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Sollelis L, Howick VM, Marti M. Revisiting the determinants of malaria transmission. Trends Parasitol 2024; 40:302-312. [PMID: 38443304 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2024.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
Malaria parasites have coevolved with humans over thousands of years, mirroring their migration out of Africa. They persist to this day, despite continuous elimination efforts worldwide. These parasites can adapt to changing environments during infection of human and mosquito, and when expanding the geographical range by switching vector species. Recent studies in the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, identified determinants governing the plasticity of sexual conversion rates, sex ratio, and vector competence. Here we summarize the latest literature revealing environmental, epigenetic, and genetic determinants of malaria transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauriane Sollelis
- Wellcome Center for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection and Immunity University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK; Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Virginia M Howick
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland; Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health, and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Matthias Marti
- Wellcome Center for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection and Immunity University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK; Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.
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2
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Sant'Anna MRV, Pereira-Filho AA, Mendes-Sousa AF, Silva NCS, Gontijo NF, Pereira MH, Koerich LB, D'Avila Pessoa GC, Andersen J, Araujo RN. Inhibition of vertebrate complement system by hematophagous arthropods: inhibitory molecules, mechanisms, physiological roles, and applications. INSECT SCIENCE 2024. [PMID: 38246860 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.13317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Revised: 10/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
In arthropods, hematophagy has arisen several times throughout evolution. This specialized feeding behavior offered a highly nutritious diet obtained during blood feeds. On the other hand, blood-sucking arthropods must overcome problems brought on by blood intake and digestion. Host blood complement acts on the bite site and is still active after ingestion, so complement activation is a potential threat to the host's skin feeding environment and to the arthropod gut enterocytes. During evolution, blood-sucking arthropods have selected, either in their saliva or gut, anticomplement molecules that inactivate host blood complement. This review presents an overview of the complement system and discusses the arthropod's salivary and gut anticomplement molecules studied to date, exploring their mechanism of action and other aspects related to the arthropod-host-pathogen interface. The possible therapeutic applications of arthropod's anticomplement molecules are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauricio Roberto Vianna Sant'Anna
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Adalberto Alves Pereira-Filho
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Naylene Carvalho Sales Silva
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Nelder Figueiredo Gontijo
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Marcos Horácio Pereira
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Barbosa Koerich
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Grasielle Caldas D'Avila Pessoa
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - John Andersen
- Vector Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Ricardo Nascimento Araujo
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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3
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Jiao S, Tan N, Zhu C, Ding Y, Xu W. Malaria sporozoites evade host complement attack. Parasite Immunol 2024; 46:e13012. [PMID: 37859300 DOI: 10.1111/pim.13012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Complement is the first line of the host innate immune response against bacterial and viral infections; however, its role in the development of the malaria liver stage remains undefined. We found that sporozoite infection by either a mosquito bite or intravenous injection activated systemic complement, but neither depletion of C3 nor knockout of C3 had a significant effect on malaria liver stage development. Incubation of mouse serum with trypsin-treated sporozoites, but not naive sporozoites, led to the deposition of a membrane attack complex (MAC) on the surface of sporozoites and greatly reduced the number of exo-erythrocytic forms (EEF). Further studies have shown that the recruitment of complement H factor (CFH) may be associated with the prevention of MAC deposition on the surface of naïve sporozoites. Our data strongly suggest that sporozoites can escape complement attacks and provide us with a novel strategy to prevent malaria infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiming Jiao
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
- The School of Medicine, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
| | - Nie Tan
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Chengyu Zhu
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
- The School of Medicine, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yan Ding
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Wenyue Xu
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
- The School of Medicine, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
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4
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Rajneesh, Tiwari R, Singh VK, Kumar A, Gupta RP, Singh AK, Gautam V, Kumar R. Advancements and Challenges in Developing Malaria Vaccines: Targeting Multiple Stages of the Parasite Life Cycle. ACS Infect Dis 2023; 9:1795-1814. [PMID: 37708228 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.3c00332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Malaria, caused by Plasmodium species, remains a major global health concern, causing millions of deaths annually. While the introduction of the RTS,S vaccine has shown promise, there is a pressing need for more effective vaccines due to the emergence of drug-resistant parasites and insecticide-resistant vectors. However, the complex life cycle and genetic diversity of the parasite, technical obstacles, limited funding, and the impact of the 2019 pandemic have hindered progress in malaria vaccine development. This review focuses on advancements in malaria vaccine development, particularly the ongoing clinical trials targeting antigens from different stages of the Plasmodium life cycle. Additionally, we discuss the rationale, strategies, and challenges associated with vaccine design, aiming to enhance the immune response and protective efficacy of vaccine candidates. A cost-effective and multistage vaccine could hold the key to controlling and eradicating malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajneesh
- Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Rahul Tiwari
- Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Vishal K Singh
- Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Awnish Kumar
- Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Rohit P Gupta
- Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
- Department of Applied Microbiology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Akhilesh K Singh
- Faculty of Dental Science, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Vibhav Gautam
- Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Rajiv Kumar
- Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
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5
