Microbial Community Distribution and Core Microbiome in Successive Wound Grades of Individuals with Diabetic Foot Ulcers

Alcaligenes faecalis corrects aberrant matrix metalloproteinase expression to promote reepithelialization of diabetic wounds

Chronic wounds are a common and costly complication of diabetes, where multifactorial defects contribute to dysregulated skin repair, inflammation, tissue damage, and infection. We previously showed that aspects of the diabetic foot ulcer microbiota were correlated with poor healing outcomes, but many microbial species recovered remain uninvestigated with respect to wound healing. Here, we focused on Alcaligenes faecalis, a Gram-negative bacterium that is frequently recovered from chronic wounds but rarely causes infection. Treatment of diabetic wounds with A. faecalis accelerated healing during early stages. We investigated the underlying mechanisms and found that A. faecalis treatment promotes reepithelialization of diabetic keratinocytes, a process that is necessary for healing but deficient in chronic wounds. Overexpression of matrix metalloproteinases in diabetes contributes to failed epithelialization, and we found that A. faecalis treatment balances this overexpression to allow proper healing. This work uncovers a mechanism of bacterial-driven wound repair and provides a foundation for the development of microbiota-based wound interventions.

Anaerobes in diabetic foot infections: pathophysiology, epidemiology, virulence, and management

SUMMARYDiabetic foot infections (DFI) are a public health problem worldwide. DFI are polymicrobial, biofilm-associated infections involving complex bacterial communities organized in functional equivalent pathogroups, all including anaerobes. Indeed, multiple pathophysiological factors favor the growth of anaerobes in this context. However, the prevalence, role, and contribution of anaerobes in wound evolution remain poorly characterized due to their challenging detection. Studies based on culture reviewed herein showed a weighted average of 17% of patients with anaerobes. Comparatively, the weighted average of patients with anaerobes identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing was 83.8%. Culture largely underestimated not only the presence but also the diversity of anaerobes compared with cultivation-independent approaches but both methods showed that anaerobic Gram-negative bacilli and Gram-positive cocci were the most commonly identified in DFI. Anaerobes were more present in deeper lesions, and their detection was associated with fever, malodorous lesions, and ulcer depth and duration. More specifically, initial abundance of Peptoniphilus spp. was associated with ulcer-impaired healing, Fusobacterium spp. detection was significantly correlated with the duration of DFI, and the presence of Bacteroides spp. was significantly associated with amputation. Antimicrobial resistance of anaerobes in DFI remains slightly studied and warrants more consideration in the context of increasing resistance of the most frequently identified anaerobes in DFI. The high rate of patients with DFI-involving anaerobes, the increased knowledge on the species identified, their virulence factors, and their potential role in wound evolution support recommendations combining debridement and antibiotic therapy effective on anaerobes in moderate and severe DFI.

Direct metagenomics investigation of non-surgical hard-to-heal wounds: a review

BACKGROUND

Non-surgical chronic wounds, including diabetes-related foot diseases (DRFD), pressure injuries (PIs) and venous leg ulcers (VLU), are common hard-to-heal wounds. Wound evolution partly depends on microbial colonisation or infection, which is often confused by clinicians, thereby hampering proper management. Current routine microbiology investigation of these wounds is based on in vitro culture, focusing only on a limited panel of the most frequently isolated bacteria, leaving a large part of the wound microbiome undocumented.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted on original studies published through October 2022 reporting metagenomic next generation sequencing (mNGS) of chronic wound samples. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they applied 16 S rRNA metagenomics or shotgun metagenomics for microbiome analysis or diagnosis. Case reports, prospective, or retrospective studies were included. However, review articles, animal studies, in vitro model optimisation, benchmarking, treatment optimisation studies, and non-clinical studies were excluded. Articles were identified in PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Microsoft Academic, Crossref and Semantic Scholar databases.

RESULTS

Of the 3,202 articles found in the initial search, 2,336 articles were removed after deduplication and 834 articles following title and abstract screening. A further 14 were removed after full text reading, with 18 articles finally included. Data were provided for 3,628 patients, including 1,535 DRFDs, 956 VLUs, and 791 PIs, with 164 microbial genera and 116 species identified using mNGS approaches. A high microbial diversity was observed depending on the geographical location and wound evolution. Clinically infected wounds were the most diverse, possibly due to a widespread colonisation by pathogenic bacteria from body and environmental microbiota. mNGS data identified the presence of virus (EBV) and fungi (Candida and Aspergillus species), as well as Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas bacteriophages.

CONCLUSION

This study highlighted the benefit of mNGS for time-effective pathogen genome detection. Despite the majority of the included studies investigating only 16 S rDNA, ignoring a part of viral, fungal and parasite colonisation, mNGS detected a large number of bacteria through the included studies. Such technology could be implemented in routine microbiology for hard-to-heal wound microbiota investigation and post-treatment wound colonisation surveillance.

