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Sun Y, Yuan Y, Mao H, Su L, Ge Q, Gao J, Xu C, Gong L. Molecular Epidemiology of Human Norovirus Variants from Outbreaks in Zhejiang Province, China, during 2021. Adv Virol 2024; 2024:7972494. [PMID: 38846347 PMCID: PMC11156503 DOI: 10.1155/2024/7972494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Noroviruses are the most frequent cause of epidemic acute viral gastroenteritis in China. Objectives The aim of this study was to determine the molecular epidemiological characteristics of norovirus outbreaks and the molecular genetic features of norovirus in Zhejiang Province during 2021. Methods First, the local Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the outbreak area conducted on-site epidemiologic investigations and collected samples from ill patients for initial testing. The general epidemiologic characteristics of the demographic information are presented through descriptive analysis. Positive samples were sent to the Microbiology Laboratory of Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention for further verification. The presence of norovirus genogroups I (GI) and II (GII), along with sapovirus, was detected. Subsequently, the specimens positive for norovirus were sequenced for genotyping purposes. Furthermore, the whole genomes of positive samples were sequenced, enabling the characterization of both nucleotide and amino acid differences within the virus. Finally, phylogenetic trees were constructed to further analyze and understand the genetic relationships among the detected viruses. Result 227 norovirus outbreaks were reported in Zhejiang Province, China, during 2021. Schools were the main setting while January was the peak month for outbreaks. A total of 17 diverse genotypes of norovirus were identified in 2021, and GII.P16-GII.2 was the most frequent genotype (30.19%). Seven genomes (five GI.P4-GI.5 and two GII.P16-GII.2) were obtained. Although GI.P4-GI.5 is considered to be a rare genotype of norovirus, the prevalence might have been underestimated. Capsid microvariation of GII.2 displayed histo-blood group antigen binding patterns compared to the GII.2 prototype, although VP1 sequences were considered to have a minimal impact on antigenicity. Conclusion This study revealed the diversity of norovirus strains' genotypes circulating in Zhejiang Province in 2021. Continued molecular surveillance of noroviruses should be strengthened in our further efforts to the development of vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Sun
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yongjuan Yuan
- Jia Shan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Jiaxing, Zhejiang, China
| | - Haiyan Mao
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Lingxuan Su
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Qiong Ge
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jian Gao
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Changping Xu
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Liming Gong
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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Recovery of Nucleic Acids of Enteric Viruses and Host-Specific Bacteroidales from Groundwater by Using an Adsorption-Direct Extraction Method. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:e0071021. [PMID: 34232739 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00710-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, the adsorption-elution method was modified to concentrate viral particles in water samples and investigate the contamination of groundwater with norovirus genogroup II (NoV GII), rotavirus A (RVA), and Pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV). The mean recovery rate of a murine norovirus strain, which was inoculated into groundwater samples collected from a deep well, was the highest (39%) when the viral RNA was directly extracted from the membrane instead of eluting the adsorbed viral particles. This adsorption-direct extraction method was applied to groundwater samples (20 liters) collected from deep wells used for the public drinking water supply (n = 22) and private wells (n = 9). RVA (85 copies/liter) and NoV GII (35 copies/liter) were detected in water samples from a deep well and a private well, respectively. PMMoV was detected in 95% and 89% of water samples from deep wells and private wells, respectively, at concentrations of up to 990 copies/liter. The modified method was also used to extract bacterial DNA from the membrane (recovery rate of inoculated Escherichia coli K-12 was 22%). The Bacteroidales genetic markers specific to ruminants (BacR) and pigs (Pig2Bac) were detected in samples from a deep well and a private well, respectively. The modified virus concentration method has important implications for the management of microbiological safety in the groundwater supply. IMPORTANCE We investigated the presence of enteric viruses and bacterial genetic markers to determine fecal contamination in groundwater samples from deep wells used for the public drinking water supply and private wells in Japan. Groundwater is often subjected to chlorination; malfunctions in chlorine treatment result in waterborne disease outbreaks. The modified method successfully concentrated both viruses and bacteria in 20-liter groundwater samples. Norovirus genogroup II (GII), rotavirus A, Pepper mild mottle virus, and Bacteroidales genetic markers specific to ruminants and pigs were detected. Frequent flooding caused by increased incidences of extreme rainfall events promotes the infiltration of surface runoff containing livestock wastes and untreated wastewater into wells, possibly increasing groundwater contamination risk. The practical and efficient method developed in this study will enable waterworks and the environmental health departments of municipal/prefectural governments to monitor water quality. Additionally, the modified method will contribute to improving the microbiological safety of groundwater.
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Environmental and Adaptive Changes Necessitate a Paradigm Shift for Indicators of Fecal Contamination. Microbiol Spectr 2020. [DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.erv-0001-2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Changes in the occurrence, distribution, and seasonal variation of waterborne pathogens due to global climate change may increase the risk of human exposure to these microorganisms, thus heightening the need for more reliable surveillance systems. Routine monitoring of drinking water supplies and recreational waters is performed using fecal indicator microorganisms, such as
Escherichia coli
,
Enterococcus
spp., and coliphages. However, the presence and numbers of these indicators, especially
E. coli
and
Enterococcus
spp., do not correlate well with those of other pathogens, especially enteric viruses, which are a major cause of waterborne outbreaks associated with contaminated water and food, and recreational use of lakes, ponds, rivers, and estuarine waters. For that reason, there is a growing need for a surveillance system that can detect and quantify viral pathogens directly in water sources to reduce transmission of pathogens associated with fecal transmission. In this review, we present an updated overview of relevant waterborne enteric viruses that we believe should be more commonly screened to better evaluate water quality and to determine the safety of water use and reuse and of epidemiological data on viral outbreaks. We also discuss current methodologies that are available to detect and quantify these viruses in water resources. Finally, we highlight challenges associated with virus monitoring. The information presented in this review is intended to aid in the assessment of human health risks due to contact with water sources, especially since current environmental and adaptive changes may be creating the need for a paradigm shift for indicators of fecal contamination.