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Ernest M, Rosa TFA, Pala ZR, Kudyba HM, Sweeney B, Reiss T, Pradel G, Vega-Rodríguez J. Plasmodium falciparum Gametes and Sporozoites Hijack Plasmin and Factor H To Evade Host Complement Killing. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0449322. [PMID: 37191558 PMCID: PMC10269923 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.04493-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium parasites are the etiological agents of malaria, a disease responsible for over half a million deaths annually. Successful completion of the parasite's life cycle in the vertebrate host and transmission to a mosquito vector is contingent upon the ability of the parasite to evade the host's defenses. The extracellular stages of the parasite, including gametes and sporozoites, must evade complement attack in both the mammalian host and in the blood ingested by the mosquito vector. Here, we show that Plasmodium falciparum gametes and sporozoites acquire mammalian plasminogen and activate it into the serine protease plasmin to evade complement attack by degrading C3b. Complement-mediated permeabilization of gametes and sporozoites was higher in plasminogen-depleted plasma, suggesting that plasminogen is important for complement evasion. Plasmin also facilitates gamete exflagellation through complement evasion. Furthermore, supplementing serum with plasmin significantly increased parasite infectivity to mosquitoes and lowered the transmission-blocking activity of antibodies to Pfs230, a potent vaccine candidate currently in clinical trials. Finally, we show that human factor H, previously shown to facilitate complement evasion by gametes, also facilitates complement evasion by sporozoites. Plasmin and factor H simultaneously cooperate to enhance complement evasion by gametes and sporozoites. Taken together, our data show that Plasmodium falciparum gametes and sporozoites hijack the mammalian serine protease plasmin to evade complement attack by degrading C3b. Understanding of the mechanisms of complement evasion by the parasite is key to the development of novel effective therapeutics. IMPORTANCE Current approaches to control malaria are complicated by the development of antimalarial-resistant parasites and insecticide-resistant vectors. Vaccines that block transmission to mosquitoes and humans are a plausible alternative to overcome these setbacks. To inform the development of efficacious vaccines, it is imperative to understand how the parasite interacts with the host immune response. In this report, we show that the parasite can co-opt host plasmin, a mammalian fibrinolytic protein to evade host complement attack. Our results highlight a potential mechanism that may reduce efficacy of potent vaccine candidates. Taken together, our results will inform future studies in developing novel antimalarial therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Medard Ernest
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Thiago F. A. Rosa
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Zarna Rajeshkumar Pala
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Heather M. Kudyba
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Brendan Sweeney
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Timo Reiss
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Gabriele Pradel
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Joel Vega-Rodríguez
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
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Rios-Barros LV, Silva-Moreira AL, Horta MF, Gontijo NF, Castro-Gomes T. How to get away with murder: The multiple strategies employed by pathogenic protozoa to avoid complement killing. Mol Immunol 2022; 149:27-38. [PMID: 35709630 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2022.05.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Parasitic protozoa are eukaryotic unicellular organisms that depend on a variety of living organisms and can develop intra- and extracellularly inside their hosts. In humans, these parasites cause diseases with a significant impact on public health, such as malaria, toxoplasmosis, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis and amebiasis. The ability of a parasite in establishing a successful infection depends on a series of intricate evolutionarily selected adaptations, which include the development of molecular and cellular strategies to evade the host immune system effector mechanisms. The complement system is one of the main effector mechanisms and the first humoral shield of hosts innate immunity against pathogens. For unicellular pathogens, such as protozoa, bacteria and fungi, the activation of the complement system may culminate in the elimination of the invader mainly via 1- the formation of a pore that depolarizes the plasma membrane of the parasite, causing cell lysis; 2- opsonization and killing by phagocytes; 3- increasing vascular permeability while also recruiting neutrophils to the site of activation. Numerous strategies to avoid complement activation have been reported for parasitic protozoa, such as 1- sequestration of complement system regulatory proteins produced by the host, 2- expression of complement system regulatory proteins, 3- proteolytic cleavage of different complement effector molecules, 4- formation of a physical glycolipid barrier that prevents deposition of complement molecules on the plasma membrane, and 5- removal, by endocytosis, of complement molecules bound to plasma membrane. In this review, we revisit the different strategies of blocking various stages of complement activation described for the main species of parasitic protozoa, present the most recent discoveries in the field and discuss new perspectives on yet neglected strategies and possible new evasion mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Valeria Rios-Barros
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - Anna Luiza Silva-Moreira
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - Maria Fatima Horta
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - Nelder Figueiredo Gontijo
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - Thiago Castro-Gomes
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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Maitre A, Wu-Chuang A, Aželytė J, Palinauskas V, Mateos-Hernández L, Obregon D, Hodžić A, Valiente Moro C, Estrada-Peña A, Paoli JC, Falchi A, Cabezas-Cruz A. Vector microbiota manipulation by host antibodies: the forgotten strategy to develop transmission-blocking vaccines. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:4. [PMID: 34983601 PMCID: PMC8725291 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-05122-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Human and animal pathogens that are transmitted by arthropods are a global concern, particularly those vectored by ticks (e.g. Borrelia burgdorferi and tick-borne encephalitis virus) and mosquitoes (e.g. malaria and dengue virus). Breaking the circulation of pathogens in permanent foci by controlling vectors using acaricide-based approaches is threatened by the selection of acaricide resistance in vector populations, poor management practices and relaxing of control measures. Alternative strategies that can reduce vector populations and/or vector-mediated transmission are encouraged worldwide. In recent years, it has become clear that arthropod-associated microbiota are involved in many aspects of host physiology and vector competence, prompting research into vector microbiota manipulation. Here, we review how increased knowledge of microbial ecology and vector-host interactions is driving the emergence of new concepts and tools for vector and pathogen control. We focus on the immune functions of host antibodies taken in the blood meal as they can target pathogens and microbiota bacteria within hematophagous arthropods. Anti-microbiota vaccines are presented as a tool to manipulate the vector microbiota and interfere with the development of pathogens within their vectors. Since the importance of some bacterial taxa for colonization of vector-borne pathogens is well known, the disruption of the vector microbiota by host antibodies opens the possibility to develop novel transmission-blocking vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Apolline Maitre
- UMR BIPAR, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, 94700, Maisons-Alfort, France
- INRAE, UR 0045 Laboratoire de Recherches Sur Le Développement de L'Elevage (SELMET-LRDE), 20250, Corte, France
- EA 7310, Laboratoire de Virologie, Université de Corse, Corte, France
| | - Alejandra Wu-Chuang
- UMR BIPAR, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, 94700, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Justė Aželytė
- Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, 09412, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | | | - Lourdes Mateos-Hernández
- UMR BIPAR, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, 94700, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Dasiel Obregon
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Adnan Hodžić
- Institute of Parasitology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Claire Valiente Moro
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, INRAE, VetAgro Sup, UMR Ecologie Microbienne, 69622, Villeurbanne, France
| | | | - Jean-Christophe Paoli
- INRAE, UR 0045 Laboratoire de Recherches Sur Le Développement de L'Elevage (SELMET-LRDE), 20250, Corte, France
| | - Alessandra Falchi
- EA 7310, Laboratoire de Virologie, Université de Corse, Corte, France
| | - Alejandro Cabezas-Cruz
- UMR BIPAR, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, 94700, Maisons-Alfort, France.