Combining antibiotic-loaded bone cement-based free vastus lateralis muscle-sparing flap with split-thickness skin grafts: A reliable strategy for reconstructing diabetic foot ulcers at non-weight-bearing areas

Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) present significant challenges due to their associated amputation rates, mortality, treatment complexity and excessive costs. Our earlier work introduced a wound surgical integrated treatment (WSIT) for DFUs, yielding promising outcomes. This study focuses on a specific WSIT protocol employing antibiotic-loaded bone cement (ALBC) in the first Stage, and free vastus lateralis muscle-sparing (VLMS) flaps and split-thickness skin grafts (STSGs) in the second stage to repair non-weight-bearing DFUs. From July 2021 to July 2023, seven DFU patients (aged 47-71 years) underwent this treatment. Demographic data, hospital stay and repair surgery times were collected. Histological and immunohistochemical analyses assessed angiogenesis, collagen deposition and inflammation. SF-36 questionnaire measured pre- and postoperative quality of life. Preoperative ultrasound Doppler showed that the peak blood flow velocity of the recipient area artery was significantly >30 cm/s (38.6 ± 6.8 cm/s) in all patients. Muscle flap sizes varied from 8 × 3.5 × 1 to 18 × 6 × 2 cm. The operation time of the repair surgery was 156.9 ± 15.08 minutes, and the hospital stay was 18.9 ± 3.3 days. Histological analysis proved that covering DFUs with ALBC induced membrane formation and increased collagen, neovascularization and M2 macrophages fraction while reducing M1 macrophages one. All grafts survived without amputation during a 7- to 24-month follow-up, during which SF-36 scores significantly improved. A combination of ALBC with free VLMS flaps and STSGs proved to be safe and effective for reconstructing non-weight-bearing DFUs. It rapidly controlled infection, enhanced life quality and foot function, and reduced hospitalization time. We advocate integrating this strategy into DFU treatment plans.

Pelvic irradiation induces behavioural and neuronal damage through gut dysbiosis in a rat model

Radiation exposure can cause gut dysbiosis and there is a positive correlation between gut microbial imbalance and radiation-induced side effects in cancer patients. However, the influence of radiation on the gut-brain axis (GBA) and its neurological consequences are not well understood. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the impact of pelvic irradiation on gut microbiota and the brain. Sprague Dawley rats were irradiated with a single dose of 6 Gy, and faecal samples were collected at different time points (7 and 12-days post-irradiation) for microbial analysis. Behavioural, histological, and gene expression analysis were performed to assess the effect of microbial dysbiosis on the brain. The findings indicated alterations in microbial diversity, disrupted intestinal morphology and integrity, neuronal death-related brain changes, neuroinflammation and reduced locomotor activity. Hippocampal gene expression analysis also showed a reduced expression of neural plasticity-related genes. Overall, this study demonstrated that pelvic irradiation affects gut microbiota, intestinal morphology, integrity, brain neuronal maturation, neural plasticity gene expression, and behaviour.

Mesenchymal stem cells-based drug delivery systems for diabetic foot ulcer: A review

The complication of diabetes, which is known as diabetic foot ulcer (DFU), is a significant concern due to its association with high rates of disability and mortality. It not only severely affects patients’ quality of life, but also imposes a substantial burden on the healthcare system. In spite of efforts made in clinical practice, treating DFU remains a challenging task. While mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) therapy has been extensively studied in treating DFU, the current efficacy of DFU healing using this method is still inadequate. However, in recent years, several MSCs-based drug delivery systems have emerged, which have shown to increase the efficacy of MSC therapy, especially in treating DFU. This review summarized the application of diverse MSCs-based drug delivery systems in treating DFU and suggested potential prospects for the future research.

Advancements in engineered exosomes for wound repair: current research and future perspectives

Wound healing is a complex and prolonged process that remains a significant challenge in clinical practice. Exosomes, a type of nanoscale extracellular vesicles naturally secreted by cells, are endowed with numerous advantageous attributes, including superior biocompatibility, minimal toxicity, and non-specific immunogenicity. These properties render them an exceptionally promising candidate for bioengineering applications. Recent advances have illustrated the potential of exosome therapy in promoting tissue repair. To further augment their therapeutic efficacy, the concept of engineered exosomes has been proposed. These are designed and functionally modifiable exosomes that have been tailored on the attributes of natural exosomes. This comprehensive review delineates various strategies for exosome engineering, placing specific emphasis on studies exploring the application of engineered exosomes for precision therapy in wound healing. Furthermore, this review sheds light on strategies for integrating exosomes with biomaterials to enhance delivery effectiveness. The insights presented herein provide novel perspectives and lay a robust foundation for forthcoming research in the realm of cutaneous wound repair therapies.

Association Between the Diabetic Foot Ulcer and the Bacterial Colony of the Skin Based on 16S rRNA Gene Sequencing: An Observational Study

Objective

Microorganisms have been the main cause of refractory and high recurrence of diabetic foot ulcer (DFU). This study attempted to observe the skin bacterial colony in healthy skin, diabetic skin and DFU skin.

Methods

Forty-eight diabetes patients were recruited at Panyu Central Hospital from March 2021 to March 2022 and divided into DFU group (T group, n = 22), diabetes without foot ulcer group (TW group, n = 26). Besides, a healthy control group (H group, n = 10) was recruited at the same time. The swab samples of foot skin in the same position in the three groups were collected. The microorganisms obtained from the skin were analyzed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The composition of the skin microorganisms was determined, and the species diversity of the skin microbiota was analyzed by α and β diversity. The species differences in the skin microbiota and the relative abundance of different operational taxonomic units (OUTs) with the most significant abundance were analyzed by linear discriminant analysis effect size (LEfSe).

