and (US 0345249 A1) were reviewed.

RESULTS

Endosymbiotic Wolbachia bacteria, which are inherited from mothers, is transmitted to mosquitoes and interferes with pathogen transmission. They can change the reproduction of their host. Wolbachia is transmitted through the cytoplasm of eggs and have evolved different mechanisms for manipulating the reproduction of its hosts, including the induction of reproductive incompatibility, parthenogenesis, and feminization. The extensive effects of Wolbachia on reproduction and host fitness have made Wolbachia the issue of growing attention as a potential biocontrol agent.

CONCLUSION

Wolbachia has opened a new window to design a costly, potent and ecofriendly drug target for effective treatment and elimination of vector-borne parasitic diseases.

Wolbachia supplement biotin and riboflavin to enhance reproduction in planthoppers

Symbiont-mediated nutritional mutualisms can contribute to the host fitness of insects, especially for those that feed exclusively on nutritionally unbalanced diets. Here, we elucidate the importance of B group vitamins in the association of endosymbiotic bacteria Wolbachia with two plant-sap feeding insects, the small brown planthopper, Laodelphax striatellus (Fallén), and the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stål). Infected planthoppers of both species laid more eggs than uninfected planthoppers, while the experimental transfer of Wolbachia into uninfected lines of one planthopper species rescued this fecundity deficit. The genomic analysis showed that Wolbachia strains from the two planthopper species encoded complete biosynthesis operons for biotin and riboflavin, while a metabolic analysis revealed that Wolbachia-infected planthoppers of both species had higher titers of biotin and riboflavin. Furthermore, experimental supplementation of food with a mixture of biotin and riboflavin recovered the fecundity deficit of Wolbachia-uninfected planthoppers. In addition, comparative genomic analysis suggested that the riboflavin synthesis genes are conserved among Wolbachia supergroups. Biotin operons are rare in Wolbachia, and those described share a recent ancestor that may have been horizontally transferred from Cardinium bacteria. Our research demonstrates a type of mutualism that involves a facultative interaction between Wolbachia and plant-sap feeding insects involving vitamin Bs.

Genomic Analysis of Wolbachia from Laodelphax striatellus (Delphacidae, Hemiptera) Reveals Insights into Its "Jekyll and Hyde" Mode of Infection Pattern

Wolbachia is a widely distributed intracellular bacterial endosymbiont among invertebrates. The wStriCN, the Wolbachia strain that naturally infects an agricultural pest Laodelphax striatellus, has a "Jekyll and Hyde" mode of infection pattern with positive and negative effects: It not only kills many offspring by inducing cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) but also significantly increases host fecundity. In this study, we assembled the draft genome of wStriCN and compared it with other Wolbachia genomes to look for clues to its Jekyll and Hyde characteristics. The assembled wStriCN draft genome is 1.79 Mb in size, which is the largest Wolbachia genome in supergroup B. Phylogenomic analysis showed that wStriCN is closest to Wolbachia from Asian citrus psyllid Diaphorina citri. These strains formed a monophylogentic clade within supergroup B. Compared with other Wolbachia genomes, wStriCN contains the most diverse insertion sequence families, the largest amount of prophage sequences, and the most ankyrin domain protein coding genes. The wStriCN genome encodes components of multiple secretion systems, including Types I, II, IV, VI, Sec, and Tac. We detected three pairs of homologs for CI factors CifA and CifB. These proteins harbor the catalytic domains responsible for CI phenotypes but are phylogenetically and structurally distinct from all known Cif proteins. The genome retains pathways for synthesizing biotin and riboflavin, which may explain the beneficial roles of wStriCN in its host planthoppers, which feed on nutrient-poor plant sap. Altogether, the genomic sequencing of wStriCN provides insight into understanding the phylogeny and biology of Wolbachia.

