Immune response to herpes simplex virus infections: virus-specific antibodies in sera from patients with recurrent facial infections

Fraternal Twins: The Enigmatic Role of the Immune System in Alphaherpesvirus Pathogenesis and Latency and Its Impacts on Vaccine Efficacy

Although the establishment, maintenance and reactivation from alphaherpesvirus latency is far from fully understood, some things are now manifestly clear: Alphaherpesvirus latency occurs in neurons of the peripheral nervous system and control of the process is multifactorial and complex. This includes components of the immune system, contributions from non-neuronal cells surrounding neurons in ganglia, specialized nucleic acids and modifications to the viral DNA to name some of the most important. Efficacious vaccines have been developed to control both acute varicella and zoster, the outcome of reactivation, but despite considerable effort vaccines for acute herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection or reactivated lesions have thus far failed to materialize despite considerable effort. Given the relevance of the immune system to establish and maintain HSV latency, a vaccine designed to tailor the HSV response to maximize the activity of components most critical for controlling reactivated infection might limit the severity of recurrences and hence reduce viral transmission. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of immunological factors that contribute to HSV and VZV latency, identify differences between varicella-zoster virus (VZV) and HSV that could explain why vaccines have been valuable at controlling VZV disease but not HSV, and finish by outlining possible strategies for developing effective HSV vaccines.

Virus specific cell-mediated immunity may play a role in controlling reactivated human herpesvirus 6B in patients under measles induced immunosuppression

For a better understanding of the cellular immune responses to reactivated HHV 6B the lymphoproliferative response to human herpesvirus 6B (HHV 6B) antigen was measured in three consecutive specimens obtained biweekly from 22 young children and infants suffering from acute measles, and in 19 influenza patients and nine healthy control subjects. HHV 6B DNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was detected in 18 of 22 subjects with measles, but not in the influenza patients or the healthy population. A novel reactivation profile of HHV 6B was found in patients with measles in the milder form of immunosuppression than in patients with organ transplantation. HHV 6B specific lymphoproliferation activities increased correspondingly with reactivation of HHV 6B assessed by detecting HHV 6B DNA in PBMCs in patients with measles, but no significant change in either the antibody response to HHV 6B or DNAemia occurred in serial specimens obtained either from patients with influenza or healthy subjects. This novel form of HHV 6B reactivation without antibody response was observed in patients with measles. The dynamic fluctuations in lymphoproliferative responses in measles may represent the balance between HHV 6B reactivation and its suppression by the host immune system.

Serologic and genotypic analysis of a series of herpes simplex virus type 1 isolates from two patients with genital herpes

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) has been reported increasingly as a cause of genital herpes, although HSV-1 is usually associated with oro-labial herpes. In the present study, serum specimens and materials for viral isolation were obtained serially from two patients with recrudescent HSV-1 genital infections to study serology and molecular epidemiology. Recurrent episodes, during which HSV-1 was isolated, were followed by an increase in the level of anti-HSV-1 antibody, suggesting a booster effect from re-exposure to viral antigens and the possible usefulness of the variation in the level of anti-HSV-1 antibody to diagnose recurrence. While genotypes of HSV-1 isolates obtained from one patient were different from those from the other patient, genotypes of sequential HSV-1 isolates obtained from the same patient were the same, implying that the recrudescent genital lesions of the two patients could be attributed to endogenous recurrence of a latent virus. Sera from one patient neutralized HSV-1 isolates obtained from the other patient as well as HSV-1 isolates obtained from the same patient. An HSV-1 isolate obtained during a later episode in one patient was neutralized by sera taken before/during the later episode of the same patient, as effectively as an HSV-1 isolate obtained during an earlier episode in the same patient; thus, in these two cases, HSV-1 was assumed to have multiplied during recurrence despite the presence of an anti-HSV-1 antibody that could neutralize experimentally HSV-1.

Socioeconomic position and inflammatory and immune biomarkers of cardiovascular disease: applications to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics

Biomarkers are an important aspect of research linking psychosocial stress and health. This article aims to characterize the biological pathways that may mediate the relationship between socioeconomic position (SEP) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) and address opportunities for further research within the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), with a focus on psychosocial stressors related to SEP. We review the literature on CVD biomarkers, including adhesion and proinflammatory molecules (interleukin-6, other cytokines, C-reactive proteins, fibrinogen, etc.) and microbial pathogens. The impact of socioeconomic determinants and related psychosocial stressors on CVD biomarkers mediated by behavioral and central nervous system pathways are described. We also address measurement and feasibility issues, including specimen collection methods, processing and storage procedures, laboratory error, and within-person variability. In conclusion, we suggest that PSID consider adding important assessments of specific CVD biomarkers and mediating behavioral measures, health, and medications that will ultimately address many of the gaps in the literature regarding the relationship between SEP and cardiovascular health.