Results

Significant changes were found in the composition of the skin microbiota in the T and TW groups relative to the H group. However, the species diversity of the skin microbiota was significantly reduced in the T and TW groups, with the lowest one in the T group. The composition of microbial diversity in the T group was significantly different from that of the TW and H groups. Among the skin bacterial colonies, the abundance of Staphylococcus, Enhydrobacter, and Corynebacterium_1 was obviously reduced, while that of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas was significantly increased.

Conclusion

Changes in the abundance of Staphylococcus, Enhydrobacter, Corynebacterium_1, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas in the skin bacterial colonies can be the main causative factors for DFU. This study indicates that altering the microbiota composition of wounds may help the treatment of DFU.

Staphylococcus aureus in Polymicrobial Skinand Soft Tissue Infections: Impact of Inter-Species Interactionsin Disease Outcome

Polymicrobial biofilms provide a complex environment where co-infecting microorganisms can behave antagonistically, additively, or synergistically to alter the disease outcome compared to monomicrobial infections. Staphylococcus aureus skin and soft tissue infections (Sa-SSTIs) are frequently reported in healthcare and community settings, and they can also involve other bacterial and fungal microorganisms. This polymicrobial aetiology is usually found in chronic wounds, such as diabetic foot ulcers, pressure ulcers, and burn wounds, where the establishment of multi-species biofilms in chronic wounds has been extensively described. This review article explores the recent updates on the microorganisms commonly found together with S. aureus in SSTIs, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus spp., Acinetobacter baumannii, and Candida albicans, among others. The molecular mechanisms behind these polymicrobial interactions in the context of infected wounds and their impact on pathogenesis and antimicrobial susceptibility are also revised.

Wound microbiota-mediated correction of matrix metalloproteinase expression promotes re-epithelialization of diabetic wounds

Chronic wounds are a common and costly complication of diabetes, where multifactorial defects contribute to dysregulated skin repair, inflammation, tissue damage, and infection. We previously showed that aspects of the diabetic foot ulcer microbiota were correlated with poor healing outcomes, but many microbial species recovered remain uninvestigated with respect to wound healing. Here we focused on Alcaligenes faecalis , a Gram-negative bacterium that is frequently recovered from chronic wounds but rarely causes infection. Treatment of diabetic wounds with A. faecalis accelerated healing during early stages. We investigated the underlying mechanisms and found that A. faecalis treatment promotes re-epithelialization of diabetic keratinocytes, a process which is necessary for healing but deficient in chronic wounds. Overexpression of matrix metalloproteinases in diabetes contributes to failed epithelialization, and we found that A. faecalis treatment balances this overexpression to allow proper healing. This work uncovers a mechanism of bacterial-driven wound repair and provides a foundation for the development of microbiota-based wound interventions.

Diabetic foot ulcer-a systematic review on relevant microbial etiology and antibiotic resistance in Asian countries

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Diabetic foot ulcer (DFU) is one of the most common but uncontrolled health issues of diabetic patients that needs more therapeutic considerations. This systematic review aims to study the current status of the etiological agents responsible for DFU, their frequency in some of the most occurring Asian countries, and their antibiotic resistance pattern based on available studies.

METHODS

Here, the literature survey was conducted on all the DFU studies with the records of etiological agents and conventional therapeutic treatment published until March 2021 using Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online (MEDLINE) and Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) database.

RESULTS

Overall, in our study, a total of 73 studies representing 12 Asian countries worldwide have been included. We found that the highest number of studies were reported from India (45%) followed by Pakistan (11%), China, Iran and others. 71% of recent studies reported DFU being attributed to poly-microbial infections while the dominant position was significantly secured by Gram- negative bacteria (77%, p = 0.34). Staphylococcus aureus was found to be the most prevalent isolate followed by Pseudomonas and then Escherichia coli (mean value - 22%, 17%, and 15% respectively). Antibiotic sensitivity pattern was determined based on availability in terms of median resistance (MR) and interquartile range (IQR) which showed the growing resistance developed by both Gram-positive and Gram-negative isolates. Gram positive pathogens were still reported as susceptible to vancomycin (MR 0%, IQR 0-22.8%), linezolid (MR 0%, IQR 0-15.53%) and imipenem (MR 11%, IQR 0-23.53%). Carbapenem genera, colistin, and amikacin were the most effective drugs against Gram-negative pathogens.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study highly recommend searching for alternative and complementary therapeutic regimens instead of prescribing conventional drugs blindly without investigating the progression of the stages of the ulcer, which may help reduce the medical and economic burden of this disease.

Interspecies interactions in mixed-species biofilms formed by Enterococcus faecalis and gram-negative bacteria isolated from polymicrobial diabetic foot ulcers

Diabetic foot ulcers (DFU) are exacerbated by bacterial colonisation. Here, a high prevalence of Enterococcus faecalis was observed in DFU patients from an Argentinean hospital. E. faecalis was frequently co-isolated with Escherichia coli, Morganella morganii, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The effect of interspecies interactions on bacterial growth was investigated in mixed-species macrocolony biofilms developed in Lubbock-Glc-agar. Similar cell counts were found for E. faecalis and M. morganii growing in mixed and single-species biofilms. An E. faecalis strain showed 1 Log higher cell counts in mixed biofilms with E. coli. Remarkably, E. faecalis strains showed 2 to 4 Log higher cell counts in mixed biofilms with P. aeruginosa. This effect was not observed in planktonic growth or biofilms developed in tryptic soy agar. The present findings reveal bacterial interactions that benefit E. faecalis in mixed-species biofilms, mainly with P. aeruginosa, in a medium that partially mimics the nutrients found in DFU.