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Simões ML, Dong Y, Mlambo G, Dimopoulos G. C-type lectin 4 regulates broad-spectrum melanization-based refractoriness to malaria parasites. PLoS Biol 2022; 20:e3001515. [PMID: 35025886 PMCID: PMC8791531 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Anopheles gambiae melanization-based refractoriness to the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum has rarely been observed in either laboratory or natural conditions, in contrast to the rodent model malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei that can become completely melanized by a TEP1 complement-like system-dependent mechanism. Multiple studies have shown that the rodent parasite evades this defense by recruiting the C-type lectins CTL4 and CTLMA2, while permissiveness to the human malaria parasite was not affected by partial depletion of these factors by RNAi silencing. Using CRISPR/Cas9-based CTL4 knockout, we show that A. gambiae can mount melanization-based refractoriness to the human malaria parasite, which is independent of the TEP1 complement-like system and the major anti-Plasmodium immune pathway Imd. Our study indicates a hierarchical specificity in the control of Plasmodium melanization and proves CTL4 as an essential host factor for P. falciparum transmission and one of the most potent mosquito-encoded malaria transmission-blocking targets. One way to block the spread of malaria is to modify the mosquito vectors so that they are unable to transmit the parasite. This study shows that the Anopheles mosquito can be engineered to block the human malaria parasite by melanizing it while in the mosquito’s midgut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria L. Simões
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Yuemei Dong
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Godfree Mlambo
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - George Dimopoulos
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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9
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Calle-Tobón A, Holguin-Rocha AF, Moore C, Rippee-Brooks M, Rozo-Lopez P, Harrod J, Fatehi S, Rua-Uribe GL, Park Y, Londoño-Rentería B. Blood Meals With Active and Heat-Inactivated Serum Modifies the Gene Expression and Microbiome of Aedes albopictus. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:724345. [PMID: 34566927 PMCID: PMC8458951 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.724345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Asian "tiger mosquito" Aedes albopictus is currently the most widely distributed disease-transmitting mosquito in the world. Its geographical expansion has also allowed the expansion of multiple arboviruses like dengue, Zika, and chikungunya, to higher latitudes. Due to the enormous risk to global public health caused by mosquitoes species vectors of human disease, and the challenges in slowing their expansion, it is necessary to develop new and environmentally friendly vector control strategies. Among these, host-associated microbiome-based strategies have emerged as promising options. In this study, we performed an RNA-seq analysis on dissected abdomens of Ae. albopictus females from Manhattan, KS, United States fed with sugar and human blood containing either normal or heat-inactivated serum, to evaluate the effect of heat inactivation on gene expression, the bacteriome transcripts and the RNA virome of this mosquito species. Our results showed at least 600 genes with modified expression profile when mosquitoes were fed with normal vs. heat-inactivated-containing blood. These genes were mainly involved in immunity, oxidative stress, lipid metabolism, and oogenesis. Also, we observed bacteriome changes with an increase in transcripts of Actinobacteria, Rhodospirillaceae, and Anaplasmataceae at 6 h post-feeding. We also found that feeding with normal blood seems to particularly influence Wolbachia metabolism, demonstrated by a significant increase in transcripts of this bacteria in mosquitoes fed with blood containing normal serum. However, no differences were observed in the virome core of this mosquito population. These results suggest that heat and further inactivation of complement proteins in human serum may have profound effect on mosquito and microbiome metabolism, which could influence interpretation of the pathogen-host interaction findings when using this type of reagents specially when measuring the effect of Wolbachia in vector competence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arley Calle-Tobón
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
- Grupo Entomología Médica, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | | | - Celois Moore
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Meagan Rippee-Brooks
- Department of Biology, Missouri State University, Springfield, MO, United States
| | - Paula Rozo-Lopez
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Jania Harrod
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Soheila Fatehi
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | | | - Yoonseong Park
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
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10
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Isaïa J, Rivero A, Glaizot O, Christe P, Pigeault R. Last-come, best served? Mosquito biting order and Plasmodium transmission. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20202615. [PMID: 33234076 PMCID: PMC7739503 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A pervasive characteristic of parasite infections is their tendency to be overdispersed. Understanding the mechanisms underlying this overdispersed distribution is of key importance as it may impact the transmission dynamics of the pathogen. Although multiple factors ranging from environmental stochasticity to inter-individual heterogeneity may explain parasite overdispersion, parasite infection is also overdispersed in an inbred host population maintained under laboratory conditions, suggesting that other mechanisms are at play. Here, we show that the aggregated distribution of malaria parasites within mosquito vectors is partially explained by a temporal heterogeneity in parasite infectivity triggered by the bites of mosquitoes. Parasite transmission tripled between the mosquito's first and last blood feed in a period of only 3 h. Surprisingly, the increase in transmission is not associated with an increase in parasite investment in production of the transmissible stage. Overall, we highlight that Plasmodium is capable of responding to the bites of mosquitoes to increase its own transmission at a much faster pace than initially thought and that this is partly responsible for overdispersed distribution of infection. We discuss the underlying mechanisms as well as the broader implications of this plastic response for the epidemiology of malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Isaïa
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - A Rivero
- MIVEGEC (UMR CNRS 5290), Montpellier, France.,CREES (Centre de Recherche en Ecologie et Evolution de la Santé), Montpellier, France
| | - O Glaizot
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.,Musée Cantonal de Zoologie, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - P Christe
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - R Pigeault