The potential for efficacy of the modified (ICP 34.5(-)) herpes simplex virus HSV1716 following intratumoural injection into human malignant glioma: a proof of principle study

We have previously demonstrated the safety of intratumoural administration of the selectively replication-competent herpes simplex virus mutant HSV1716 in patients with high-grade glioma (HGG). Here we show its potential for efficacy by demonstrating that the virus survives and replicates when injected into the tumours of patients. Since HSV replication is a cytolytic process it must result in tumour cell killing. Twelve patients with biopsy-verified HGG received an intratumoural injection of 10(5) plaque-forming units (p.f.u.) of HSV1716. Four to 9 days after inoculation, tumours were removed and assayed for evidence of viral replication. In two patients, HSV1716, in excess of the input dose was recovered from the injection site. HSV DNA was detected by PCR at the sites of inoculation in 10 patients and at distal tumour sites in four. HSV-specific antigen was detected in tumour tissue from two patients. In five patients an immunological response to HSV1716, as detected by changes in levels of IgG and IgM, was demonstrated. This study demonstrates that HSV1716 replicates in HGG without causing toxicity in both HSV-seropositive and -seronegative patients.

Alpha and gamma interferons inhibit herpes simplex virus type 1 infection and spread in epidermal cells after axonal transmission

The ability of alpha interferon (IFN-alpha) and IFN-gamma to inhibit transmission of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) from neuronal axon to epidermal cells (ECs), and subsequent spread in these cells was investigated in an in vitro dual-chamber model consisting of human fetal dorsal root ganglia (DRG) innervating autologous skin explants and compared with direct HSV-1 infection of epidermal explants. After axonal transmission from HSV-1-infected DRG neurons, both the number and size of viral cytopathic plaques in ECs was significantly reduced by addition of recombinant IFN-gamma and IFN-alpha to ECs in the outer chamber in a concentration-dependent fashion. Inhibition was maximal when IFNs were added at the same time as the DRG were infected with HSV-1. The mean numbers of plaques were reduced by 52% by IFN-alpha, 36% by IFN-gamma, and by 62% when IFN-alpha and IFN-gamma were combined, and the mean plaque size was reduced by 64, 43, and 72%, respectively. Similar but less-inhibitory effects of both IFNs were observed after direct infection of EC explants, being maximal when IFNs were added simultaneously or 6 h before HSV-1 infection. These results show that both IFN-alpha and IFN-gamma can interfere with HSV-1 infection after axonal transmission and subsequent spread of HSV-1 in ECs by a direct antiviral effect. Therefore, both IFN-alpha and -gamma could contribute to the control of HSV-1 spread and shedding in a similar fashion in recurrent herpetic lesions.

Herpes simplex inhibits the capacity of lymphoblastoid B cell lines to stimulate CD4+ T cells

HSV establish a lifelong persistent infection in their host even among immunocompetent persons. The viruses use a variety of immune evasion strategies, presumably to assist persistent replication in the human host. We have observed that infection of human B lymphoblastoid cells (B-LCL) by HSV resulted in a strong inhibition of their ability to induce CD4(+) T cell clone proliferation and cytokine secretion. This inhibitory effect occurs in a variety of both HSV- and HIV-specific clones from three different patients. The inhibition is observed when the Ag is provided either as a soluble protein or as a synthetic peptide and is not associated with detectable down-modulation of the MHC class II molecules or costimulatory molecules. Expression of the HSV-1 unique sequence 1 gene (US1) is necessary and sufficient to induce this inhibition of APC function. US1 gene expression also made B-LCL less susceptible to CD4(+) T cell-mediated lysis. These data indicate a novel immune evasion strategy by HSV-1 in which Ag-processing cells that become infected by HSV-1 are inhibited in their ability to induce subsequent CD4(+) T cell activation.