Diabetic Foot Ulcer in India: Aetiological Trends and Bacterial Diversity

Diabetes is one of the most prevalent epidemic metabolic disorders, responsible for a significant amount of physical, psychological and economic loss in human society. Diabetic foot ulcer (DFU) is one of the extreme pathophysiological consequences of diabetes. Bacterial infection is the most important cause of chronic DFU. Bacterial species or their biofilms show multidrug resistance, which complicates DFU and consequently leads to amputation of the infected part. Since the Indian population comprises diverse ethnic and cultural groups, this could influence the aetiology of diabetic foot infections and bacterial diversity. We reviewed 56 articles published from 2005 to 2022 on the microbiology of DFU and extracted the data on study location, number of patients analysed in the study, pathophysiological complications, age of the patients, sex of the patient, type of bacteria, type of infection (mono or polymicrobial), predominant bacteria (Gram-positive or Gram-negative), predominant isolates and multiple drug resistance (tested or not). We analysed data and described aetiological trends in diabetic foot infections and bacterial diversity. The study revealed that Gram-negative bacteria are predominant as compared to Gram-positive bacteria in individuals with diabetes with DFU in India. Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella sp. and Proteus sp. were the most predominant Gram-negative bacteria, while Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus sp. were the major Gram-positive bacteria in DFU. We discuss bacterial infections in DFU in the context of bacterial diversity, sampling methods, demography and aetiology.

Application of antibiotic bone cement in the treatment of infected diabetic foot ulcers in type 2 diabetes

BACKGROUND

In this study, we try to investigate the effect of antibiotic bone cement in patients with infected diabetic foot ulcer (DFU).

METHODS

This is a retrospective study, including fifty-two patients with infected DFU who had undergone treated between June 2019 and May 2021. Patients were divided into Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) group and control group. 22 patients in PMMA group received antibiotic bone cement and regular wound debridement, and 30 patients in control group received regular wound debridement. Clinical outcomes include the rate of wound healing, duration of healing, duration of wound preparation, rate of amputation, and frequency of debridement procedures.

RESULTS

In PMMA group, twenty-two patients (100%) had complete wound healing. In control group, twenty-eight patients (93.3%) had wound healing. Compared with control group, PMMA group had fewer frequencies of debridement procedures and shorter duration of wound healing (35.32 ± 3.77 days vs 44.37 ± 7.44 days, P < 0.001). PMMA group had five minor amputation, while control group had eight minor amputation and two major amputation. Regarding the rate of limb salvage, there was no limb lose in PMMA group and two limb losses in control group.

CONCLUSION

The application of antibiotic bone cement is an effective solution for infected DFU treatment. It can effectively decreased the frequency of debridement procedures and shorten the healing duration in patients with infected DFU.

Global trends in research of high-throughput sequencing technology associated with chronic wounds from 2002 to 2022: A bibliometric and visualized study

Background

Chronic wounds are a complex medical problem. With the difficulty of skin healing, the microbial ecology of chronic wounds is an essential factor affecting wound healing. High-throughput sequencing (HTS) technology is a vital method to reveal the microbiome diversity and population structure of chronic wounds.

Objective

The aim of this paper was to delineate the scientific output characteristics, research trends, hotspots and frontiers of HTS technologies related to chronic wounds globally over the past 20 years.

Methods

We searched the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) database for articles published between 2002 and 2022 and their full record information. The Bibliometrix software package was used to analyze bibliometric indicators and VOSviewer visualization analysis results.

Results

Ultimately, a total of 449 original articles were reviewed, and the results showed that the number of annual publications (Nps) about HTS associated with chronic wounds has steadily increased over the last 20 years. The United States and China produce the most articles and have the highest H-index, while the United States and England have the largest number of citations (Nc) in this field. The University of California, Wound Repair and Regeneration and National Institutes of Health Nih United States were the most published institutions, journals and fund resources, respectively. The global research could be divided into 3 clusters as follows: microbial infection of chronic wounds, the healing process of wounds and microscopic processes, skin repair mechanism stimulated by antimicrobial peptides and oxidative stress. In recent years, "wound healing", "infections", "expression", "inflammation", "chronic wounds", "identification" and "bacteria" "angiogenesis", "biofilms" and "diabetes" were the most frequently used keywords. In addition, research on "prevalence", "gene expression", "inflammation" and "infection" has recently become a hotspot.

Conclusions

This paper compares the research hotspots and directions in this field globally from the perspectives of countries, institutions and authors, analyzes the trend of international cooperation, and reveals the future development direction of the field and research hotspots of great scientific research value. Through this paper, we can further explore the value of HTS technology in chronic wounds to better solve the problem of chronic wounds.