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Quantitative PCR Detection of Enteric Viruses in Wastewater and Environmental Water Sources by the Lisbon Municipality: A Case Study. WATER 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/w12020544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Current regulations and legislation require critical revision to determine safety for alternative water sources and water reuse as part of the solution to global water crisis. In order to fulfill those demands, Lisbon municipality decided to start water reuse as part of a sustainable hydric resources management, and there was a need to confirm safety and safeguard for public health for its use in this context. For this purpose, a study was designed that included a total of 88 samples collected from drinking, superficial, underground water, and wastewater at three different treatment stages. Quantitative Polimerase Chain Reaction (PCR) detection (qPCR) of enteric viruses Norovirus (NoV) genogroups I (GI) and II (GII) and Hepatitis A (HepA) was performed, and also FIB (E. coli, enterococci and fecal coliforms) concentrations were assessed. HepA virus was only detected in one untreated influent sample, whereas NoV GI/ NoV GI were detected in untreated wastewater (100/100%), secondary treated effluent (47/73%), and tertiary treated effluent (33/20%). Our study proposes that NoV GI and GII should be further studied to provide the support that they may be suitable indicators for water quality monitoring targeting wastewater treatment efficiency, regardless of the level of treatment.
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Lee JS, Joo IS, Ju SY, Jeong MH, Song YH, Kwak HS. Research on the contamination levels of norovirus in food facilities using groundwater in South Korea, 2015-2016. Int J Food Microbiol 2018; 280:35-40. [PMID: 29772466 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Revised: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV) is a major pathogenic virus that is responsible for foodborne and waterborne gastroenteritis outbreaks. Groundwater is an important source of drinking water and is used in agriculture and food manufacturing processes. This study investigated norovirus contamination of groundwater treatment systems at 1360 sites in seven metropolitan areas and nine provinces in 2015-2016. Temperature, pH, residual chlorine, and turbidity content were assessed to analyze the water quality. In 2015, six sites were positive for the presence of NoV (0.88%) and in 2016, two sites were positive (0.29%); in total, NoV was detected in 8 of the 1360 sample sites (0.59%) investigated. Identified genotypes of NoV in groundwater included GI.5, 9 and GII.4, 6, 13, 17, and 21. GII.17 was the most prevalent genotype in treated groundwater used in the food industry. This dominance of GII.17 was corroborated by NoV infection outbreak cases and the results of a survey of coastal waters in South Korea in 2014-2015. Although a low detection rate was observed in this study, NoV is a pathogen that can spread extensively. Therefore, it is necessary to periodically monitor levels of norovirus which is responsible for food poisoning in groundwater. This is a first report to reveal epidemic genotype shift of norovirus in groundwater treatment system of food facilities in South Korea. Our results may contribute to the enhancement of public health and sanitary conditions by providing molecular epidemiological information on groundwater NoV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong Su Lee
- Food Microbiology Division, Food Safety Evaluation Department, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, 187 Osongsaengmyeong 2-ro, Osong, Cheongju, Chungbuk 28159, Republic of Korea.
| | - In Sun Joo
- Food Microbiology Division, Food Safety Evaluation Department, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, 187 Osongsaengmyeong 2-ro, Osong, Cheongju, Chungbuk 28159, Republic of Korea.
| | - Si Yeon Ju
- Food Microbiology Division, Food Safety Evaluation Department, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, 187 Osongsaengmyeong 2-ro, Osong, Cheongju, Chungbuk 28159, Republic of Korea.
| | - Min Hee Jeong
- Food Microbiology Division, Food Safety Evaluation Department, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, 187 Osongsaengmyeong 2-ro, Osong, Cheongju, Chungbuk 28159, Republic of Korea.
| | - Yun-Hee Song
- Food Microbiology Division, Food Safety Evaluation Department, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, 187 Osongsaengmyeong 2-ro, Osong, Cheongju, Chungbuk 28159, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyo Sun Kwak
- Food Microbiology Division, Food Safety Evaluation Department, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, 187 Osongsaengmyeong 2-ro, Osong, Cheongju, Chungbuk 28159, Republic of Korea.
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Detection of waterborne norovirus genogroup I strains using an improved real time RT-PCR assay. Arch Virol 2017; 162:3389-3396. [PMID: 28779231 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-017-3505-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Noroviruses (NoVs) are the major global source of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) outbreaks. To detect NoVs, real-time reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) assays have been widely employed since the first decade of the 21st century. We developed a redesigned probe, JJV1PM, for RT-qPCR assay detection of NoV genogroup (G) I strains. The new RT-qPCR assay using the JJV1PM-probe showed broader strain reactivity for 10 NoV GI genotypes, while the old method, using the JJV1PT-probe assay, detected only 7 NoV GI genotypes in a validation panel using human fecal specimens. The improved RT-qPCR assay was also successfully applied to water samples. The JJV1PM-probe assay identified 7 NoV GI genotypes, whereas the JJV1PT-probe assay detected only 2 NoV GI genotypes from water samples. Notably, groundwater-borne NoV GI strains detected by the improved JJV1PM-probe assay were associated with groundwater-borne AGE outbreaks in South Korea. The results of this study underscore the importance of the evaluation of RT-qPCR assays using recently circulating NoV strains prior to field application.