Detection and characterization of bacterial endosymbionts in Southeast Asian tephritid fruit fly populations

BACKGROUND

Various endosymbiotic bacteria, including Wolbachia of the Alphaproteobacteria, infect a wide range of insects and are capable of inducing reproductive abnormalities to their hosts such as cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), parthenogenesis, feminization and male-killing. These extended phenotypes can be potentially exploited in enhancing environmentally friendly methods, such as the sterile insect technique (SIT), for controlling natural populations of agricultural pests. The goal of the present study is to investigate the presence of Wolbachia, Spiroplasma, Arsenophonus and Cardinium among Bactrocera, Dacus and Zeugodacus flies of Southeast Asian populations, and to genotype any detected Wolbachia strains.

RESULTS

A specific 16S rRNA PCR assay was used to investigate the presence of reproductive parasites in natural populations of nine different tephritid species originating from three Asian countries, Bangladesh, China and India. Wolbachia infections were identified in Bactrocera dorsalis, B. correcta, B. scutellaris and B. zonata, with 12.2-42.9% occurrence, Entomoplasmatales in B. dorsalis, B. correcta, B. scutellaris, B. zonata, Zeugodacus cucurbitae and Z. tau (0.8-14.3%) and Cardinium in B. dorsalis and Z. tau (0.9-5.8%), while none of the species tested, harbored infections with Arsenophonus. Infected populations showed a medium (between 10 and 90%) or low (< 10%) prevalence, ranging from 3 to 80% for Wolbachia, 2 to 33% for Entomoplasmatales and 5 to 45% for Cardinium. Wolbachia and Entomoplasmatales infections were found both in tropical and subtropical populations, the former mostly in India and the latter in various regions of India and Bangladesh. Cardinium infections were identified in both countries but only in subtropical populations. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the presence of Wolbachia with some strains belonging either to supergroup B or supergroup A. Sequence analysis revealed deletions of variable length and nucleotide variation in three Wolbachia genes. Spiroplasma strains were characterized as citri-chrysopicola-mirum and ixodetis strains while the remaining Entomoplasmatales to the Mycoides-Entomoplasmataceae clade. Cardinium strains were characterized as group A, similar to strains infecting Encarsia pergandiella.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicated that in the Southeast natural populations examined, supergroup A Wolbachia strain infections were the most common, followed by Entomoplasmatales and Cardinium. In terms of diversity, most strains of each bacterial genus detected clustered in a common group. Interestingly, the deletions detected in three Wolbachia genes were either new or similar to those of previously identified pseudogenes that were integrated in the host genome indicating putative horizontal gene transfer events in B. dorsalis, B. correcta and B. zonata.

Wolbachia Infection in Two Species: Novel Views on the Colonization Ability of Wolbachia in Aphids

Wolbachia pipientis (Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae) is an intracellular symbiont residing in arthropods and filarial nematodes. Sixteen supergroups have been described from different host taxa. Four supergroups A, B, M, and N were found in aphids according to prior studies. The cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii, and the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, are typical polyphagous species with global distributions. We conducted an extensive and systematic survey of Wolbachia infections in these aphids from China. High incidences of Wolbachia infection were detected. The total infection incidence was 60% in A. gossypii and 88% in M. persicae. Both aphid species were infected with supergroups A, B and M. Different incidences of infection were observed among the seven geographical regions in China, which suggested a positive relationship between Wolbachia infections and the geographical distribution of aphid species. Furthermore, multiple infection patterns (M, B, A&M, B&M, and A&B&M) were observed. Infection patterns M and B&M were detected in almost all populations. Patterns A&B&M and B showed geographical restriction in North China. Three factors can possibly influence the Wolbachia infection incidences and patterns: the geographical distribution, aphid species, and different supergroup types.

Obligate intracellular bacteria diversity in unfed Leptotrombidium scutellare larvae highlights novel bacterial endosymbionts of mites