Escherichia coli BarA-UvrY regulates the pks island and kills Staphylococci via the genotoxin colibactin during interspecies competition

Wound infections are often polymicrobial in nature, biofilm associated and therefore tolerant to antibiotic therapy, and associated with delayed healing. Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus are among the most frequently cultured pathogens from wound infections. However, little is known about the frequency or consequence of E. coli and S. aureus polymicrobial interactions during wound infections. Here we show that E. coli kills Staphylococci, including S. aureus, both in vitro and in a mouse excisional wound model via the genotoxin, colibactin. Colibactin biosynthesis is encoded by the pks locus, which we identified in nearly 30% of human E. coli wound infection isolates. While it is not clear how colibactin is released from E. coli or how it penetrates target cells, we found that the colibactin intermediate N-myristoyl-D-Asn (NMDA) disrupts the S. aureus membrane. We also show that the BarA-UvrY two component system (TCS) senses the environment created during E. coli and S. aureus mixed species interaction, leading to upregulation of pks island genes. Further, we show that BarA-UvrY acts via the carbon storage global regulatory (Csr) system to control pks expression. Together, our data demonstrate the role of colibactin in interspecies competition and show that it is regulated by BarA-UvrY TCS during interspecies competition.

Wound infections are often polymicrobial in nature and are associated with poor disease prognoses. Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus are among the top five most cultured pathogens from wound infections. However, little is known about the polymicrobial interactions between E. coli and S. aureus during wound infections. In this study, we show that E. coli kills S. aureus both in vitro and in a mouse excisional wound model via the genotoxin, colibactin. We also show that the BarA-UvrY two component system (TCS) regulates the pks island during this mixed species interaction, acting through the carbon storage global regulatory (Csr) system to control colibactin production. Together, our data demonstrate the role of colibactin in interspecies competition and show that it is regulated by BarA-UvrY TCS during interspecies competition.

Association between hemoglobin A1c, Vitamin C, and microbiome in diabetic foot ulcers and intact skin: A cross-sectional study

Background and Aims

Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) add billions of dollars to the direct annual costs associated with diabetes. Despite various treatments, many DFUs do not heal and become infected. Both skin-associated microbial communities and glycemic control are believed to be important in nonhealing DFUs. Recent studies have linked serum Vitamin C levels with glycemic control and DFUs. This cross-sectional study assessed skin microbiome in DFUs, intact diabetic skin, and nondiabetic skin to identify correlations between hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), Vitamin C, and microbial community structure. Correlations between Vitamin C, HbA1c, wound size, and ulcer duration were also determined.

Methods

Participants had their DFUs or intact skin culture swabbed. HbA1c was obtained via point-of-care fingerstick testing and serum Vitamin C was obtained via venipuncture. All participants completed a dietary questionnaire. Participants with ulcers were stratified into the controlled (≤8.0%) or uncontrolled (>8.0%) HbA1c group. Analysis of microbial communities was performed via 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene amplicon sequencing and bacterial load was measured by the domain-level quantitative polymerase chain reaction of the 16S rRNA gene.

Results

Forty-two patients were recruited over 6 months. Bacteria from the genera Staphylococcus and Stenotrophomonas were present in all samples and often dominant, but a shift towards anaerobic pathogenic taxa was observed in ulcers. No global significant differences were observed for HbA1c and Vitamin C levels in the microbial community structure (R < 0.013/p > 0.375). Bacterial loads were 4-5 orders of magnitude higher in ulcers than in intact skin samples. Bacterial load was not significantly higher in the uncontrolled HbA1c group (p = 0.67). Larger wound sizes (p = 0.46) were observed in the uncontrolled HbA1c group compared to the control. Lower Vitamin C levels (p = 0.002) were observed in the uncontrolled HbA1c group compared to nondiabetic controls.

Conclusion

Understanding the link between Vitamin C and HbA1c and DFU microbiome may aid in new therapies.

Bacterial Interactions in the Context of Chronic Wound Biofilm: A Review

Chronic wounds, defined by their resistance to care after four weeks, are a major concern, affecting millions of patients every year. They can be divided into three types of lesions: diabetic foot ulcers (DFU), pressure ulcers (PU), and venous/arterial ulcers. Once established, the classical treatment for chronic wounds includes tissue debridement at regular intervals to decrease biofilm mass constituted by microorganisms physiologically colonizing the wound. This particular niche hosts a dynamic bacterial population constituting the bed of interaction between the various microorganisms. The temporal reshuffle of biofilm relies on an organized architecture. Microbial community turnover is mainly associated with debridement (allowing transitioning from one major representant to another), but also with microbial competition and/or collaboration within wounds. This complex network of species and interactions has the potential, through diversity in antagonist and/or synergistic crosstalk, to accelerate, delay, or worsen wound healing. Understanding these interactions between microorganisms encountered in this clinical situation is essential to improve the management of chronic wounds.