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Fout GS, Borchardt MA, Kieke BA, Karim MR. Human virus and microbial indicator occurrence in public-supply groundwater systems: meta-analysis of 12 international studies. HYDROGEOLOGY JOURNAL 2017; 25:903-919. [PMID: 30245581 PMCID: PMC6145489 DOI: 10.1007/s10040-017-1581-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Groundwater quality is often evaluated using microbial indicators. This study examines data from 12 international groundwater studies (conducted 1992-2013) of 718 public drinking-water systems located in a range of hydrogeological settings. Focus was on testing the value of indicator organisms for identifying virus-contaminated wells. One or more indicators and viruses were present in 37 and 15% of 2,273 samples and 44 and 27% of 746 wells, respectively. Escherichia coli (E. coli) and somatic coliphage are 7-9 times more likely to be associated with culturable virus-positive samples when the indicator is present versus when it is absent, while F-specific and somatic coliphages are 8-9 times more likely to be associated with culturable virus-positive wells. However, single indicators are only marginally associated with viruses detected by molecular methods, and all microbial indicators have low sensitivity and positive predictive values for virus occurrence, whether by culturable or molecular assays, i.e., indicators are often absent when viruses are present and the indicators have a high false-positive rate. Wells were divided into three susceptibility subsets based on presence of (1) total coliform bacteria or (2) multiple indicators, or (3) location of wells in karst, fractured bedrock, or gravel/cobble settings. Better associations of some indicators with viruses were observed for (1) and (3). Findings indicate the best indicators are E. coli or somatic coliphage, although both indicators may underestimate virus occurrence. Repeat sampling for indicators improves evaluation of the potential for viral contamination in a well.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Shay Fout
- US Environmental Protection Agency, 26 Martin Luther King Dr, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Mark A Borchardt
- US Department of Agriculture, 2611 Yellowstone Dr, Marshfield, WI 54449, USA
| | - Burney A Kieke
- Marshfield Clinic Research Foundation, 1000 Oak Ave, Marshfield, WI 54449, USA
| | - Mohammad R Karim
- City of Santa Cruz, Public Works Department, 110 California St, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
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Kim JH, Lee DH, Joo Y, Zoh KD, Ko G, Kang JH. Identification of environmental determinants for spatio-temporal patterns of norovirus outbreaks in Korea using a geographic information system and binary response models. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 569-570:291-299. [PMID: 27343948 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Revised: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 06/18/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Although norovirus outbreaks are well-recognized to have strong winter seasonality relevant to low temperature and humidity, the role of artificial human-made features within geographical areas in norovirus outbreaks has rarely been studied. The aim of this study is to assess the natural and human-made environmental factors favoring the occurrence of norovirus outbreaks using nationwide surveillance data. We used a geographic information system and binary response models to examine whether the norovirus outbreaks are spatially patterned and whether these patterns are associated with specific environmental variables including service levels of water supply and sanitation systems and land-use types. The results showed that small-scale low-tech local sewage treatment plants and winter sports areas were statistically significant factors favoring norovirus outbreaks. Compactness of the land development also affected the occurrence of norovirus outbreaks; transportation, water, and forest land-uses were less favored for effective transmission of norovirus, while commercial areas were associated with an increased rate of norovirus outbreaks. We observed associations of norovirus outbreaks with various outcomes of human activities, including discharge of poorly treated sewage, overcrowding of people during winter season, and compactness of land development, which might help prioritize target regions and strategies for the management of norovirus outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Hwi Kim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Dongguk University-Seoul, 30, Pildong-ro 1gil, Jung-gu, Seoul 04620, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Hoon Lee
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Dongguk University-Seoul, 30, Pildong-ro 1gil, Jung-gu, Seoul 04620, Republic of Korea
| | - Yongsung Joo
- Department of Statistics, Dongguk University-Seoul, 30, Pildong-ro 1gil, Jung-gu, Seoul 04620, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Duk Zoh
- Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Gwangpyo Ko
- Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Joo-Hyon Kang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Dongguk University-Seoul, 30, Pildong-ro 1gil, Jung-gu, Seoul 04620, Republic of Korea.
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Kim MS, Koo ES, Choi YS, Kim JY, Yoo CH, Yoon HJ, Kim TO, Choi HB, Kim JH, Choi JD, Park KS, Shin Y, Kim YM, Ko G, Jeong YS. Distribution of Human Norovirus in the Coastal Waters of South Korea. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0163800. [PMID: 27681683 PMCID: PMC5040428 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0163800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence of human norovirus in the aquatic environment can cause outbreaks related to recreational activities and the consumption of norovirus-contaminated clams. In this study, we investigated the prevalence of norovirus genogroups I (GI) and II (GII) in the coastal aquatic environment in South Korea (March 2014 to February 2015). A total of 504 water samples were collected periodically from four coastal areas (total sites = 63), of which 44 sites were in estuaries (clam fisheries) and 19 were in inflow streams. RT-PCR analysis targeting ORF2 region C revealed that 20.6% of the water samples were contaminated by GI (13.3%) or GII (16.6%). The prevalence of human norovirus was higher in winter/spring than in summer/fall, and higher in inflow streams (50.0%) than in estuaries (7.9%). A total of 229 human norovirus sequences were identified from the water samples, and phylogenetic analysis showed that the sequences clustered into eight GI genotypes (GI.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 9) and nine GII genotypes (GII.2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 13, 17, and 21). This study highlighted three issues: 1) a strong correlation between norovirus contamination via inflow streams and coastal areas used in clam fisheries; 2) increased prevalence of certain non-GII.4 genotypes, exceeding that of the GII.4 pandemic variants; 3) seasonal shifts in the dominant genotypes of both GI and GII.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man Su Kim
- Department of Biology and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Eung Seo Koo
- Department of Biology and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Yong Seon Choi
- Department of Biology and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Ji Young Kim
- Department of Biology and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Chang Hoon Yoo
- Department of Biology and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyun Jin Yoon
- Department of Seafood Science and Technology, Institute of Marine Industry, Gyeongsang National University, Tongyeong, Gyeongnam, South Korea
| | - Tae-Ok Kim
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Ocean Science and Technology, Kunsan National University, Kunsan, South Korea
| | - Hyun Bae Choi
- Department of Environmental Engineering & Biotechnology, Mokpo National Maritime University, Mokpo, South Korea
| | - Ji Hoon Kim
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Pukyong National University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Jong Deok Choi
- Department of Seafood Science and Technology, Institute of Marine Industry, Gyeongsang National University, Tongyeong, Gyeongnam, South Korea
| | - Kwon-Sam Park
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Ocean Science and Technology, Kunsan National University, Kunsan, South Korea