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Recio-Tótoro B, Condé R, Claudio-Piedras F, Lanz-Mendoza H. Affinity purification of Plasmodium ookinetes from in vitro cultures using extracellular matrix gel. Parasitol Int 2020; 80:102242. [PMID: 33152548 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2020.102242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Malaria transmission depends on the parasites' successful invasion of the mosquito. This is achieved by the ookinete, a motile zygote that forms in the blood bolus after the mosquito takes an infectious blood meal. The ookinete invades the midgut epithelium and strongly attaches to the basal lamina, differentiating into an oocyst that produces the vertebrate-invasive sporozoites. Despite their importance, the ookinete and the oocyst are the least studied stages of the parasite. Much of what we know about the ookinete comes from in vitro experiments, which are hindered by the concomitant contamination with blood cells and other parasite stages. Although methods to purify them exist, they vary in terms of yield, costs, and difficulty to perform. A method for ookinete purification taking advantage of their adhesive properties was herein developed. The method consists of covering any culture-suitable surface with extracellular matrix gel, after which the ookinete culture is incubated on the gel to allow for ookinete attachment. The contaminant cells are then simply washed away. This procedure results in purer and less stressed ookinete preparations, which, by the nature of the method, are ready for oocyst production. Furthermore, it allows for micro-purifications using only 1 μl of blood, opening the possibility to make axenic ookinete cultures without sacrificing mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benito Recio-Tótoro
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, 62100 Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico; Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 62210 Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Renaud Condé
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, 62100 Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Fabiola Claudio-Piedras
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, 62100 Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Humberto Lanz-Mendoza
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, 62100 Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
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12
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Giraldo-Calderón GI, Calle-Tobón A, Rozo-López P, Colpitts TM, Park Y, Rua-Uribe GL, Londono-Renteria B. Transcriptome of the Aedes aegypti Mosquito in Response to Human Complement Proteins. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21186584. [PMID: 32916828 PMCID: PMC7555780 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21186584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Aedes aegypti is the primary mosquito vector of several human arboviruses, including the dengue virus (DENV). Vector control is the principal intervention to decrease the transmission of these viruses. The characterization of molecules involved in the mosquito physiological responses to blood-feeding may help identify novel targets useful in designing effective control strategies. In this study, we evaluated the in vivo effect of feeding adult female mosquitoes with human red blood cells reconstituted with either heat-inactivated (IB) or normal plasma (NB). The RNA-seq based transcript expression of IB and NB mosquitoes was compared against sugar-fed (SF) mosquitoes. In in vitro experiments, we treated Aag2 cells with a recombinant version of complement proteins (hC3 or hC5a) and compared transcript expression to untreated control cells after 24 h. The transcript expression analysis revealed that human complement proteins modulate approximately 2300 transcripts involved in multiple biological functions, including immunity. We also found 161 upregulated and 168 downregulated transcripts differentially expressed when human complement protein C3 (hC3) and human complement protein C5a (hC5a) treated cells were compared to the control untreated cells. We conclude that active human complement induces significant changes to the transcriptome of Ae. aegypti mosquitoes, which may influence the physiology of these arthropods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria I. Giraldo-Calderón
- VectorBase, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA;
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicasy, Universidad Icesi, Calle 18 No. 122–135, 760020 Cali, Colombia
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas Médicas, Universidad Icesi, Calle 18 No. 122–135, 760020 Cali, Colombia
| | - Arley Calle-Tobón
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA; (A.C.-T.); (P.R.-L.); (Y.P.)
- Grupo Entomología Médica, Universidad de Antioquia, 050001 Medellín, Colombia;
| | - Paula Rozo-López
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA; (A.C.-T.); (P.R.-L.); (Y.P.)
| | - Tonya M. Colpitts
- Department of Microbiology & National Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratories, Boston University School of Medicine; Boston, MA 02118, USA;
| | - Yoonseong Park
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA; (A.C.-T.); (P.R.-L.); (Y.P.)
| | | | - Berlin Londono-Renteria
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA; (A.C.-T.); (P.R.-L.); (Y.P.)
- Correspondence:
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13
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Kiyuka PK, Meri S, Khattab A. Complement in malaria: immune evasion strategies and role in protective immunity. FEBS Lett 2020; 594:2502-2517. [PMID: 32181490 PMCID: PMC8653895 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Revised: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The malaria parasite has for long been thought to escape host complement attack as a survival strategy. However, it was only recently that complement evasion mechanisms of the parasite were described. Simultaneously, the role of complement in antibody-mediated naturally acquired and vaccine-induced protection against malaria has also been reported. Such findings should be considered in future vaccine design, given the current need to develop more efficacious vaccines against malaria. Parasite antigens derived from molecules mediating functions crucial for parasite survival, such as complement evasion, or parasite antigens against which antibody responses lead to an efficient complement attack could present new candidates for vaccines. In this review, we discuss recent findings on complement evasion by the malaria parasites and the emerging role of complement in antibody-mediated protection against malaria. We emphasize that immune responses to vaccines based on complement inhibitors should not only induce complement-activating antibodies but also neutralize the escape mechanisms of the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patience Kerubo Kiyuka
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Translational Immunology Research Program, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, Finland
- KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - Seppo Meri
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Translational Immunology Research Program, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, Finland
- Helsinki University Central Hospital, Finland
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Milan, Italy
| | - Ayman Khattab
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Translational Immunology Research Program, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Nucleic Acid Research, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute, City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications, Alexandria, Egypt
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14
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Zheng W, Liu F, Du F, Yang F, Kou X, He Y, Feng H, Fan Q, Luo E, Min H, Miao J, Cui L, Cao Y. Characterization of a Sulfhydryl Oxidase From Plasmodium berghei as a Target for Blocking Parasite Transmission. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:311. [PMID: 32670896 PMCID: PMC7332561 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase (QSOX), present in a wide variety of eukaryotic species, catalyzes the insertion of disulfide bonds into unfolded, reduced proteins. Here we characterized the QSOX protein from the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei (PbQSOX), which is conserved in all sequenced malaria parasite species. The PbQSOX protein was not expressed in asexual erythrocytic stages, but was most abundantly expressed in ookinetes. Indirect immunofluorescence assays revealed PbQSOX was not only localized in cytoplasm of gametocytes, gametes and ookinetes, but also expressed on the surface of gametes and ookinetes. Western blot identified extracellular presence of PbQSOX in the culture medium of ookinetes suggestive of secretion. Pbqsox deletion (Δpbqsox) did not affect asexual intraerythrocytic development, but reduced exflagellation of male gametocytes as well as formation and maturation of ookinetes. Pbqsox deletion also led to a significant increase in the reduced thiol groups of ookinete surface proteins, suggesting that it may play a role in maintaining the integrity of disulfide bonds of surface proteins, which might be needed for ookinete development. Mosquitoes that fed on Δpbqsox-infected mice showed a significant reduction in ookinete and oocyst numbers compared to those fed on wild-type parasite-infected mice. Further, both polyclonal mouse antisera and a monoclonal antibody against the recombinant PbQSOX exhibited substantial transmission-blocking activities in in vitro and mosquito feeding assays, suggesting QSOX is a potential target for blocking parasite transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqi Zheng