Effect of preexisting anti-herpes immunity on the efficacy of herpes simplex viral therapy in a murine intraperitoneal tumor model

HSV-1716, a replicating nonneurovirulent herpes simplex virus type 1, has shown efficacy in treating multiple types of human tumors in immunodeficient mice. Since the majority of the human population has been previously exposed to herpes simplex virus, the efficacy of HSV-based oncolytic therapy was investigated in an immunocompetent animal tumor model. EJ-6-2-Bam-6a, a tumor cell line derived from h-ras-transformed murine fibroblast, exhibit a diffuse growth pattern in the peritoneal cavity of BALB/c mice and replicate HSV-1716 to titers observed in human tumors. An established intraperitoneal (ip) tumor model of EJ-6-2-Bam-6a in naive and HSV-immunized mice was used to evaluate the efficacy of single or multiple ip administrations of HSV-1716 (4 x 10(6) pfu/treatment) or of carrier cells, which are irradiated, ex vivo virally infected EJ-6-2-Bam-6a cells that can amplify the viral load in situ. All treated groups significantly prolonged survival versus media control with an approximately 40% long-term survival rate (cure) in the multiply treated, HSV-naive animals. Prior immunization of the mice with HSV did not significantly decrease the median survival of the single or multiply treated HSV-1716 or the carrier cell-treated groups. These studies support the development of replication-selective herpes virus mutants for use in localized intraperitoneal malignancies.

Immune response to the herpes simplex type 1 regulatory proteins ICP8 and VP16 in infected persons

The specific immune responses directed against the viral single stranded (ss) DNA binding protein ICP8 and the transactivator of immediate early (IE) gene expression VP16 (alpha-trans inducing factor, Vmw65) in HSV type 1 seropositive humans were examined. The results described in this paper indicate that neither ICP8 nor VP16 were able to induce a recall response in lymphocytes of healthy HSV seropositive individuals without recurrent infection, although CD4+ T cells purified from these individuals responded to both viral proteins in vitro when monocyte derived dendritic cells were used as antigen presenting cells. A recall response, however, could be induced to both viral proteins in T cells of patients with recurrent HSV infections when blood monocytes were used. Moreover, ICP8- and VP16-specific antibodies could be detected in the serum of patients with recurrent HSV infections whereas, in contrast, these antibodies were virtually absent in healthy HSV seropositive individuals without recurrences. These data represent the first systematic study of the immunological properties of ICP8 in humans, indicating a significant difference in the response to the essential viral regulators ICP8 and VP16 in HSV-1 seropositive healthy individuals as opposed to patients with recurrent HSV-1 infections.

Effect of prior exposure to herpes simplex virus 1 on viral vector-mediated tumor therapy in immunocompetent mice

Replication-competent, attenuated mutants of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) have been shown to be efficacious for tumor therapy. However, these studies did not address the consequences of prior exposure to HSV, as will be the case with many patients likely to receive this therapy. Two strains of mice, A/J and BALB/c, were infected with wild-type HSV-1 by intraperitoneal injection and the immune response was determined by plaque reduction assay for neutralizing antibody and ELISA for IgG and IgM. Syngeneic tumors, N18 neuroblastoma and CT26 colon carcinoma, were implanted subcutaneously in HSV-1 seropositive and naive A/J and BALB/c mice, respectively. Established tumors were subsequently treated intratumorally with a multi-mutated HSV-1, G207. G207 inhibited tumor growth to a similar extent whether the mice were seropositive or not. We next examined the effect of multiple intratumoral inoculations of a 10-fold lower dose of G207 on tumor growth. In the multiple treatment group (biweekly for 3 weeks), 75% of tumors were cured, whereas no cures were seen in the single treatment group. We conclude that HSV seropositivity should not deleteriously affect the efficacy of G207 tumor therapy, and multiple inoculations of virus should be considered for clinical evaluation.

Neutralizing antibodies inhibit axonal spread of herpes simplex virus type 1 to epidermal cells in vitro

The ability of antibodies to interfere with anterograde transmission of herpes simplex virus (HSV) from neuronal axons to the epidermis was investigated in an in vitro model consisting of human fetal dorsal root ganglia innervating autologous skin explants in a dual-chamber tissue culture system. The number and size of viral cytopathic plaques in epidermal cells after axonal transmission from HSV type 1 (HSV-1)-infected dorsal root ganglionic neurons were significantly reduced by addition to the outer chamber of neutralizing polyclonal human sera to HSV-1, of a human recombinant monoclonal group Ib antibody to glycoprotein D (gD), and of rabbit sera to HSV-1 gB and gD but not by rabbit anti-gE or anti-gG. A similar pattern of inhibition of direct infection of epidermal cells by these antibodies was observed. High concentrations of the monoclonal anti-gD reduced transmission by 90%. Rabbit anti-gB was not taken up into neurons, and human anti-gD did not influence spread of HSV in the dorsal root ganglia or axonal transport of HSV antigens when applied to individual dissociated neurons. These results suggest that anti-gD and -gB antibodies interfere with axonal spread of HSV-1, possibly by neutralizing HSV during transmission across an intercellular gap between axonal termini and epidermal cells, and thus contribute to control of HSV spread and shedding. Therefore, selected human monoclonal antibodies to protective epitopes might even be effective in preventing epidermis-to-neuron transmission during primary HSV infection, especially neonatal infection.