It is well known that the mite Leptotrombidium scutellare carries the pathogen of scrub typhus, Orientia tsutsugamushi. However, our understanding of other bacterial endosymbionts of mites is limited. This study investigated the diversity of the obligate intracellular bacteria carried by L. scutellare using 16S rRNA gene amplicon analysis with next-generation sequencing. The results showed that the detected bacteria were classified into the genera Rickettsia, Wolbachia, and Rickettsiella and an unknown genus of the order Rickettsiales. For further classification of the detected bacteria, a representative read that was most closely related to the assigned taxonomic classification was subjected to homology search and phylogenic analysis. The results showed that some bacteria of the genus Rickettsia were identical or very close to the human pathogens Rickettsia akari, Rickettsia aeschlimannii, Rickettsia felis, and Rickettsia australis. The genetic distance between the genus Wolbachia bacteria in the present study and in previous reports is highly indicative that the bacteria in the present study can be classified as a new taxon of Wolbachia. This study detected obligate intracellular bacteria from unfed mites; thus, the mites did not acquire bacteria from infected animals or any other infectious sources. Finally, the present study demonstrated that various and novel bacterial endosymbionts of mites, in addition to O. tsutsugamushi, might uniquely evolve with the host mites throughout overlapping generations of the mite life cycle. The roles of the bacteria in mites and their pathogenicity should be further examined in studies based on bacterial isolation.

Wolbachia prevalence, diversity, and ability to induce cytoplasmic incompatibility in mosquitoes

To protect humans and domestic animals from mosquito borne diseases, alternative methods to chemical insecticides have to be found. Pilot studies using the vertically transmitted bacterial endosymbiont Wolbachia were already launched in different parts of the world. Wolbachia can be used either in Incompatible Insect Technique (IIT), to decrease mosquito population, or to decrease the ability of mosquitoes to transmit pathogens. Not all mosquito species are naturally infected with Wolbachia: while in Culex pipiens and Aedes albopictus almost all individuals harbor Wolbachia, putative infections have to be further investigated in Anopheles species and in Aedes aegypti. All Wolbachia-based control methods rely on the ability of Wolbachia to induce cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) resulting in embryonic death in incompatible crossings. Knowledge on CI diversity in mosquito is required to find the better Wolbachia-mosquito associations to optimize the success of both 'sterile insect' and 'pathogen blocking' Wolbachia-based methods.

Bacterial reproductive manipulators in rice planthoppers

Rice planthoppers (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) are notorious pests for rice (Oryza sativa) in Asia, posing a serious threat to rice production and grain security. Rice planthoppers harbor diverse bacterial symbionts, including Wolbachia, Cardinium, Spiroplasma, and Arsenophonus, which are known to manipulate reproduction in arthropod hosts. This microreview is to introduce current knowledge of bacterial reproductive manipulators in rice planthoppers, including their diversity, population dynamics, localization, transmission, and biological functions.

Unexpected Diversity of Wolbachia Associated with Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Africa

Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) is an important pest of fruit-bearing plants in many countries worldwide. In Africa, this pest has spread rapidly and has become widely established since the first invasion report in 2003. Wolbachia is a vertically transmitted endosymbiont that can significantly influence aspects of the biology and, in particular, the reproduction of its host. In this study, we screened B. dorsalis specimens collected from several locations in Africa between 2005 and 2017 for Wolbachia using a PCR-based assay to target the Wolbachia surface protein wsp. Of the 357 individuals tested, 10 were positive for Wolbachia using the wsp assay. We identified four strains of Wolbachia infecting two B. dorsalis mitochondrial haplotypes. We found no strict association between the infecting strain and host haplotype, with one strain being present in two different host haplotypes. All the detected strains belonged to Super Group B Wolbachia and did not match any strains reported previously in B. dorsalis in Asia. These findings indicate that diverse Wolbachia infections are present in invasive populations of B. dorsalis.

Geographic and Temporal Variation of Distinct Intracellular Endosymbiont Strains of Wolbachia sp. in the Grasshopper Chorthippus parallelus: a Frequency-Dependent Mechanism?