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Inner Mongolian Medical University, Hohhot, China
| | - Fei Liu
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Feng Du
- Department of Pathogen Biology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Fan Yang
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Xu Kou
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Department of Animal Quarantine, College of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences, Liaoning Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Yiwen He
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Hui Feng
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Qi Fan
- Dalian Institute of Biotechnology, Dalian, China
| | - Enjie Luo
- Department of Pathogen Biology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Hui Min
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Jun Miao
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Liwang Cui
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Yaming Cao
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
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15
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Pereira-Filho AA, Mateus Pereira RH, da Silva NCS, Ferreira Malta LG, Serravite AM, Carvalho de Almeida CG, Fujiwara RT, Bartholomeu DC, Giunchetti RC, D'Ávila Pessoa GC, Koerich LB, Pereira MH, Araujo RN, Gontijo NDF, Viana Sant'Anna MR. The gut anti-complement activity of Aedes aegypti: Investigating new ways to control the major human arboviruses vector in the Americas. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2020; 120:103338. [PMID: 32126277 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2020.103338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Aedes aegypti is the main urban vector of dengue virus, chikungunya virus and Zika virus due to its great dispersal capacity and virus susceptibility. A. aegypti feed on plant-derived sugars but females need a blood meal for egg maturation. Haematophagous arthropods need to overcome host haemostasis and local immune reactions in order to take a blood meal. In this context, molecules present in the saliva and/or intestinal contents of these arthropods must contain inhibitors of the complement system (CS). CS salivary and/or intestinal inhibitors are crucial to protect gut cells of haematophagous arthropods against complement attack. The present work aimed to investigate the anti-complement activity of A. aegypti intestinal contents on the alternative, classical and lectin pathways of the human complement system. Here we show that A. aegypti gut contents inhibited the human classical and the lectin pathways but not the alternative pathway. The A. aegypti gut content has a serine protease able to specifically cleave and inactivate human C4, which is a novel mechanism for human complement inactivation in haematophagous arthropods. The gut of female A. aegypti was capable of capturing human serum factor H (a negative complement modulator), unlike males. C3 molecules in recently blood-fed female A. aegypti remain in their original state, being inactivated to iC3b soon after a blood feed. A transmission-blocking vaccine using these complement inhibitory proteins as antigens has the potential to interfere with the insect's survival, reproductive fitness and block their infection by the arboviruses they transmit to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adalberto Alves Pereira-Filho
- Physiology of Haematophagous Insects Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Rafael Henrique Mateus Pereira
- Physiology of Haematophagous Insects Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Naylene Carvalho Sales da Silva
- Physiology of Haematophagous Insects Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Luccas Gabriel Ferreira Malta
- Physiology of Haematophagous Insects Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Artur Metzker Serravite
- Physiology of Haematophagous Insects Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Caio Gabriel Carvalho de Almeida
- Physiology of Haematophagous Insects Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Toshio Fujiwara
- Department of Parasitology, Laboratory of Immunology and Genomics of Parasites, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Daniella Castanheira Bartholomeu
- Department of Parasitology, Laboratory of Immunology and Genomics of Parasites, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Rodolfo Cordeiro Giunchetti
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Morphology Department, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Grasielle Caldas D'Ávila Pessoa
- Physiology of Haematophagous Insects Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Barbosa Koerich
- Physiology of Haematophagous Insects Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Marcos Horácio Pereira
- Physiology of Haematophagous Insects Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Nascimento Araujo
- Physiology of Haematophagous Insects Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Nelder de Figueiredo Gontijo
- Physiology of Haematophagous Insects Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Mauricio Roberto Viana Sant'Anna
- Physiology of Haematophagous Insects Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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16
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Aitken EH, Mahanty S, Rogerson SJ. Antibody effector functions in malaria and other parasitic diseases: a few needles and many haystacks. Immunol Cell Biol 2020; 98:264-275. [DOI: 10.1111/imcb.12320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 01/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth H Aitken
- Department of Medicine The Doherty Institute The University of Melbourne 792 Elizabeth Street Melbourne VIC 3000 Australia
| | - Siddhartha Mahanty
- Department of Medicine The Doherty Institute The University of Melbourne 792 Elizabeth Street Melbourne VIC 3000 Australia
| | - Stephen J Rogerson
- Department of Medicine The Doherty Institute The University of Melbourne 792 Elizabeth Street Melbourne VIC 3000 Australia
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17
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Abstract
This article attempts to draw together current knowledge on the biology of Plasmodium and experience gained from past control campaigns to interpret and guide current efforts to discover and develop exciting new strategies targeting the parasite with the objective of interrupting transmission. Particular note is made of the advantages of targeting often unappreciated small, yet vital, bottleneck populations to enhance both the impact and the useful lifetime of hard-won interventions. A case is made for the standardization of methods to measure transmission blockade to permit the rational comparison of how diverse interventions (drugs, vaccines, insecticides, Genetically Modified technologies) targeting disparate aspects of parasite biology may impact upon the commonly used parameter of parasite prevalence in the human population.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Sinden
- The Jenner Institute, Oxford, United Kingdom.