| | - Yongsik Shin
- Department of Environmental Engineering & Biotechnology, Mokpo National Maritime University, Mokpo, South Korea
| | - Young-Mog Kim
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Pukyong National University, Busan, South Korea
| | - GwangPyo Ko
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Yong Seok Jeong
- Department of Biology and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
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Park JH, Jung S, Shin J, Lee JS, Joo IS, Lee DY. Three gastroenteritis outbreaks in South Korea caused by the consumption of kimchi tainted by norovirus GI.4. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2015; 12:221-7. [PMID: 25764445 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2014.1879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In April 2013, outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis were reported at three schools in Jeonju, South Korea. Epidemiological investigations were performed to characterize the outbreaks and implement appropriate control measures. MATERIALS AND METHODS Retrospective cohort studies were performed at these schools. Stool and environmental samples were collected for bacterial and viral assessment. A food supplier of the schools, food company X, was inspected, and samples of cabbage kimchi and groundwater were tested for norovirus by real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. The relatedness of the detected norovirus strains was evaluated by phylogenetic analysis. RESULTS Of the 3347 questionnaires distributed, 631 (attack rate: 18.9%) met the case definition. Among the consumed food items, kimchi products (i.e., cabbage and fresh kimchi) were significantly associated with illness. The kimchi products were supplied by food company X. Among stool samples from 95 students and 34 food handlers at the 3 schools, 39 (41.1%) and 14 (41.2%) samples, respectively, were positive for norovirus. The samples of groundwater and cabbage kimchi at food company X were positive for norovirus. The predominant genotype of norovirus detected in the patient, groundwater, and cabbage kimchi samples, GI.4, shared high nucleotide identity. CONCLUSIONS Kimchi products tainted with norovirus GI.4 from contaminated groundwater were linked to the acute gastroenteritis outbreaks. Therefore, kimchi manufacturers in South Korea should apply chlorine disinfection when using groundwater. Moreover, more stringent sanitation requirements and strict regulations for food companies are recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Hyuk Park
- 1 Department of Preventive Medicine, Donngguk University College of Medicine , Gyeongju-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea
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Cho HG, Park PH, Lee SG, Kim JE, Kim KA, Lee HK, Park EM, Park MK, Jung SY, Lee DY, Yoon MH, Lee JB, Paik SY. Emergence of Norovirus GII.4 variants in acute gastroenteritis outbreaks in South Korea between 2006 and 2013. J Clin Virol 2015; 72:11-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2015.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Revised: 08/17/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Application of salivary antibody immunoassays for the detection of incident infections with Norwalk virus in a group of volunteers. J Immunol Methods 2015; 424:53-63. [PMID: 25985985 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2015.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2015] [Revised: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 05/06/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Norovirus infection is the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis in developed countries. Developing an assay based on a non-invasive biomarker for detecting incident norovirus infections could improve disease surveillance and epidemiological investigations. This project involved analysis of IgA and IgG norovirus-specific antibody responses in saliva samples from a Norwalk virus (Genogroup I, genotype 1 norovirus) challenge study involving infected and symptomatic, and non-infected asymptomatic individuals. Saliva was collected at the challenge, and two weeks and 40 days post-challenge. Samples were analyzed using the Luminex fluorometric and Meso Scale Discovery (MSD) electrochemiluminescence immunoassays. Recombinant P domains of Norwalk virus capsid protein, as well as similar recombinant proteins of two genogroup II noroviruses (VA387 and VA207) were used as antigens. Immunoconversions were defined as >4-fold increase in antibody responses to the norovirus antigens. Various sample pre-treatment options, buffers, saliva dilution ratios, and data adjustment approaches to control for sample-to-sample variability in saliva composition were compared using the Luminex assay. The results suggest that adjusting responses to the norovirus antigens for responses to the protein purification tag, glutathione-S-transferase (GST), significantly improved the odds of producing a correct immunoconversion test result. IgG-based tests were more accurate compared to IgA-based tests. At optimal conditions, both Luminex and MSD assays for Norwalk-specific IgG antibodies correctly identified all infected and non-infected individuals. There was no evidence of cross-reactivity of anti-Norwalk virus antibodies with genogroup II noroviruses. These results suggest that salivary antibody responses can be used for the detection of incident infections with Norwalk virus in prospective surveys.
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Abstract
Norovirus is a major cause of viral gastroenteritis and a common cause of foodborne and waterborne outbreaks. Norovirus outbreaks are responsible for economic losses, most notably to the public health and food industry field. Norovirus has characteristics such as low infectious dose, prolonged shedding period, strong stability, great diversity, and frequent genome mutations. Besides these characteristics, they are known for rapid and extensive spread in closed settings such as hospitals, hotels, and schools. Norovirus is well known as a major agent of food-poisoning in diverse settings in South Korea. For these reasons, nationwide surveillance for norovirus is active in both clinical and environmental settings in South Korea. Recent studies have reported the emergence of variants and novel recombinants of norovirus. In this review, we summarized studies on the molecular epidemiology and nationwide surveillance of norovirus in South Korea. This review will provide information for vaccine development and prediction of new emerging variants of norovirus in South Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Geun Lee
- Korea Zoonosis Research Institute, Chonbuk National University, Iksan 570-390, Korea
| | - Han-Gil Cho
- Division of Public Health Research, Gyeonggi Province Institute of Health and Environment, Suwon 440-290, Korea
| | - Soon-Young Paik
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 137-701, Korea
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Development of enhanced primer sets for detection of norovirus. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:103052. [PMID: 25695041 PMCID: PMC4324898 DOI: 10.1155/2015/103052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2014] [Revised: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 11/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Norovirus (NV) is a major viral pathogen that causes nonbacterial acute gastroenteritis and outbreaks of food-borne disease. The genotype of NV most frequently responsible for NV outbreaks is GII.4, which accounts for 60–80% of cases. Moreover, original and new NV variant types have been continuously emerging, and their emergence is related to the recent global increase in NV infection. In this study, we developed advanced primer sets (NKI-F/R/F2, NKII-F/R/R2) for the detection of NV, including the variant types. The new primer sets were compared with conventional primer sets (GI-F1/R1/F2, SRI-1/2/3, GII-F1/R1/F2, and SRII-1/2/3) to evaluate their efficiency when using clinical and environmental samples. Using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and seminested PCR, NV GI and GII were detected in 91.7% (NKI-F/R/F2), 89.3% (NKII-F/R/R2), 54.2% (GI-F1/R1/F2), 52.5% (GII-F1/R1/F2), 25.0% (SRI-1/2/3), and 32.2% (SRII-1/2/3) of clinical and environmental specimens. Therefore, our primer sets perform better than conventional primer sets in the detection of emerged types of NV and could be used in the future for epidemiological diagnosis of infection with the virus.