Wolbachia is an intracellular endosymbiont that can produce a range of effects on host fitness, but the temporal dynamics of Wolbachia strains have rarely been experimentally evaluated. We compare interannual strain frequencies along a geographical region for understanding the forces that shape Wolbachia strain frequency in natural populations of its host, Chorthippus parallelus (Orthoptera, Acrididae). General linear models show that strain frequency changes significantly across geographical and temporal scales. Computer simulation allows to reject the compatibility of the observed patterns with either genetic drift or sampling errors. We use consecutive years to estimate total Wolbachia strain fitness. Our estimation of Wolbachia fitness is significant in most cases, within locality and between consecutive years, following a negatively frequency-dependent trend. Wolbachia spp. B and F strains show a temporal pattern of variation that is compatible with a negative frequency-dependent natural selection mechanism. Our results suggest that such a mechanism should be at least considered in future experimental and theoretical research strategies that attempt to understand Wolbachia biodiversity.

Wolbachia of phylogenetic supergroup E identified in oribatid mite Gustavia microcephala (Acari: Oribatida)

Heritable endosymbionts have been observed in arthropod and nematode hosts. The most-known among them is Wolbachia. Although the bacterium was previously identified in oribatid mites (Acari: Oribatida), it was not assigned to any phylogenetic group. Endosymbionts have a profound influence on their hosts, playing various functions that affect invertebrate's biology such as changing the way of reproduction. Oribatida provide the very unique examples of groups in which even whole families appear to be thelytokous, so we considered that it is worth to investigate the occurrence of endosymbiotic microorganisms in oribatid mites, especially that the knowledge on the symbionts occurrence in this invertebrate group is negligible. We report for the first time Wolbachia in oribatid mite Gustavia microcephala. The sequences of 16S rDNA, gltA, and ftsZ genes of the endosymbiont from the mite showed the highest similarity to Wolbachia found in Collembola. Phylogenetic analysis based on single gene and concatenated alignments of three genes revealed that the bacteria from G. microcephala and Collembola were related and clustered together with supergroup E. Relatively close relationship of Wolbachia from oribatid and collembolan hosts might mean at the evolutionary scale that horizontal transfer of bacteria between these two groups of invertebrates may take place.

Genome organisation and comparative genomics of four novel Wolbachia genome assemblies from Indian Drosophila host

Wolbachia has long been known to share an endosymbiotic relationship with its host as an obligate intracellular organism. Wolbachia diversity as different supergroups is found to be host-specific in most cases except a few, where the host species is seen to accommodate multiple strains. Besides, the Wolbachia genome must have undergone several changes in response to the evolving host genome in order to adapt and establish a strong association with its host, thus making a distinctive Wolbachia-host alliance. The present study focusses on four novel genome assembly and genome-wide sequence variations of Indian Wolbachia strains, i.e. wMel and wRi isolated from two different Drosophila hosts. The genome assembly has an average size of ~ 1.1 Mb and contains ~ 1100 genes, which is comparable with the previously sequenced Wolbachia genomes. The comparative genomics analysis of these genomes and sequence-wide comparison of some functionally significant genes, i.e. ankyrin repeats, Wsp and T4SS, highlight their sequence similarities and dissimilarities, further supporting the strain-specific association of Wolbachia to its host. Interestingly, some of the sequence variations are also found to be restricted to only Indian Wolbachia strains. Further analysis of prophage and their flanking regions in the Wolbachia genome reveals the presence of several functional genes which may assist the phage to reside inside the bacterial host, thus providing a trade-off for the endosymbiont-host association. Understanding this endosymbiont genome in different eco-geographical conditions has become imperative for the recent use of Wolbachia in medical entomology as a vector-control agent.

Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rDNA, gltA, gatB, and hcpA gene sequences of Wolbachia from the novel host Ceratozetes thienemanni (Acari: Oribatida)