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18
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Abstract
Parasites of the genus Plasmodium have a complex life cycle. They alternate between their final mosquito host and their intermediate hosts. The parasite can be either extra- or intracellular, depending on the stage of development. By modifying their shape, motility, and metabolic requirements, the parasite adapts to the different environments in their different hosts. The parasite has evolved to escape the multiple immune mechanisms in the host that try to block parasite development at the different stages of their development. In this article, we describe the mechanisms reported thus far that allow the Plasmodium parasite to evade innate and adaptive immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Rénia
- Singapore Immunology Network, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
| | - Yun Shan Goh
- Singapore Immunology Network, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
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19
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Londono-Renteria B, Grippin C, Cardenas JC, Troupin A, Colpitts TM. Human C5a Protein Participates in the Mosquito Immune Response Against Dengue Virus. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2016; 53:505-512. [PMID: 26843451 PMCID: PMC4892811 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjw003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) is transmitted by Aedes spp mosquitoes during a bloodmeal uptake. The bloodmeal consists of host cells, immune factors, and possibly blood-borne pathogens, such as arboviruses. Human cells and immune-related factors, like the complement system, can remain active in the bloodmeal and may be able to interact with pathogens in the mosquito. Previous studies have shown that active complement proteins impact Plasmodium parasite viability in the Anopheles midgut. Thus, we investigated the effects of the human complement on DENV infection in the midgut of Aedes aegypti. Our findings indicate that mosquitoes receiving DENV mixed with normal non-inactivated human serum showed significantly lower viremia than those fed with heat-inactivated serum. This implies that human complement may act to limit DENV infection in the mosquito midgut. In addition, we found that human complement C5a protein was able to directly communicate with mosquito cells, affecting the cell antiviral response against DENV. Our results also show that human C5a protein is able to interact with several membrane-bound mosquito proteins. Together these results suggest an important role of human complement protein in DENV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berlin Londono-Renteria
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, 29209 (; ),
| | - Crystal Grippin
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, LA, 70130 , and
| | - Jenny C Cardenas
- Microbiology and Clinical Laboratory, Hospital San Juan de Dios, Los Patios - Norte de Santander, Colombia
| | - Andrea Troupin
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, 29209 (; )
| | - Tonya M Colpitts
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, 29209 (; )
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20
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Dinko B, Pradel G. Immune evasion by <i>Plasmodium falciparum</i> parasites: converting a host protection mechanism for the parasite′s benefit. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.4236/aid.2016.62011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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21
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Londono-Renteria B, Troupin A, Conway MJ, Vesely D, Ledizet M, Roundy CM, Cloherty E, Jameson S, Vanlandingham D, Higgs S, Fikrig E, Colpitts TM. Dengue Virus Infection of Aedes aegypti Requires a Putative Cysteine Rich Venom Protein. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1005202. [PMID: 26491875 PMCID: PMC4619585 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2015] [Accepted: 09/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that causes serious human disease and mortality worldwide. There is no specific antiviral therapy or vaccine for DENV infection. Alterations in gene expression during DENV infection of the mosquito and the impact of these changes on virus infection are important events to investigate in hopes of creating new treatments and vaccines. We previously identified 203 genes that were ≥5-fold differentially upregulated during flavivirus infection of the mosquito. Here, we examined the impact of silencing 100 of the most highly upregulated gene targets on DENV infection in its mosquito vector. We identified 20 genes that reduced DENV infection by at least 60% when silenced. We focused on one gene, a putative cysteine rich venom protein (SeqID AAEL000379; CRVP379), whose silencing significantly reduced DENV infection in Aedes aegypti cells. Here, we examine the requirement for CRVP379 during DENV infection of the mosquito and investigate the mechanisms surrounding this phenomenon. We also show that blocking CRVP379 protein with either RNAi or specific antisera inhibits DENV infection in Aedes aegypti. This work identifies a novel mosquito gene target for controlling DENV infection in mosquitoes that may also be used to develop broad preventative and therapeutic measures for multiple flaviviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berlin Londono-Renteria
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology & Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Andrea Troupin
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology & Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Michael J Conway
- Foundational Sciences, Central Michigan University College of Medicine, Mount Pleasant, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Diana Vesely
- L2 Diagnostics, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Michael Ledizet
- L2 Diagnostics, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Christopher M. Roundy
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Erin Cloherty
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Samuel Jameson
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Dana Vanlandingham
- Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
- Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Stephen Higgs
- Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
- Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Erol Fikrig
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Tonya M. Colpitts
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology & Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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22
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Londono-Renteria B, Drame PM, Weitzel T, Rosas R, Gripping C, Cardenas JC, Alvares M, Wesson DM, Poinsignon A, Remoue F, Colpitts TM. An. gambiae gSG6-P1 evaluation as a proxy for human-vector contact in the Americas: a pilot study. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:533. [PMID: 26464073 PMCID: PMC4605097 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-1160-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2015] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background During blood meal, the female mosquito injects saliva able to elicit an immune response in the vertebrate. This immune response has been proven to reflect the intensity of exposure to mosquito bites and risk of infection for vector transmitted pathogens such as malaria. The peptide gSG6-P1 of An. gambiae saliva has been demonstrated to be antigenic and highly specific to Anopheles as a genus. However, the applicability of gSG6-P1 to measure exposure to different Anopheles species endemic in the Americas has yet to be evaluated. The purpose of this pilot study was to test whether human participants living in American countries present antibodies able to recognize the gSG6-P1, and whether these antibodies are useful as a proxy for mosquito bite exposure and malaria risk. Methods We tested human serum samples from Colombia, Chile, and the United States for the presence of IgG antibodies against gSG6-P1 by ELISA. Antibody concentrations were expressed as delta optical density (ΔOD) of each sera tested in duplicates. The difference in the antibody concentrations between groups was tested using the nonparametric Mann Whitney test (independent groups) and the nonparametric Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank test (dependent groups). All differences were considered significant with a P < 0.05. Results We found that the concentration of gSG6-P1 antibodies was significantly correlated with malaria infection status and mosquito bite exposure history. People with clinical malaria presented significantly higher concentrations of IgG anti-gSG6-P1 antibodies than healthy controls. Additionally, a significant raise in antibody concentrations was observed in subjects returning from malaria endemic areas. Conclusion Our data shows that gSG6-P1 is a suitable candidate for the evaluation of exposure to Anopheles mosquito bites, risk of malaria transmission, and effectiveness of protection measures against mosquito bites in the Americas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berlin Londono-Renteria
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA. .,Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, 6439 Garners Ferry Rd, Bldg 2 Rm C3, Columbia, SC, 29209, USA.
| | - Papa M Drame
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institutes of Health, NIAID, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Thomas Weitzel
- Laboratorio Clínico/Programa Medicina del Viajero, Clínica Alemana, Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile.
| | | | - Crystal Gripping
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA.
| | | | - Marcela Alvares
- Hospital Emiro Quintero Canizales, Ocana, Norte de Santander, Colombia.
| | - Dawn M Wesson
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA.
| | - Anne Poinsignon
- Institut de Recherche pour le Développement-IRD, Bouaké, Côte d'Ivoire.
| | - Franck Remoue
- Institut de Recherche pour le Développement-IRD, Bouaké, Côte d'Ivoire.
| | - Tonya M Colpitts
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA.