Evaluation of Polymerase Chain Reaction in the Identification and Quantification of Clinically Relevant Bacterial Species in Lower Extremity Wound Infections

Identification of bacteria by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is known to be more sensitive than culture, which brings to question the clinical applicability of the results. In this study, we evaluate the ability of PCR to detect clinically relevant bacterial species in lower extremity wound infections requiring operative debridement, as well as the quantitative change in biodiversity and bacterial load reflected by PCR during the course of treatment. Thirty-four infected lower extremity were examined by analysis of 16S ribosomal RNA subunit and by culture. McNemar's test was used to measure the concordance of clinically relevant bacterial species identified by PCR compared to culture during each debridement. Change in wound biodiversity from initial presentation to final closure was evaluated by Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Kaplan-Meier survival curve was used to characterize change in measured bacterial load over the course of operative debridement. A total of 15 and 12 clinically relevant bacterial species were identified by PCR and culture, respectively. The most common bacterial species identified were Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus, Staphylococcus aureus, and Enterococcus spp. PCR was less likely to detect Enterococcus spp. on initial debridement and Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus on closure in this study population. A significant decrease in mean number of clinically relevant species detected from initial debridement to closure was reflected by culture (p = .0188) but not by PCR (p = .1848). Both PCR (p = .0128) and culture (p = .0001) depicted significant reduction in mean bacterial load from initial debridement to closure. PCR is able to identify common clinically relevant bacterial species in lower extremity surgical wound infections. PCR displays increased sensitivity compared to culture with relation to detection of biodiversity, rather than bacterial load. Molecular diagnostics and conventional culture may serve a joint purpose to assist with rendering clinical judgment in complex wound infections.

Challenges and innovations in treating chronic and acute wound infections: from basic science to clinical practice

Acute and chronic wound infection has become a major worldwide healthcare burden leading to significantly high morbidity and mortality. The underlying mechanism of infections has been widely investigated by scientist, while standard wound management is routinely been used in general practice. However, strategies for the diagnosis and treatment of wound infections remain a great challenge due to the occurrence of biofilm colonization, delayed healing and drug resistance. In the present review, we summarize the common microorganisms found in acute and chronic wound infections and discuss the challenges from the aspects of clinical diagnosis, non-surgical methods and surgical methods. Moreover, we highlight emerging innovations in the development of antimicrobial peptides, phages, controlled drug delivery, wound dressing materials and herbal medicine, and find that sensitive diagnostics, combined treatment and skin microbiome regulation could be future directions in the treatment of wound infection.

Transcriptomic fingerprint of bacterial infection in lower extremity ulcers

Clinicians and researchers utilize subjective, clinical classification systems to stratify lower extremity ulcer infections for treatment and research. The purpose of this study was to examine whether these clinical classifications are reflected in the ulcer's transcriptome. RNA sequencing (RNA‐seq) was performed on biopsies from clinically infected lower extremity ulcers (n = 44). Resulting sequences were aligned to the host reference genome to create a transcriptome profile. Differential gene expression analysis and gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis were performed between ulcer severities as well as between sample groups identified by k‐means clustering. Lastly, a support vector classifier was trained to estimate clinical infection score or k‐means cluster based on a subset of genes. Clinical infection severity did not explain the major sources of variability among the samples and samples with the same clinical classification demonstrated high inter‐sample variability. High proportions of bacterial RNA were identified in some samples, which resulted in a strong effect on transcription and increased expression of genes associated with immune response and inflammation. K‐means clustering identified two clusters of samples, one of which contained all of the samples with high levels of bacterial RNA. A support vector classifier identified a fingerprint of 20 genes, including immune‐associated genes such as CXCL8, GADD45B, and HILPDA, which accurately identified samples with signs of infection via cross‐validation. This study identified a unique, host‐transcriptome signature in the presence of infecting bacteria, often incongruent with clinical infection‐severity classifications. This suggests that stratification of infection status based on a transcriptomic fingerprint may be useful as an objective classification method to classify infection severity, as well as a tool for studying host–pathogen interactions.

Dynamic Role of Oxygen in Wound Healing: A Microbial, Immunological, and Biochemical Perspective

A wound is a temporary break in the continuity of the protective skin barrier. Wound healing is central in maintaining the body's normal homeostatic mechanism, and open wounds raise the risk of microbial infection and amputation. A successful wound healing event is achieved through a series of evolutionarily conserved biochemical pathways orchestrated by various cytokines, growth factors, and immune cells. Chronic wounds are generally oxygen-deficient, and wound hypoxia impairs the wound healing process. Therefore, the use of external oxygen may improve wound health by reducing wound hypoxia, promoting tissue regeneration and granulation tissue formation, reducing anaerobic bacteria colonization, and promoting the growth of beneficial aerobic bacteria. Relevant data were searched and gathered from scientific databases, including PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar using relevant keywords, such as "Chronic Wounds", "Topical Oxygen Therapy", "Inflammatory Markers/ Lactate/ Matrix Metalloproteinase", "Collagen", and "Wound Healing". Relevant articles were shortlisted and used in the present study. Chronic wounds show higher expression of pro-inflammatory mediators, such as C-reactive protein, and higher levels of tissue-degrading matrix metalloproteinases. In addition, chronic wounds are generally oxygen-deficient, and wound hypoxia is directly associated with wound deterioration. Several microbial, immunological, and biochemical markers show a direct association with the oxygen availability in the wound. Therefore, a detailed understanding of these microbial, immunological, and biochemical markers will certainly help clinicians understand the interplay between various factors and topical oxygen therapy and may improve patient outcomes.