Modulation of antigen processing and presentation by persistent virus infections and in tumors

Cell-mediated immunity is effective against cells harboring active virus replication and is critical for the elimination of ongoing infections, opposing tumor progression, and reducing or preventing the reactivation of persistent viruses and tumor metastasis. The capacity of persistent viruses and tumor cells to maintain a long-term relationship with their host presupposes mechanisms for circumventing antiviral or antitumor defenses. By suppressing the expression of molecules associated with antigen processing and presentation, abrogation of the major immune mechanism that deals with the elimination of infected and transformed cells is achieved. This is accomplished in tumors predominantly by transcriptional downregulation of genes encoding class I major histocompatibility complex antigens, peptide transporter molecules, and the proteasome-associated low molecular mass protease subunits, and in cells expressing viral proteins by interfering with peptide transport and the assembly/transport of class I complexes. In addition, virus-infected cells and selected tumor cells express mainly nonimmunogenic or antagonistic peptide epitopes. This review describes mechanisms used by viruses and in transformed cells for interference with antigen processing and presentation and addresses their significance for in vivo viral persistence and tumor progression.

Human herpes viruses latent infection in the nervous system

The neurotropic herpes viruses, HSV-1, HSV-2 and VZV, colonize and establish latent infection in human peripheral sensory ganglia. Recurrent diseases due to reactivation of these viral pathogens can take place despite an effective immune response. Molecular, cellular, physiological and immune mechanisms work in concert to enable the establishment of latency, the maintenance of the latent state for the entire life of the host, and the reactivation infection. Although all three viruses belong to the same family and establish latent infection in the same tissue, the clinical pattern of their reactivation is quite different. This review covers current knowledge of the basis of these infections, and offers a theory explaining the basis of HSV-1 latent infection and the differences of the disorders caused by HSV-1 and VZV reactivation in humans.

Selective mechanisms utilized by persistent and oncogenic viruses to interfere with antigen processing and presentation

Cell-mediated immunity is effective against cells harboring active virus replication, and is critical for the elimination of ongoing infections, regression of virus-associated tumors, and reducing or preventing the reactivation of persistent viruses. The capacity of persistent and oncogenic viruses to maintain a long-term relationship with their host presupposes viral mechanisms for circumventing antiviral defenses. By suppressing the expression of molecules associated with antigen processing and presentation, viruses abrogate the major immune mechanism that deals with the elimination of infected and tumor cells. This is accomplished either by transcriptional downregulation of genes encoding class I MHC antigens, peptide transporter molecules, and the proteasome-associated LMP subunits, or by interfering with transport of class I molecules to the cell surface. In some cases viruses shut off the expression of most viral proteins during latency or express mainly nonimmunogenic or antagonistic peptide epitopes. This review describes selective mechanisms utilized by viruses for interference with antigen processing and presentation, and addresses their significance for in vivo viral persistence and tumor progression.

A cytosolic herpes simplex virus protein inhibits antigen presentation to CD8+ T lymphocytes

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection of human fibroblasts rapidly renders the cells resistant to lysis by HSV-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), which normally recognize cell surface major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I proteins presenting viral peptides. Within 3 hr of infection with HSV, MHC class I protein complexes are retained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)/cis Golgi and show properties of complexes lacking antigenic peptide. The HSV immediate-early protein ICP47 is both necessary and sufficient to block transport of class I proteins and to inhibit lysis by CD8+ CTLs. The target for ICP47 is not known, but since ICP47 does not associate with membranes, it appears that ICP47 inhibits the production or stabilization of antigenic peptides or their translocation into the ER/cis Golgi. Thus, by expressing ICP47, HSV can evade detection by CD8+ T lymphocytes, perhaps explaining the predominance of CD4+ rather than CD8+ HSV-specific CTLs in vivo.