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Truong TC, Than VT, Kim W. Evolutionary phylodynamics of Korean noroviruses reveals a novel GII.2/GII.10 recombination event. PLoS One 2014; 9:e113966. [PMID: 25500567 PMCID: PMC4264735 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral gastroenteritis is the most common causal agent of public health problems worldwide. Noroviruses cause nonbacterial acute gastroenteritis in humans of all ages. In this study, we investigated the occurrence of norovirus infection in children with acute gastroenteritis admitted to university hospitals in South Korea. We also analyzed the genetic diversity of the viruses and identified novel recombination events among the identified viral strains. Of 502 children with acute gastroenteritis admitted to our three hospitals between January 2011 and March 2012, genotyping of human noroviruses was performed in 171 (34%) norovirus-positive samples. Of these samples, 170 (99.5%) were in genogroup II (GII), while only one (0.5%) was in genogroup I (GI). The most common GII strain was the GII.4-2006b variant (n = 96, 56.5%), followed by GII.6 (n = 23, 13.5%), GII.12 (n = 22, 12.9%), GII.3 (n = 20, 11.8%), GII.2 (n = 6, 3.5%), GII.b (n = 2, 1.2%), and GII.10 (n = 1, 0.6%). Potential recombination events (polymerase/capsid) were detected in 39 GII strains (22.9%), and the most frequent genotypes were GII.4/GII.12 (n = 12, 30.8%), GII.4/GII.6 (n = 12, 30.8%), GII.4/GII.3 (n = 8, 20.5%), GII.b/GII.3 (n = 3, 7.7%), GII.16/GII.2 (n = 2, 5.1%), GII.4/GII.2 (n = 1, 2.6%), and GII.2/GII.10 (n = 1, 2.6%). For the first time, a novel GII.2/GII.10 recombination was detected; we also identified the GII.16/GII.2 strain for the first time in South Korea. Our data provided important insights into new recombination events, which may prove valuable for predicting the emergence of circulating norovirus strains with global epidemic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thoi Cong Truong
- Department of Microbiology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Van Thai Than
- Department of Microbiology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Wonyong Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
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Cho HG, Lee SG, Kim JE, Yu KS, Lee DY, Park PH, Yoon MH, Jho EH, Kim J, Paik SY. Molecular epidemiology of norovirus GII.4 variants in children under 5 years with sporadic acute gastroenteritis in South Korea during 2006-2013. J Clin Virol 2014; 61:340-4. [PMID: 25223918 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2014.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Revised: 08/12/2014] [Accepted: 08/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The global emergence of norovirus (NoV) GII.4 variants has raised public concerns in the world including South Korea since 1996. OBJECTIVE We analyzed seasonality and genotypic pattern for sporadic cases by norovirus GII-4 variants. STUDY DESIGN To determine the epidemic status of GII.4 variants in South Korea during 2006-2013, 7301 fecal specimens were collected from children who were younger than 5 years and had sporadic acute gastroenteritis (AGE). RESULTS During the study period, NoVs were the most prevalent viral agent, detected in 877 (12.0%) of the 7301 fecal specimens from children with sporadic AGE. NoV GII strains predominantly accounted for 97.6% of all sporadic NoV infections. NoV GII.4 was the most prevalent genotype and comprised 67.6% of the NoV GII strains. However, seasonal prevalence of GII.4 strains varied depending on the spread of GII.4 variants. GII.4-2006b variant most predominantly circulated from 2006-2007 to 2009-2010 and persisted during other seasons. GII.4-2009 variant was first detected in January 2010 and predominant in 2011-2012. However, it was rapidly displaced by GII.4-2012 variant, which emerged in May 2012 and substantially circulated in 2012-2013. CONCLUSIONS The frequent emergence and rapid spread of GII.4 variants significantly affect the magnitude of sporadic NoV infections in children. Hence, to minimize the disease burden of NoV infections, GII.4 strains should be considered as a primary target for vaccine development against NoVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han-Gil Cho
- Division of Virology, Gyeonggi Provincial Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Suwon, Republic of Korea; Department of Life Science, The University of Seoul, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Geun Lee
- Korea Zoonosis Research Institute, Chonbuk National University, Iksan, Republic of Korea
| | - Ju-Eun Kim
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyeong-Sin Yu
- Division of Virology, Gyeonggi Provincial Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Deog-Yong Lee
- Division of Enteric Disease, Center for Infectious Disease, National Institute of Health, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Osong, Republic of Korea
| | - Po-Hyun Park
- Division of Virology, Gyeonggi Provincial Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi-Hye Yoon
- Division of Virology, Gyeonggi Provincial Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Eek-Hoon Jho
- Department of Life Science, The University of Seoul, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaehong Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Gachon University, Incheon, Republic of Korea.
| | - Soon-Young Paik
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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Acute gastroenteritis outbreaks associated with ground-waterborne norovirus in South Korea during 2008–2012. Epidemiol Infect 2014; 142:2604-9. [DOI: 10.1017/s0950268814000247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYEpidemiological and virological studies indicate that noroviruses-contaminated groundwater was the primary source of four acute gastroenteritis outbreaks in South Korea between 2008 and 2012. Furthermore, cabbage kimchi was first identified as the vehicle of transmission between groundwater and infected patients in an outbreak in 2011. The proper treatment of groundwater sources prior to use for drinking or in food preparation is necessary to prevent further outbreaks.
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Nam S, Kim MJ, Park M, Kim N, Lee YJ, Lee GC. Detection of coliforms in drinking water using skin patches: a rapid, reliable method that does not require an external energy source. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2014; 90:283-7. [PMID: 24420783 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.13-0349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
The detection of coliforms requires incubation in a laboratory, generally powered using electricity. In many parts of the developing world, however, external energy sources such as electricity are not readily available. To develop a fast, reliable method for detecting coliforms in water without an external energy source, we assessed the efficacy of six test kits for the identification of coliforms in water samples. To assess the possibility of using body temperature as the sole source of heat for incubation, bacterial samples were then mixed with the enzymatic test kit reagent and attached to the human body surface using a patch system. The patches were attached to the bodies of volunteers for 24 hours and the practicality and accuracy of the patches were assessed. Coliforms were detected within 24 hours in all patches. This innovation will facilitate the testing of water quality by researchers and by economically disadvantaged people without electricity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sehee Nam
- Water Analysis and Research Center, K-water, Daejeon, Republic of Korea; Korean Minjok Leadership Academy, Hoengseong, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
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Gibson KE. Viral pathogens in water: occurrence, public health impact, and available control strategies. Curr Opin Virol 2014; 4:50-7. [PMID: 24440908 PMCID: PMC7185559 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2013.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2013] [Revised: 12/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Transmission of viruses in water has a significant impact on public health. Contaminated groundwater and recreational water cause majority of virus-related WBDOs. Noroviruses are the dominant cause of WBDOs in high-income countries. Application of a true viral indicator would allow for better protection of public health.
The public health impact of the transmission of viruses in water is significant worldwide. Waterborne viruses can be introduced into our recreational and finished drinking water sources through a variety of pathways ultimately resulting in the onset of illness in a portion of the exposed population. Although there have been advances in both drinking water treatment technologies and source water protection strategies, waterborne disease outbreaks (WBDOs) due to viral pathogens still occur each year worldwide. By highlighting the prevalence of viral pathogens in water as well as (1) the dominant viruses of concern, (2) WBDOs due to viruses, and (3) available water treatment technologies, the goal of this review is to provide insight into the public health impact of viruses in water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen E Gibson
- University of Arkansas, Department of Food Science, 2650 North Young Avenue, Fayetteville, AR 72704, United States.