The contribution of intestinal Streptococcus to the pathogenesis of diabetic foot ulcers: An analysis based on 16S rRNA sequencing

In this study, we intend to determine the microbial communities that are differentially expressed in diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) from the view of species abundance difference and compositions. The EMBL‐EBI database and QIIME2 platform were used to obtain and process 16S rRNA sequencing data of normal healthy and DFU samples. The LEfSe software was utilised to retrieve key intestinal bacteria differentially expressed in DFUs. Additionally, PICRUSt2, FAPROTAX and BugBase functional analyses were performed to analyse the potential microbial functions and related metabolic pathways. The correlations between intestinal microbiota and clinical indexes were evaluated using the Spearman correlation analysis. Significant differences existed in intestinal microbiota between DFU and normal healthy samples regarding species abundance difference and compositions at Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species levels. Seven microbiota were demonstrated differentially expressed in DFUs that contained Bacteroidaceae, Prevotellaceae, Streptococcaceae, Lactobacillales, Bacilli, Veillonellaceae and Selenomonadales. Insulin signalling pathway may be the key pathway related to the functional significance of Streptococcus and Bacillus in the DFUs. The intestinal microbiota in DFUs exhibited susceptibility to sulphur cycling while displaying pathogenic potential. Last but not least, a close relationship between Streptococcus and the occurrence of DFUs was revealed. Taken together, this study mainly demonstrated the high abundance of Streptococcus in DFUs and its correlation with the disease occurrence.

Negative pressure wound therapy, artificial skin and autogenous skin implantation in diabetic foot ulcers

OBJECTIVE

Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) are one of the most serious diabetic consequences, leading to amputations. Various therapies have been used to treat DFUs; however, a combination of negative pressure suction, artificial skin and autogenous skin implantation have never been investigated. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a novel three-step therapy protocol using negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT), artificial skin and autogenous skin implantation in patients with DFUs.

METHOD

At a single tertiary university hospital between 2015 and 2018, the three-step therapy protocol was applied to patients with DFUs and its safety and efficacy was investigated.

RESULTS

A total of 21 patients took part in the study. The majority of the patients were female (62%), with a mean age of 65 years and a mean body mass index of 21kg/m². A third (n=7) of operative sites experienced minor complications, with two requiring re-operation. At a median follow up of 24 months, the average time of complete wound healing was 46 days, and the wound healing rate was 71%. The first-stage wound healing rate was 90%. All patients had achieved remission without any further recurrence of disease.

CONCLUSION

This comprehensive surgical technique for managing DFUs achieved a high local cure rate, minimal functional morbidity, and acceptable wound complication rates. The three-step therapy protocol has the potential to promote the healing process of DFUs, which is expected to serve as a new method for the treatment and cure of DFUs.

Hemolytic Activity, Cytotoxicity, and Antimicrobial Effects of Human Albumin- and Polysorbate-80-Coated Silver Nanoparticles

In this study, we aimed to develop a technique for colloidal silver nanoparticle (AgNP) modification in order to increase their stability in aqueous suspensions. For this purpose, 40-nm spherical AgNPs were modified by the addition of either human albumin or Tween-80 (Polysorbate-80). After detailed characterization of their physicochemical properties, the hemolytic activity of the nonmodified and modified AgNPs was investigated, as well as their cytotoxicity and antimicrobial effects. Both albumin- and Tween-80-coated AgNPs demonstrated excellent stability in 0.9% sodium chloride solution (>12 months) compared to nonmodified AgNPs, characterized by their rapid precipitation. Hemolytic activity of nonmodified and albumin-coated AgNPs was found to be minimal, while Tween-80-modified AgNPs produced significant hemolysis after 1, 2, and 24 h of incubation. In addition, both native and Tween-80-covered AgNPs showed dose-dependent cytotoxic effects on human adipose-tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells. The albumin-coated AgNPs showed minimal cytotoxicity. The antimicrobial effects of native and albumin-coated AgNPs against S. aureus, K. pneumonia, P. aeruginosa, Corynebacterium spp., and Acinetobacter spp. were statistically significant. We conclude that albumin coating of AgNPs significantly contributes to improve stability, reduce cytotoxicity, and confers potent antimicrobial action.

Factors related to the composition and diversity of wound microbiota investigated using culture-independent molecular methods: a scoping review

All open wounds are often colonized by commensal microbes as a loss of skin can provide a ready portal of entry for microorganisms. Although the wound microbiota is known to be associated with wound infection and with delayed healing, the factors related to the formations of wound microbiota contributing to such poor clinical outcomes are not clear and have not led to effective infection prevention interventions. This review aimed to scope the factors related to the composition and diversity of wound microbiota that have been investigated using culture-independent molecular methods. Original articles on wound microbiota published from January 1986 to February 2020 were included in this review. Thirty-one articles met the inclusion criteria and were grouped according to wound types: chronic, acute, and animal model wounds. The factors identified were categorized according to patient characteristics, wound characteristics, treatment, and sampling. Although some studies reported the effect size of the factors, the values were small. No studies elucidated the mechanism of wound microbiota formation. The results of this scoping review highlight that the factors associated with the diversity of wound microbiota are poorly understood and that further studies are needed.