We determined the occurrence of intracellular endosymbionts (Wolbachia, Cardinium, Arsenophonus, Rickettsia, Spiroplasma, Hamiltonella, flavobacteria, and microsporidia) in oribatid mites (Acari: Oribatida) with the use of PCR technique. For the first time we looked for and detected Wolbachia in parthenogenetic oribatid mite Ceratozetes thienemanni Willmann, 1943. The 16S rDNA, gatB, hcpA, and gltA sequences of Wolbachia in C. thienemanni showed the highest similarity (≥ 90%) to the genes of Wolbachia from springtails (Collembola) and oribatid mite Gustavia microcephala. We found the unique sequence 5'-GGGGTAATGGCC-3' in 16S rDNA of Wolbachia from C. thienemanni and collembolan representing group E. The phylogeny of Wolbachia based on the analysis of single genes as well as concatenated alignments of four bacterial loci showed that the bacteria from C. thienemanni belonged to Wolbachia group E, like the endosymbionts from springtail hosts and G. microcephala. Considering coexisting of representatives of Oribatida and Collembola in the same soil habitat and similar food, it is possible that the source of Wolbachia infection was the same. Residues of dead invertebrates could be in organic matter of their soil food, so the scenario of infection transferred by eating of remains of soil cohabitates is also possible. It could explain the similarity and relationship of the Wolbachia in these two arthropod groups. Oribatid mite C. thienemanni is a parthenogenetic mite which is a unique feature in the genus Ceratozetes. Moreover, this species, within the entire genus Ceratozetes, is characterized by the most northerly distribution. It is difficult to determine either it is parthenogenesis or the presence of endosymbionts that are in some way responsible for this kind of evolutionary success. Maybe we are dealing here with a kind of synergy of both factors?

Wolbachia symbionts in mosquitoes: Intra- and intersupergroup recombinations, horizontal transmission and evolution

Many mosquitoes harbour Wolbachia symbionts that could affect the biology of their host in different ways. Evolutionary relationships of mosquitoes' Wolbachia infection, geographical distribution and symbiont prevalence in many mosquito species are not yet clear. Here, we present the results of Wolbachia screening of 17 mosquito species of four genera-Aedes, Anopheles, Coquillettidia and Culex collected from five regions of Eastern Europe and the Caucasus in 2012-2016. Based on multilocus sequence typing (MLST) data previously published and generated in this study, we try to reveal genetic links between mosquitoes' and other hosts' Wolbachia. The Wolbachia symbionts are found in Culex pipiens, Aedes albopictus and Coquillettidia richiardii and for the first time in Aedes cinereus and Aedes cantans, which are important vectors of human pathogens. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated multiple origins of infection in mosquitoes although the one-allele-criterion approach revealed links among B-supergroup mosquito Wolbachia with allele content of lepidopteran hosts. The MLST gene content of strain wAlbA from the A-supergroup is linked with different ant species. Several cases of intersupergroup recombinations were found. One of them occurred in the wAlbaB strain of Aedes albopictus, which contains the coxA allele of the A-supergroup, whereas other loci, including wsp, belong to supergroup B. Other cases are revealed for non-mosquito symbionts and they exemplified genetic exchanges of A, B and F supergroups. We conclude that modern Wolbachia diversity in mosquitoes and in many other insect taxa is a recent product of strain recombination and symbiont transfers.

Evolutionary Genetics of Cytoplasmic Incompatibility Genes cifA and cifB in Prophage WO of Wolbachia

The bacterial endosymbiont Wolbachia manipulates arthropod reproduction to facilitate its maternal spread through host populations. The most common manipulation is cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI): Wolbachia-infected males produce modified sperm that cause embryonic mortality, unless rescued by embryos harboring the same Wolbachia. The genes underlying CI, cifA and cifB, were recently identified in the eukaryotic association module of Wolbachia’s prophage WO. Here, we use transcriptomic and genomic approaches to address three important evolutionary facets of the cif genes. First, we assess whether or not cifA and cifB comprise a classic toxin–antitoxin operon in wMel and show that the two genes exhibit striking, transcriptional differences across host development. They can produce a bicistronic message despite a predicted hairpin termination element in their intergenic region. Second, cifA and cifB strongly coevolve across the diversity of phage WO. Third, we provide new domain and functional predictions across homologs within Wolbachia, and show that amino acid sequences vary substantially across the genus. Finally, we investigate conservation of cifA and cifB and find frequent degradation and loss of the genes in strains that no longer induce CI. Taken together, we demonstrate that cifA and cifB exhibit complex transcriptional regulation in wMel, provide functional annotations that broaden the potential mechanisms of CI induction, and report recurrent erosion of cifA and cifB in non-CI strains, thus expanding our understanding of the most widespread form of reproductive parasitism.