Reactivated herpes simplex virus infection as a possible cause of dry socket after tooth extraction

This study was designed to evaluate a possible association between reactivated herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infection after lower third molar extraction and development of dry socket (DS). The HSV-1 antibody response was analyzed before and after tooth removal by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunoblotting in 208 patients. History of previous possible oral herpes reactivation was evaluated by a questionnaire that was based on self-rated frequency of oral cold sores. Tobacco users were identified. The anatomic proximity of the root apex to the mandibular nerve canal was classified radiographically before extraction. Fifteen patients (7%) developed DS after tooth extraction. Eleven of the 15 DS patients (73%) were HSV seropositive as compared with 7 of 15 (47%) in the matched control group. Seven of the 11 seropositive DS patients have shown HSV-1 reactivation by an increase of specific polypeptides, predominantly gB, gC, gD and ICP 4 and 6, in the immunoblot test. No change in HSV-1 reactivity was observed in control sera. DS patients reported a high frequency of oral cold sores (64%) compared with the controls (33%). Tobacco use was not found to influence the frequency of cold sores or the development of DS. A close radiographic proximity between the mandibular canal and root apex was more common (P < .05) in DS patients. The results indicate that extraction of a mandibular third molar could be a possible cause of reactivation and recurrence of an HSV-1 infection.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Herpes simplex virus and intraoral ulcers in immunocompromised patients with haematologic malignancies

Possible factors predisposing to the development of intraoral ulcers in immunocompromised patients with haematologic malignancies were investigated. Among 46 patients undergoing antineoplastic treatment, 18 developed an intraoral ulcer during the prospective study. Patients with or without ulcers were comparable with respect to underlying disease, presence of teeth, the qualitative composition of the aerobic and facultatively anaerobic oral microflora, herpes simplex virus (HSV) titer positivity, a past history of herpes labialis, leukocyte and thrombocyte counts, and duration of fever. Viral cultures from saliva revealed an association between the presence of HSV in saliva and the presence of intraoral ulcers. HSV was not isolated from the saliva of any patient without ulcers. Viral cultures from the ulcers revealed growth of HSV in 11 (61%) of the 18 patients with ulcers. HSV-positive ulcers were located more often on the alveolar process than elsewhere in the oral cavity. Ulcers on the lateral borders of the tongue and on the buccal mucosa were found only in dentate patients. Development of intraoral ulcers was not associated with an increase of the HSV titer in serum in any patient. It is concluded that some intraoral ulcers, especially when located on the alveolar process, are associated with and probably caused by HSV, while mechanical trauma during mastication seems likely to be involved in the pathogenesis of ulcers elsewhere in the oral cavity.

Variation in lymphoproliferative responses during recrudescent orofacial herpes simplex virus infections

Sixty-five patients with recrudescent orofacial herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections all had circulating HSV-specific antibody measured by ELISA and cell-mediated immunity (CMI) to HSV by in vitro lymphoproliferation. Thirteen control subjects with no history of HSV were negative for both tests. Thirty-three patients, repeatedly investigated during 6 to 38 months, had between 1 and 8 recrudescences each. Lymphoproliferative responses to HSV were low during recrudescence, rose to a peak a few weeks later and then declined to a positive background level. However, ELISA titres and lymphoproliferative responses to concanavalin A were high throughout, and peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) subset numbers measured by fluorescent flow cytometry remained within normal limits. During HSV lesions, depressed lymphoproliferation to HSV was abrogated by removal of CD8+ T cells from PBMC either by using a panning technique (nine patients) or by cell sorting (three patients). Reconstitution of the CD8-depleted population suppressed the lymphoproliferative response to HSV. Depletion of CD8+ T cells did not affect lymphoproliferation to HSV outwith recrudescence (four patients), nor lymphoproliferative responses to another antigen (PPD; five patients) during recrudescence. Thus, reduced lymphoproliferation to HSV during recrudescence may be due to HSV-specific CD8+ suppressor T lymphocyte function, rather than lack of HSV-responsive lymphocytes. This may result in depression of normal CMI responses to the virus during an asymptomatic recurrence allowing recrudescent lesions to develop.