Biofilm-Innate Immune Interface: Contribution to Chronic Wound Formation

Delayed wound healing can cause significant issues for immobile and ageing individuals as well as those living with co-morbid conditions such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. These delays increase a patient’s risk for infection and, in severe cases, can result in the formation of chronic, non-healing ulcers (e.g., diabetic foot ulcers, surgical site infections, pressure ulcers and venous leg ulcers). Chronic wounds are very difficult and expensive to treat and there is an urgent need to develop more effective therapeutics that restore healing processes. Sustained innate immune activation and inflammation are common features observed across most chronic wound types. However, the factors driving this activation remain incompletely understood. Emerging evidence suggests that the composition and structure of the wound microbiome may play a central role in driving this dysregulated activation but the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying these processes require further investigation. In this review, we will discuss the current literature on: 1) how bacterial populations and biofilms contribute to chronic wound formation, 2) the role of bacteria and biofilms in driving dysfunctional innate immune responses in chronic wounds, and 3) therapeutics currently available (or underdevelopment) that target bacteria-innate immune interactions to improve healing. We will also discuss potential issues in studying the complexity of immune-biofilm interactions in chronic wounds and explore future areas of investigation for the field.

Vitamin D Supplementation in Diabetic Foot Ulcers: A Current Perspective

INTRODUCTION

Diabetic foot ulcer (DFU) is a major complication of diabetes mellitus, as it can physically and emotionally impact the person. Its management can be challenging and expensive, depending on the severity of the wound and the presence of infection.

BACKGROUND

The fat-soluble molecule, vitamin D, has gained great importance ever since its pleiotropism has been recognized. Its efficacy could be attributed to the presence of vitamin D receptors in most of the body tissues. Vitamin D plays a significant role in cell proliferation, differentiation, and immune modulation. It modulates the T and B cells resulting in the suppression of the immunoglobulins, autoimmunity, and inflammation.

METHODS

We performed a literature search with the objective to highlight the role of vitamin D in peripheral vascular disease and peripheral neuropathy, which are the major risk factors for DFU, as well as evidences of its role in wound healing and management of DFU.

RESULTS

Preclinical and clinical studies have shown that vitamin D influences multiple phases of wound healing and thereby accelerates the process. It modulates various cells involved in proliferation and remodelling phases. Vitamin D also enhances the expression of antimicrobial peptides that help to eliminate the microbes, as well as suppress the proinflammatory responses while enhancing the anti-inflammatory responses.

CONCLUSION

This review concludes vitamin D to have a protective role in the immune and vascular system, improve glycaemic outcomes, and wound healing. Therefore, vitamin D could be a preferred adjuvant in the management of DFU.

Application and Clinical Effectiveness of Antibiotic-Loaded Bone Cement to Promote Soft Tissue Granulation in the Treatment of Neuropathic Diabetic Foot Ulcers Complicated by Osteomyelitis: A Randomized Controlled Trial

This study explored the clinical effectiveness of antibiotic-loaded bone cement on primary treatment of diabetic foot infection. This is a randomized controlled study, including thirty-six patients with diabetic foot ulcer complicated by osteomyelitis who had undergone treatment between May 2018 and December 2019. Patients were randomly divided into control group (group A) and study group (group B). Patients in the intervention group received antibiotic-loaded bone cement repair as primary treatment, while patients in the control group received conventional vacuum sealing draining treatment. Clinical endpoints were assessed and compared between the two groups, including wound healing time, wound bacterial conversion, NRS pain score, number of wound dressing changes, and average hospitalization time. All patients were followed up for a period of 12 months after discharge. Results show that compared with the control group, patients in the study group had significant difference in the number of patients for baseline pathogens eradication, short NRS pain score, hospital length of stay and cost, wound surface reduction, healing time, low rate of complications, and infection recurrence. Based on the findings, we conclude that antibiotic-loaded bone cement can be used for treatment of wound in patient with diabetic foot infection. It can help to control wound infections, shorten hospital length of stay, reduce medical cost, and relieve both doctors' and patients' burden. The application of antibiotic-loaded bone cement is suitable for diabetic wound with soft tissue infection or osteomyelitis.

The Protective Effects of Cryptochlorogenic Acid on β-Cells Function in Diabetes in vivo and vitro via Inhibition of Ferroptosis

PURPOSE

Mulberry leaf extract has exerted better antidiabetic activities, while the effects of major active components in mulberry leaf extract are still unclear. Cryptochlorogenic acid (CCA) as the major active component in mulberry leaf extracts was investigated herein.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rats were treated with 50mg/kg streptozotocin for the establishment of diabetic model in vivo, and cells were treated with 33.3 mM glucose for the establishment of cell model in vitro. HE staining assay was performed for observation of pancreatic pathology and aldehyde fuchsin staining assay for examining islet cell numbers. The iron content was detected via Perls staining assay with iron assay kit (ab83366). The malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) were detected by corresponding kits. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was performed for assessment of gene level and Western blot for measurement of protein expression level. The cell survival was detected via CCK-8 assay.

RESULTS

The blood glucose level, iron content, accumulation of lipid peroxides and islet injury in diabetic model were all improved by CCA via a concentration-dependent manner. CCA functions via inhibition of ferroptosis by activation of cystine/glutamate transporter system (XC^-)/glutathione peroxidase 4(GPX4)/Nrf2 and inhibition of nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4) in diabetes.

CONCLUSION

CCA exerted excellent antidiabetic effects via inhibition of ferroptosis, so it may be a promising agent for diabetes therapy, providing a new avenue for diabetes treatment.