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Won YJ, Park JW, Han SH, Cho HG, Kang LH, Lee SG, Ryu SR, Paik SY. Full-genomic analysis of a human norovirus recombinant GII.12/13 novel strain isolated from South Korea. PLoS One 2013; 8:e85063. [PMID: 24391985 PMCID: PMC3877344 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0085063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2013] [Accepted: 11/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV) genogroups I and II are frequently recognized as the main causes of acute gastroenteritis and outbreaks of non-bacterial foodborne diseases. Furthermore, variants and recombinant strains of this virus are continuously emerging worldwide. The aim of this study was to identify NoV strains and to investigate and characterize rare genotypes. Stool samples (n = 500) were collected from patients with symptoms of acute gastroenteritis in Korea between December 2004 and November 2007. For analysis of the samples, rapid genotype screening was performed using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Full sequencing, using a newly designed set of 12 primers, revealed GII-12/13 strain. The partial sequence of GII-12/13 strain was compared with published NoV (GII-1 - 14) sequences targeting RdRp and capsid regions using phylogenetic analysis with the SimPlot program, which could evaluate recombination breakpoints. SimPlot analysis was also performed with the strain GII-12/Gifu-96/JPN (AB045603) for the RdRp region and with GII-13/G5175B-83/AUS(DQ379714) for the capsid region. NoV was detected in 19 of the 500 stool samples (3.8%). Genogroup GII-4 was found most frequently (n = 9, 1.8%), followed by GII-3 (n = 4, 0.8%), GII-6 (n = 3, 0.6%), GI-6 (n = 2, 0.4%), and GII-12/13 (n = 1, 0.2%). Importantly, we identified a novel NoV recombinant strain, C9-439 (KF289337), indicating potential risks, which suggested that, recombination occurred in the region between open reading frames 1 and 2 of the GII-12/13 strain and that breakpoints occurred in the polymerase region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Jung Won
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-Woong Park
- Department of Food and Animal Biotechnology, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Center for Agricultural Biomaterials, and Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-ha Han
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Han-Gil Cho
- Division of Virology, Gyeonggi Provincial Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Lae-Hyung Kang
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Geun Lee
- Korea Zoonosis Research Institute, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Ryeol Ryu
- Department of Food and Animal Biotechnology, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Center for Agricultural Biomaterials, and Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Soon-Young Paik
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- * E-mail:
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Joung HK, Han SH, Park SJ, Jheong WH, Ahn TS, Lee JB, Jeong YS, Jang KL, Lee GC, Rhee OJ, Park JW, Paik SY. Nationwide surveillance for pathogenic microorganisms in groundwater near carcass burials constructed in South Korea in 2010. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2013; 10:7126-43. [PMID: 24351737 PMCID: PMC3881157 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph10127126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2013] [Revised: 11/27/2013] [Accepted: 11/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Widespread outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease and avian influenza occurred in South Korea during 2010. In response to the culling of many animals to attenuate the spread of disease, South Korea used mass burial sites to dispose of the large number of carcasses; consequently, concerns about groundwater contamination by leachate from these burial sites are increasing. Groundwater is one of the main sources of drinking water, and its cleanliness is directly related to public health. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the safety of groundwater around the burial sites (total of 600 sites). A total of 1,200 groundwater samples were collected though the country, and microbial analysis was conducted during two time periods: during the spring (n = 600; April to June 2012) and after rainfall (n = 600; August to October, 2012; fall). Fecal coliform and Escherichia coli were detected in 173 (14.4%) and 85 (7.1%) of the 1,200 samples, respectively. Salmonella spp. and Shigella spp. each were detected only once (0.083%). Clostridium perfringens was detected from 7 groundwater samples (0.583%), and E. coli O157:H7 was not detected. With respect to norovirus, only the GII type was detected from six groundwater samples (0.5%), and enterovirus was detected in 15 groundwater samples (1.25%). The frequency of E. coli that we detected was lower than that found in previous studies conducted in South Korea, but we detected higher frequency of fecal coliform than that observed in a previous report. The contamination frequencies of Salmonella spp. and Shigella spp. were very low, but C. perfringens, which could be an indicator of fecal pollution, was detected in seven regions. Overall, the results of the present study indicate a low possibility of contamination from burial sites. However, consistent monitoring is required to prevent microbial contamination of groundwater near the burial sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ha Kyung Joung
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, the Catholic University of Korea, 505 Banpo-dong Seocho-gu, Seoul 137-701, Korea; E-Mails: (H.K.J.); (S.H.H.)
| | - Sang Ha Han
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, the Catholic University of Korea, 505 Banpo-dong Seocho-gu, Seoul 137-701, Korea; E-Mails: (H.K.J.); (S.H.H.)
| | - Su-Jung Park
- Environmental Infrastructure Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon 404-170, Korea; E-Mails: psj12@korea,kr (S.-J.P.); (W.-H.J.)
| | - Weon-Hwa Jheong
- Environmental Infrastructure Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon 404-170, Korea; E-Mails: psj12@korea,kr (S.-J.P.); (W.-H.J.)
| | - Tae Seok Ahn
- Department of Environmental Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon-si, Gangwon-do 200-701, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Joong-Bok Lee
- Department of Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Gwangiin-gu, Seoul 143-701, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Yong-Seok Jeong
- Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Kyung Hee University, 26, Kyungheedaero, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 130-701, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Kyung Lib Jang
- Department of Microbiology, College of Natural Sciences, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Gyu-Cheol Lee
- Water Analysis and Research Center, Korea Institute of Water and Environment, Korea Water Resources Corp., Daejeon 306-711, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Ok-Jae Rhee
- DK EcoV Environmental Microbiology Lab, Biotechnology Business Incubating Center, Dankook University, Chungnam 330-714, Korea; E-Mail:
| | | | - Soon Young Paik
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, the Catholic University of Korea, 505 Banpo-dong Seocho-gu, Seoul 137-701, Korea; E-Mails: (H.K.J.); (S.H.H.)