Analysis of the IgM and IgG antibody response against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) structural and nonstructural proteins

In the present study the reactivity of IgG and IgM antibodies against HSV-1 structural and nonstructural proteins was analyzed by Western blot analysis (WBA) and radioimmunoprecipitation followed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (RIPA-PAGE). It was demonstrated that IgM and IgG antibodies were directed against viral immediate-early, early, and late proteins. Following acute primary HSV infection, the early IgM antibody response in general was found to be directed against nonglycosylated structural proteins, viral early and immediate-early polypeptides. IgM antibodies against viral glycoproteins were found inconsistently. IgG antibodies against viral glycoproteins and other structural proteins with an apparent molecular weight of 56 kD, 45 kD, and 39 kD could be detected early in infection. Viral early and immediate-early proteins were poorly recognized by IgG antibodies in acute primary infections. In recurrent HSV infections, IgM antibodies revealed a less complex reaction with viral polypeptides. Thus, such IgM antibodies reacted predominantly with viral nonglycosylated structural proteins. In contrast, IgG antibodies from patients with recurrent infections strongly recognized viral structural, early, and immediate-early proteins. In seropositive individuals without obvious symptoms of acute infection, the most prominent antibody response was directed against gB and gD.

Human antibody response to herpes simplex virus-specific polypeptides after primary and recurrent infection

Human antibody responses to specific polypeptides of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively) were assessed in serial serum specimens from 18 infected patients by immunoblot technology. Nine patients had HSV-1 infections (six genital and three oral) and nine had HSV-2 genital infections. Antibodies to homologous and heterologous HSV antigens were studied and correlated with total microneutralization and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay antibodies as well as correlated directly to purified glycoproteins. The data indicated a sequential appearance of antibodies to specific polypeptides, according to virus type and site of infection. After HSV-1 infection, the initial response was to glycoprotein B, but the same was not true for HSV-2 infection, where the initial response appeared to be to the type-specific glycoprotein G. A difference in sequential appearance of antibodies for the two viruses indicated greater reactivity to lower-molecular-weight polypeptides after genital infection, irrespective of type, in contrast to nongenital HSV-1 infections. The antibody responses for selected sera to purified glycoproteins B and D were verified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay antibody determinations.

Polypeptide specificity of the antibody response after primary and recurrent infection with bovine herpesvirus 1

The polypeptide specificities and defense mechanisms of the humoral immune response to bovine herpesvirus 1 were analyzed. Sequential serum samples taken from cows which were experimentally infected with bovine herpesvirus 1 were tested for their reactivity with individual bovine herpesvirus 1 polypeptides by immunoprecipitation, immunoblotting, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. All bovine immune sera reacted with each of the three major bovine herpesvirus 1 glycoproteins, GVP 6/11a/16, GVP 3/9, and GVP 11b, during primary as well as recurrent infection. Among these glycoproteins, GVP 6/11a/16 induced the earliest and most consistent immune response. The levels of antibody to GVP 3/9 and GVP 11b varied among the animals, and they were slightly lower than the level of antibody to GVP 6/11a/16. Antibodies to several nonglycosylated polypeptides and two additional glycoproteins were also detected with the immunoblot assay. However, these antibodies were usually apparent only during recurrent infection, whereas they were undetectable or low during primary infection. The antibodies in the sera from all animals mediated virus neutralization and destruction of virus-infected cells by two immune mechanisms, e.g., antibody- and complement-mediated lysis and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity.

Humoral immune response to HSV-1 and HSV-2 viral proteins in patients with primary genital herpes

The humoral immune response to HSV-1 and HSV-2 proteins was examined in patients with primary first-episode genital herpes. Ten patients had culture-proven HSV-1 infections, 37 had HSV-2 infections, and all were seronegative to HSV proteins before developing their infections. Development of serum antibodies to individual HSV proteins and glycoproteins was determined by immunoprecipitation of radiolabeled HSV-1- and HSV-2-infected cell proteins and subsequent gel electrophoresis. In HSV-1 patients, a sequential development of antibodies to HSV-1 proteins was observed with early appearance of antibodies to the nucleocapsid protein p148 and to glycoproteins gB and gC. Seroconversion to gD and to a polypeptide of 88,000 molecular weight (p88) occurred next, and, finally, seroconversion to gE and to a nonglycosylated 66,000 dalton protein p66. In HSV-2 patients, antibodies to HSV-2 proteins p148, gB, and p88 appeared within 1 week of onset of symptoms. Seroconversion to p66, gD, and to a complex of glycoproteins gC and gE ("g80") occurred later, at a mean time of approximately 3 weeks. Seroconversion to HSV-1 gB, p88, and p66 occurred significantly later than seroconversion to the homologous counterparts. Seroconversion within 21 days of onset to HSV-2 gD, g80, and p66 was associated with a longer time to the first recurrence in HSV-2 patients, suggesting a possible role of these antibodies, alone or in combination, in the maintenance of HSV-2 latency in humans.