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Smith RC, Vega-Rodríguez J, Jacobs-Lorena M. The Plasmodium bottleneck: malaria parasite losses in the mosquito vector. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2015. [PMID: 25185005 PMCID: PMC4156458 DOI: 10.1590/0074-0276130597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Nearly one million people are killed every year by the malaria parasite Plasmodium. Although the disease-causing forms of the parasite exist only in the human blood, mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles are the obligate vector for transmission. Here, we review the parasite life cycle in the vector and highlight the human and mosquito contributions that limit malaria parasite development in the mosquito host. We address parasite killing in its mosquito host and bottlenecks in parasite numbers that might guide intervention strategies to prevent transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan C Smith
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health and Immunology, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Joel Vega-Rodríguez
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health and Immunology, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Marcelo Jacobs-Lorena
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health and Immunology, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Farooq F, Bergmann-Leitner ES. Immune Escape Mechanisms are Plasmodium's Secret Weapons Foiling the Success of Potent and Persistently Efficacious Malaria Vaccines. Clin Immunol 2015; 161:136-43. [PMID: 26342537 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2015.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Accepted: 08/27/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Despite decades of active research, an efficacious vaccine mediating long-term protection is still not available. This review highlights various mechanisms and the different facets by which the parasites outsmart the immune system. An understanding of how the parasites escape immune recognition and interfere with the induction of a protective immune response that provides sterilizing immunity will be crucial to vaccine design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fouzia Farooq
- Malaria Vaccine Branch, U.S. Military Malaria Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910
| | - Elke S Bergmann-Leitner
- Malaria Vaccine Branch, U.S. Military Malaria Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910.
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Wu Y, Sinden RE, Churcher TS, Tsuboi T, Yusibov V. Development of malaria transmission-blocking vaccines: from concept to product. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2015; 89:109-52. [PMID: 26003037 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2015.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Despite decades of effort battling against malaria, the disease is still a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Transmission-blocking vaccines (TBVs) that target sexual stage parasite development could be an integral part of measures for malaria elimination. In the 1950s, Huff et al. first demonstrated the induction of transmission-blocking immunity in chickens by repeated immunizations with Plasmodium gallinaceum-infected red blood cells. Since then, significant progress has been made in identification of parasite antigens responsible for transmission-blocking activity. Recombinant technologies accelerated evaluation of these antigens as vaccine candidates, and it is possible to induce effective transmission-blocking immunity in humans both by natural infection and now by immunization with recombinant vaccines. This chapter reviews the efforts to produce TBVs, summarizes the current status and advances and discusses the remaining challenges and approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yimin Wu
- Laboratory of Malaria Immunology and Vaccinology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD, USA
| | | | - Thomas S Churcher
- MRC Centre for Outbreak Analysis and Modelling, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Takafumi Tsuboi
- Division of Malaria Research, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Ehime, Japan
| | - Vidadi Yusibov
- Fraunhofer USA Center for Molecular Biotechnology, Newark, DE, USA
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26
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Khattab A, Barroso M, Miettinen T, Meri S. Anopheles midgut epithelium evades human complement activity by capturing factor H from the blood meal. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003513. [PMID: 25679788 PMCID: PMC4332473 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2014] [Accepted: 01/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hematophagous vectors strictly require ingesting blood from their hosts to complete their life cycles. Exposure of the alimentary canal of these vectors to the host immune effectors necessitates efficient counteractive measures by hematophagous vectors. The Anopheles mosquito transmitting the malaria parasite is an example of hematophagous vectors that within seconds can ingest human blood double its weight. The innate immune defense mechanisms, like the complement system, in the human blood should thereby immediately react against foreign cells in the mosquito midgut. A prerequisite for complement activation is that the target cells lack complement regulators on their surfaces. In this work, we analyzed whether human complement is active in the mosquito midgut, and how the mosquito midgut cells protect themselves against complement attack. We found that complement remained active for a considerable time and was able to kill microbes within the mosquito midgut. However, the Anopheles mosquito midgut cells were not injured. These cells were found to protect themselves by capturing factor H, the main soluble inhibitor of the alternative complement pathway. Factor H inhibited complement on the midgut cells by promoting inactivation of C3b to iC3b and preventing the activity of the alternative pathway amplification C3 convertase enzyme. An interference of the FH regulatory activity by monoclonal antibodies, carried to the midgut via blood, resulted in increased mosquito mortality and reduced fecundity. By using a ligand blotting assay, a putative mosquito midgut FH receptor could be detected. Thereby, we have identified a novel mechanism whereby mosquitoes can tolerate human blood. Mosquitoes are important vectors in the transmission of many human diseases. Their life cycle requires a blood meal to be completed. Ingested blood contains bioactive molecules belonging to the innate immune defense mechanisms against microbes, like the complement system, that can damage foreign cells. We have identified in this study a mechanism whereby mosquitoes can escape the damaging activity of the complement system in the ingested human blood. The mosquito midgut epithelial cell surface captured factor H, a natural regulator of the alternative pathway of complement activation, from the ingested blood. Consequently, the deposition of C3b, a key complement component, on the epithelial cell surface was impaired and cell death was avoided. Interfering with the complement regulatory activity of factor H by monoclonal antibodies, carried to the midgut via blood feeding, increased mosquito mortality and reduced fecundity. The putative Anopheles mosquito factor H binding proteins could be transmission blocking vaccine candidates targeting the malaria parasite carrying vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayman Khattab
- Research Program Unit, Immunobiology Research Program, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- * E-mail:
| | - Marta Barroso
- Research Program Unit, Immunobiology Research Program, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tiera Miettinen
- Research Program Unit, Immunobiology Research Program, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Seppo Meri
- Research Program Unit, Immunobiology Research Program, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
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Sinden RE. The cell biology of malaria infection of mosquito: advances and opportunities. Cell Microbiol 2015; 17:451-66. [PMID: 25557077 PMCID: PMC4409862 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Revised: 12/12/2014] [Accepted: 12/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Recent reviews (Feachem et al.; Alonso et al.) have concluded that in order to have a sustainable impact on the global burden of malaria, it is essential that we knowingly reduce the global incidence of infected persons. To achieve this we must reduce the basic reproductive rate of the parasites to < 1 in diverse epidemiological settings. This can be achieved by impacting combinations of the following parameters: the number of mosquitoes relative to the number of persons, the mosquito/human biting rate, the proportion of mosquitoes carrying infectious sporozoites, the daily survival rate of the infectious mosquito and the ability of malaria-infected persons to infect mosquito vectors. This paper focuses on our understanding of parasite biology underpinning the last of these terms: infection of the mosquito. The article attempts to highlight central issues that require further study to assist in the discovery of useful transmission-blocking measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Sinden