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Han TH, Kim SC, Kim ST, Chung CH, Chung JY. Detection of norovirus genogroup IV, klassevirus, and pepper mild mottle virus in sewage samples in South Korea. Arch Virol 2013; 159:457-63. [PMID: 24052148 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-013-1848-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2013] [Accepted: 08/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV) genogroup (G) IV has been infrequently isolated from patients suffering from acute gastroenteritis (AGE), although this virus has not been detected in Korea. Klassevirus, a novel virus belonging to the family Picornaviridae and a possible etiologic agent of AGE, and pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), which originates from processed pepper products and is shed in human feces, are suggested to be new indicators of fecal pollution. We aimed to investigate the presence of NoV-GIV, klassevirus, and PMMoV in sewage samples collected in Korea. Between December 2010 and February 2012, influent sewage samples were collected every month from a wastewater treatment plant located in the eastern part of Seoul in Korea. The sewage samples were concentrated by the adsorption elution method using an HA (pore size of 0.45 μm with mixed cellulose ester) electronegative filter with an acid-rinse procedure. RT-PCR was performed using specific primers for the capsid gene of NoV-GII and NoV-GIV, the coat gene of PMMoV, and the VP0/VP1 gene of klassevirus. Among the 14 sewage samples tested, klassevirus was detected in eight (57.1 %), PMMoV in eight (57.1 %), NoV-GII in five (35.7 %), and NoV-GIV in three (21.4 %). NoV-GIV was detected in December 2010 and January and March 2011. PMMoV and klassevirus were frequently detected in winter. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the NoV-GIV detected in this study belonged to G-IV1 lineage. This is the first study to confirm the presence of NoV-GIV, klassevirus, and PMMoV in sewage samples in Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Hee Han
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Sanggyepaik Hospital, Inje University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
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Lee BR, Lee SG, Park JH, Kim KY, Ryu SR, Rhee OJ, Park JW, Lee JS, Paik SY. Norovirus contamination levels in ground water treatment systems used for food-catering facilities in South Korea. Viruses 2013; 5:1646-54. [PMID: 23820792 PMCID: PMC3738952 DOI: 10.3390/v5071646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2013] [Revised: 06/11/2013] [Accepted: 06/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to inspect norovirus contamination of groundwater treatment systems used in food-catering facilities located in South Korea. A nationwide study was performed in 2010. Water samples were collected and, for the analysis of water quality, the temperature, pH, turbidity, and residual chlorine content were assessed. To detect norovirus genotypes GI and GII, RT-PCR and semi-nested PCR were performed with specific NV-GI and NV-GII primer sets, respectively. The PCR products amplified from the detected strains were then subjected to sequence analyses. Of 1,090 samples collected in 2010, seven (0.64%) were found to be norovirus-positive. Specifically, one norovirus strain was identified to have the GI-6 genotype, and six GII strains had the GII, GII-3, GII-4, and GII-17 genotypes. The very low detection rate of norovirus most likely reflects the preventative measures used. However, this virus can spread rapidly from person to person in crowded, enclosed places such as the schools investigated in this study. To promote better public health and sanitary conditions, it is necessary to periodically monitor noroviruses that frequently cause epidemic food poisoning in South Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo-Ram Lee
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, the Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 137-701, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Sung-Geun Lee
- Korea Zoonosis Research Institute, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 561-756, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Jong-Hyun Park
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Kyungwon University, Seongnam 461-701, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Kwang-Yup Kim
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Chungbuk National University Korea, Chongju 361-763, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Sang-Ryeol Ryu
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Seoul National University Korea, Seoul 151-742, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Ok-Jae Rhee
- DK EcoV Environmental Microbiology Lab, Biotechnology Business Incubating Center, Dankook University, Chungnam 330-714, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Jeong-Woong Park
- Sanigen Co. Ltd., Juan-dong, Gwacheon-si, Gyeonggi-do 427-070, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Jeong-Su Lee
- Food Microbiology Division, Food Safety Evaluation Department, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, Osong 363-700, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Soon-Young Paik
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, the Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 137-701, Korea; E-Mail:
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Li Y, Guo H, Xu Z, Zhou X, Zhang H, Zhang L, Miao J, Pan Y. An outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis associated with a secondary water supply system in a factory in south China. BMC Public Health 2013; 13:283. [PMID: 23537289 PMCID: PMC3679847 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-13-283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2012] [Accepted: 03/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Between September 17 and October 3, 2009, hundreds of workers employed in a manufacturing factory in Shenzhen, a city in south China developed a sudden onset of acute gastroenteritis. A retrospective cohort study is designed to identify the risk factors and control this outbreak. METHODS Information on demographic characteristics, working place, the history of contact with a person having diarrhea and/or vomiting, drink water preference and frequency, eating in the company cafeteria or outside the company, hand-washing habits and eating habits is included. Furthermore, in order to find the contamination source, we investigated the environment around the underground reservoir and collected water samples from the junction between municipal supply water system and underground reservoir to test potential bacteria and virus, examine the seepage tracks on the wall of the underground reservoir from the side of septic tank, and check the integrity and attitude of this lid. Relative risk was presented and Chi-square test was performed. All the analyses were performed with OpenEpi software version 2.3.1 online. RESULTS The cohort study demonstrated that the workers who had direct drink water were 3.0 fold more likely to suffer from acute gastroenteritis than those who consumed commercial bottled water. The direct drinking water, water of the tank of buildings, and the underground reservoir were positive only for norovirus. Norovirus was also detected from stool and rectal swab samples from patients with acute gastroenteritis. The underground reservoir was found to be the primary contamination source. Further environmental investigation showed that the norovirus contaminated substance entered into the underground reservoir via access holes in lid covering this underground reservoir. CONCLUSION This acute gastroenteritis outbreak was caused by the secondary supply system contaminated by norovirus in this factory. The outbreak of gastroenteritis cases caused by norovirus frequently occurred in China due to a lack of surveillance and supervision, and due to faults in the construction of such water systems. Therefore, more attentions should pay to the secondary supply water system in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Li
- Department of infectious disease prevention and control, Shenzhen bao’an center for disease control and prevention, 116 Longjinger Road, Shenzhen 51810, China
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Borchardt MA, Spencer SK, Kieke BA, Lambertini E, Loge FJ. Viruses in nondisinfected drinking water from municipal wells and community incidence of acute gastrointestinal illness. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2012; 120:1272-9. [PMID: 22659405 PMCID: PMC3440111 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1104499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2011] [Accepted: 05/31/2012] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Groundwater supplies for drinking water are frequently contaminated with low levels of human enteric virus genomes, yet evidence for waterborne disease transmission is lacking. OBJECTIVES We related quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR)-measured enteric viruses in the tap water of 14 Wisconsin communities supplied by nondisinfected groundwater to acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) incidence. METHODS AGI incidence was estimated from health diaries completed weekly by households within each study community during four 12-week periods. Water samples were collected monthly from five to eight households per community. Viruses were measured by qPCR, and infectivity assessed by cell culture. AGI incidence was related to virus measures using Poisson regression with random effects. RESULTS Communities and time periods with the highest virus measures had correspondingly high AGI incidence. This association was particularly strong for norovirus genogroup I (NoV-GI) and between adult AGI and enteroviruses when echovirus serotypes predominated. At mean concentrations of 1 and 0.8 genomic copies/L of NoV-GI and enteroviruses, respectively, the AGI incidence rate ratios (i.e., relative risk) increased by 30%. Adenoviruses were common, but tap-water concentrations were low and not positively associated with AGI. The estimated fraction of AGI attributable to tap-water-borne viruses was between 6% and 22%, depending on the virus exposure-AGI incidence model selected, and could have been as high as 63% among children < 5 years of age during the period when NoV-GI was abundant in drinking water. CONCLUSIONS The majority of groundwater-source public water systems in the United States produce water without disinfection, and our findings suggest that populations served by such systems may be exposed to waterborne viruses and consequent health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Borchardt
- Marshfield Clinic Research Foundation, Marshfield, Wisconsin, USA.