The immune response to herpes simplex virus: comparison of the specificity and relative titers of serum antibodies directed against viral polypeptides following primary herpes simplex virus type 1 infections

Employing an immunoblotting technique, the polypeptide specificity and relative titers of anti-HSV IgG reactive with denaturation-resistant epitopes on HSV proteins were determined in patients experiencing primary HSV-1 infections at various anatomical sites. Early sera from previously seronegative patients with primary HSV-1 infections were found to have comparatively low levels of antibody directed against the major viral glycoprotein antigens (gB, gC, and gD) relative to titers present in sera of individuals with long-standing, latent orofacial HSV-1 infections. Patients with primary infections did however have high titers of antibody directed against a series of low molecular weight HSV polypeptide antigens. These antigens were found to be antigenically related to a structural component of virion nucleocapsids. At later times postinfection, titers of antibodies directed against other viral polypeptides including the major glycoproteins increased to levels more closely approximating those observed in latently infected individuals. These results indicate that the anti-HSV IgG detected by immunoblot analysis which appears earliest following primary infection is not directed against the known major infected cell or virion glycoprotein surface antigens but rather against an internal capsid protein of HSV.

Isolation by high-performance liquid chromatography and partial characterization of a 57,000-dalton herpes simplex virus type 1 polypeptide

A Nonidet P-40 extract of HSV-1-purified virions was fractionated by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). The first peak fraction eluted at 25% organic solvent. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed that it contained a 57,000-dalton polypeptide. The polypeptide was characterized by determination of the amino acid composition and the N-terminal amino acid sequence. Adsorption of the detergent extract before RP-HPLC showed that the polypeptide reacted with monoclonal antibodies LP1 directed against herpes simplex virus polypeptide VP-16.

Immunity against infection with Trypanosoma cruzi in mice correlates with presence of antibodies against three trypomastigote polypeptides

Repeated immunizations of CF1 mice with irradiated noninfectious Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes resulted in partial protection against infection with live parasites. It also induced a limited number of antibody species that were reactive in Western blots with trypomastigote but not with epimastigote or amastigote polypeptides. These antibody species were strongly reactive with a 100,000-dalton polypeptide and much less reactive with at least two polypeptides greater than 200,000 daltons. Immunization with epimastigotes induced antibodies against a 57,000-dalton epimastigote-specific polypeptide but did not induce protective immunity.

Immunogenicity of herpes simplex virus glycoproteins gC and gB and their role in protective immunity

The relative antigenicity of the individual herpes simplex virus type 1 (KOS) glycoproteins gC and gB was analyzed in BALB/c mice by using KOS mutants altered in their ability to present these antigens on cell surface membranes during infection. The mutants employed were as follows: syn LD70 , a non-temperature-sensitive mutant defective in the synthesis of cell surface membrane gC; tsF13 , a temperature-sensitive mutant defective in the processing of the precursor form of gB to the mature cell surface form at 39 degrees C; and ts606 , an immediate early temperature-sensitive mutant defective in the production of all early and late proteins including the glycoproteins. By comparing the relative susceptibility to immunolysis of mouse 3T3 cells infected at 39 degrees C with wild-type virus, presenting the full complement of the glycoprotein antigens, gC, gB, and gD, with target cells infected with mutants presenting only subsets of these antigens, we determined that a major portion of cytolytic antibody contained in hyperimmune anti-herpes simplex virus type 1 (KOS) mouse antiserum was directed against glycoproteins gC and gB. The relative immunogenicity of wild-type and mutant virus-infected cells also was compared in BALB/c mice. Immunogen lacking the mature form of gB induced a cytolytic antibody titer comparable to that of the wild-type virus, whereas that lacking the mature form of gC showed a 70% reduction in titer. The absence of the mature cell surface forms of gB and gC in immunogen preparations resulted in a 4- to 15-fold reduction in in virus neutralizing titer. Animals immunized with ts606 -infected cells (39 degrees C) induced relatively little virus-specific cytolytic and neutralizing antibody. Analysis of the glycoprotein specificities of these antisera by radioimmunoprecipitation showed that the antigens immunoprecipitated reflected the viral plasma membrane glycoprotein profiles of the immunogens. The absence of the mature forms of gC or gB in the immunizing preparation did not appreciably affect the immunoprecipitating antibody response to other antigens. Mice immunized with wild-type and mutant virus-infected cells were tested for their resistance to intracranial and intraperitoneal challenge with the highly virulent WAL strain of herpes simplex virus type 1. Despite the observed alterations in serum virus-specific antibody induced with the individual immunogens, all animals survived an intraperitoneal challenge of 10 50% lethal doses. However, differences in the survival of animals were obtained upon intracranial challenge.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Virus-specific antibodies in sera from patients with genital herpes simplex virus infection

Virus-specific antibodies against a number of herpes simplex virus type 2 antigens were determined by radioimmunoprecipitation assays in sequential serum samples obtained from 12 patients with initial genital herpes simplex virus infection. The progressive appearance of antibodies to virus-specific antigens was observed; antibodies against a 130,000-molecular-weight glycoprotein complex appeared first, followed by antibodies against the major nucleocapsid polypeptide and then antibodies against a number of other viral antigens, including a polypeptide with a molecular weight of 62,000. Patients who developed a wide variety of antibodies to viral polypeptides shortly after resolution of their initial episode seemed to experience more severe initial infections and more recurrences than did those who reacted poorly with these virus-specific antigens. This was most apparent with respect to antibodies to virus-specific polypeptides with molecular weights between 30,000 and 43,000. Antibody specificity did not change during the course of follow-up regardless of whether serum samples were taken shortly before, during, or after recurrent episodes. Glycoprotein-specific antibodies were quantitated with the purified 130,000-molecular-weight glycoprotein material. No significant fluctuations in these antibody titers were observed before or after recurrences of the disease.

Herpes simplex virus-specific serum immunoglobulin a: detection in patients with primary or recurrent herpes infections and in healthy adults

A sensitive radioimmunoassay was used to determine levels of herpes simplex virus (HSV)-specific immunoglobulin A (IgA) in serial serum samples drawn from patients with primary HSV infections and from persons with recurrent HSV infections, and in single samples from 90 healthy adults. Significantly rising HSV IgA titers were detected in patients with primary infections, whereas those with recurrent infections had nonfluctuating titers. Sera of IgG-seropositive healthy adults were all positive for HSV-specific IgA without special pretreatment.

Initial herpes simplex virus type 1 infection prevents ganglionic superinfection by other strains

The ganglia of rabbits infected with a relatively benign strain of herpesvirus (E-43) and challenged with either of two virulent neurotrophic strains (MP or McKrae) were found to be colonized only by the initial benign infecting strain. Primary infection with the E-43 strain resulted in milder disease when the animals were infected with MP or McKrae strains and also prevented colonization of the ganglion by these strains. Neutralization with anti-glycoprotein C, plaque morphology, cytopathic effects, reconstruction experiments, and restriction endonuclease analysis indicated that the virus recovered from the ganglion was the initial infecting E-43 strain; no traces of the challenging MP and McKrae strains were found. The challenging McKrae strain was shed for several weeks in a few animals, but the virus isolated from the trigeminal ganglia of these animals was the primary infecting E-43 strain. These results suggest that initial infection with a relatively benign strain of herpesvirus may prevent superinfection of the ganglion (but not necessarily the end organ) by highly virulent herpes simplex virus strains and could have significant implications in the consideration of immunization against this disease in humans.

Antibody responses in humans to individual proteins of herpes simplex viruses

Sera from 231 women were used to examine their frequency of precipitation of various herpes simplex virus type 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) proteins and to determine if there was a rank order of immune responsiveness of humans to these HSV antigens. Radiolabeled viral proteins were reacted with serum and immune complexes isolated with staphylococcal protein A. Individual antigens were resolved by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and visualized by fluorography. As a group, these sera precipitated 31 HSV-1 and 27 HSV-2 proteins. HSV-1 polypeptides with molecular weights of 133,000, 99,000, and 82,000, as well as HSV-2 polypeptides with molecular weights of 131,000 and 101,000, were precipitated by essentially all sera that contained antibodies to HSV-1 and HSV-2. When attempts were made to order the viral proteins by constructing precipitation profiles ranking the antigens in patterns according to their frequency of precipitation, it was observed that the antigens were generally not ordered. Demographic analysis of the sera suggested that the differences in the number of proteins precipitated were associated with differences in age, education, age at first marriage, and income, which collectively may reflect the frequency of exposure to the virus.