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Lee GC, Jheong WH, Jung GS, Oh SA, Kim MJ, Rhee OJ, Park S, Lee CH. Detection and molecular characterization of human noroviruses in Korean groundwater between 2008 and 2010. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2012; 4:115-123. [PMID: 23412838 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-012-9084-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2012] [Accepted: 06/25/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
RT-PCR, nucleotide sequencing, and phylogenetic analysis were performed for genotyping and molecular characterization of noroviruses isolated from Korean groundwater. Among 160 samples collected from 80 sites between 2008 and 2010, 14 samples (8.7 %) from 12 sites were positive for noroviruses (NoVs). The percentages of NoV-positive samples in 2008, 2009, and 2010 were 22.2, 3.2, and 0 %, respectively, representing a yearly decrease. GII-positive samples (n = 9, 5.6 %) outnumbered GI-positive samples (n = 5, 3.1 %). The genotypes of the GI NoVs were GI.2, GI.5, and GI.6, and the genotypes of the GII NoVs were all GII.4. One sample, HM623465, was very similar to CUK-3 and CBNU2 and two GII.4 sequences isolated from the stool of Korean gastroenteritis patients. A BLASTN search revealed several nucleotide sequences highly similar to those of NoVs isolated in this study. The original isolation sources for these similar NoVs were mostly stool (n = 731, 80.0 %) and groundwater (n = 135, 14.8 %), and all the countries from which they were isolated were almost in Asia (96.0 %); specifically, China (n = 192, 21.0 %), Japan (n = 383, 41.9 %), Korea (n = 296, 32.4 %), and other Asian countries (n = 6, 0.7 %). These results suggest that Korean groundwater might be contaminated with NoVs from the stool of infected patients and that these NoVs in turn cause new cases of gastroenteritis through a typical fecal-oral route with region-specific circulation. Therefore, it is important to properly treat sewage, which may include waterborne viruses and manage point sources in groundwater for national health and sanitation. In addition, continuous molecular surveillance remains important for understanding circulating NoVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyu-Cheol Lee
- K-water, Water Analysis and Research Center, Daejeon, 306-711, Republic of Korea
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Gutierrez L, Nguyen TH. Interactions between rotavirus and Suwannee River organic matter: aggregation, deposition, and adhesion force measurement. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2012; 46:8705-8713. [PMID: 22834686 DOI: 10.1021/es301336u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Interactions between rotavirus and Suwannee River natural organic matter (NOM) were studied by time-resolved dynamic light scattering, quartz crystal microbalance, and atomic force microscopy. In NOM-containing NaCl solutions of up to 600 mM, rotavirus suspension remained stable for over 4 h. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurement for interaction force decay length at different ionic strengths showed that nonelectrostatic repulsive forces were mainly responsible for eliminating aggregation in NaCl solutions. Aggregation rates of rotavirus in solutions containing 20 mg C/L increased with divalent cation concentration until reaching a critical coagulation concentration of 30 mM CaCl(2) or 70 mM MgCl(2). Deposition kinetics of rotavirus on NOM-coated silica surface was studied using quartz crystal microbalance. Experimental attachment efficiencies for rotavirus adsorption to NOM-coated surface in MgCl(2) solution were lower than in CaCl(2) solution at a given divalent cation concentration. Stronger adhesion force was measured for virus-virus and virus-NOM interactions in CaCl(2) solution compared to those in MgCl(2) or NaCl solutions at the same ionic strength. This study suggested that divalent cation complexation with carboxylate groups in NOM and on virus surface was an important mechanism in the deposition and aggregation kinetics of rotavirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Gutierrez
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Center of Advanced Materials for the Purification of Water with Systems, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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Lee GC, Jung GS, Lee CH. Complete genomic sequence analysis of norovirus isolated from South Korea. Virus Genes 2012; 45:225-36. [PMID: 22752565 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-012-0779-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2012] [Accepted: 06/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The complete nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of the RNA genome of a recently isolated norovirus (NoV) from Korea, designated Hu/GII-4/CBNU2/2007/KR (CBNU2), were determined and characterized by phylogenetic comparison with several genetically diverse NoV sequences. The RNA genome of CBNU2 is 7,560 nucleotides in length, excluding the 3' poly (A) tract. It includes three open reading frames (ORFs): ORF1, which encodes the nonstructural polyprotein (5-5,104); ORF2, which encodes VP1 (5,085-6,707); and ORF3, which encodes VP2 (6,707-7,513). ORF2-based phylogenetic analysis revealed that CBNU2 belonged to the GII.4 genotype, the most prevalent genotype, and formed a cluster with NoVs isolated from Asian regions, between 2006 and 2008. Comparative analysis with the consensus sequence of 207 completely sequenced NoV genomes showed 47 mismatched nucleotides: 26 in ORF1, 14 in ORF2, and 7 in ORF3, resulting in 8 amino acid changes: 3 in ORF1, 2 in ORF2, and 3 in ORF3. Phylogenetic analysis with full genome ORF1, ORF2, and ORF3 nucleotide sequences obtained from CBNU2 and each of the other representative NoV genomes suggested that CBNU2 had not undergone recombination with any of the other NoVs. A SimPlot analysis further supported this finding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyu-Cheol Lee
- Water Analysis and Research Center, K-water, Daejeon 306-711, Republic of Korea
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Lee MJ, Kim WH, Cho HG, Lee SS. Epidemiological Study of Ground-waterborne Norovirus GI.3-associated Gastroenteritis Outbreaks in Gyeonggi Province of South Korea in May 2011. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.4167/jbv.2012.42.3.232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Myung-Jin Lee
- Gyeonggi-do Institute of Health & Environment 95, Pajangcheon st, Jangan-gu, Suwon-city, Gyeonggi-do, Korea
- Department of Biology, Kyonggi University Graduate School 94-6, Iui-dong Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-city, Gyeonggi-do, Korea
| | - Woon-Ho Kim
- Gyeonggi-do Institute of Health & Environment 95, Pajangcheon st, Jangan-gu, Suwon-city, Gyeonggi-do, Korea
| | - Han-Gil Cho
- Gyeonggi-do Institute of Health & Environment 95, Pajangcheon st, Jangan-gu, Suwon-city, Gyeonggi-do, Korea
| | - Sang-Seob Lee
- Department of Biology, Kyonggi University Graduate School 94-6, Iui-dong Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-city, Gyeonggi-do, Korea
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