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London and the Jenner Institute, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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28
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Pakpour N, Riehle MA, Luckhart S. Effects of ingested vertebrate-derived factors on insect immune responses. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2014; 3:1-5. [PMID: 25401083 PMCID: PMC4228800 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2014.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
During the process of blood feeding insect vectors are exposed to an array of vertebrate-derived blood factors ranging from byproducts of blood meal digestion to naturally occurring products in the blood including growth hormones, cytokines and factors derived from blood-borne pathogens themselves. In this review, we examine the ability of these ingested vertebrate blood factors to alter the innate pathogen defenses of insect vectors. The ability of these factors to modify the immune responses of insect vectors offers new intriguing targets for blocking or reducing transmission of human disease-causing pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazzy Pakpour
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, 95616
| | - Michael A. Riehle
- Department of Entomology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Shirley Luckhart
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, 95616
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29
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Turturice BA, Lamm MA, Tasch JJ, Zalewski A, Kooistra R, Schroeter EH, Sharma S, Kawazu SI, Kanzok SM. Expression of cytosolic peroxiredoxins in Plasmodium berghei ookinetes is regulated by environmental factors in the mosquito bloodmeal. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003136. [PMID: 23382676 PMCID: PMC3561267 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2012] [Accepted: 11/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The Plasmodium ookinete develops over several hours in the bloodmeal of its mosquito vector where it is exposed to exogenous stresses, including cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). How the parasite adapts to these challenging conditions is not well understood. We have systematically investigated the expression of three cytosolic antioxidant proteins, thioredoxin-1 (Trx-1), peroxiredoxin-1 (TPx-1), and 1-Cys peroxiredoxin (1-Cys Prx), in developing ookinetes of the rodent parasite Plasmodium berghei under various growth conditions. Transcriptional profiling showed that tpx-1 and 1-cys prx but not trx-1 are more strongly upregulated in ookinetes developing in the mosquito bloodmeal when compared to ookinetes growing under culture conditions. Confocal immunofluorescence imaging revealed comparable expression patterns on the corresponding proteins. 1-Cys Prx in particular exhibited strong expression in mosquito-derived ookinetes but was not detectable in cultured ookinetes. Furthermore, ookinetes growing in culture upregulated tpx-1 and 1-cys prx when challenged with exogenous ROS in a dose-dependent fashion. This suggests that environmental factors in the mosquito bloodmeal induce upregulation of cytosolic antioxidant proteins in Plasmodium ookinetes. We found that in a parasite line lacking TPx-1 (TPx-1KO), expression of 1-Cys Prx occurred significantly earlier in mosquito-derived TPx-1KO ookinetes when compared to wild type (WT) ookinetes. The protein was also readily detectable in cultured TPx-1KO ookinetes, indicating that 1-Cys Prx at least in part compensates for the loss of TPx-1 in vivo. We hypothesize that this dynamic expression of the cytosolic peroxiredoxins reflects the capacity of the developing Plasmodium ookinete to rapidly adapt to the changing conditions in the mosquito bloodmeal. This would significantly increase its chances of survival, maturation and subsequent escape. Our results also emphasize that environmental conditions must be taken into account when investigating Plasmodium-mosquito interactions. The malaria parasite Plasmodium is transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes. Within the midgut of the insect, it is exposed to multiple environmental stresses, including cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). To avoid destruction, the parasite develops into a motile ookinete capable of leaving the midgut. Yet, ookinete development lasts over several hours and requires the parasite to adapt to an increasingly challenging environment. Here we show that ookinetes of the rodent parasite Plasmodium berghei during development in the mosquito midgut increase the expression of the protective antioxidant proteins peroxiredoxin-1 (TPx-1) and 1-Cys peroxiredoxin (1-Cys Prx). This upregulation was also inducible in cultured ookinetes by challenging them with ROS. This suggests that ookinetes actively modulate the expression of their antioxidant proteins in response to the changing conditions in the mosquito. We also found that ookinetes lacking TPx-1 (TPx-1KO) upregulated 1-Cys Prx expression significantly earlier than wild type ookinetes. This indicates that the TPx-1KO parasites compensate for the loss of TPx-1 by altering the expression pattern of the functionally related 1-Cys Prx. The observed dynamic regulation of the cytosolic antioxidant proteins may help the Plasmodium ookinete to adapt to rapidly changing environmental conditions and thus to increase the probability of survival, maturation and escape from the mosquito midgut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin A. Turturice
- Department of Biology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Michael A. Lamm
- Department of Biology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - James J. Tasch
- Department of Biology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Angelika Zalewski
- Department of Biology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Rachel Kooistra
- Department of Biology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Eric H. Schroeter
- Department of Biology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Sapna Sharma
- Department of Biology, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shin-Ichiro Kawazu
- Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinarian Medicine, National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Stefan M. Kanzok
- Department of Biology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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30
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Pakpour N, Akman-Anderson L, Vodovotz Y, Luckhart S. The effects of ingested mammalian blood factors on vector arthropod immunity and physiology. Microbes Infect 2013; 15:243-54. [PMID: 23370408 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2013.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Revised: 01/14/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The blood feeding behavior of disease-transmitting arthropods creates a unique intersection between vertebrate and invertebrate physiology. Here, we review host blood-derived factors that persist through blood digestion to affect the lifespan, reproduction, and immune responses of some of the most common arthropod vectors of human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazzy Pakpour
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, United States.
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31
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Simon N, Lasonder E, Scheuermayer M, Kuehn A, Tews S, Fischer R, Zipfel P, Skerka C, Pradel G. Malaria Parasites Co-opt Human Factor H to Prevent Complement-Mediated Lysis in the Mosquito Midgut. Cell Host Microbe 2013; 13:29-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2012.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2012] [Revised: 06/06/2012] [Accepted: 11/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Mideo N, Acosta-Serrano A, Aebischer T, Brown MJF, Fenton A, Friman VP, Restif O, Reece SE, Webster JP, Brown SP. Life in cells, hosts, and vectors: parasite evolution across scales. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2012; 13:344-7. [PMID: 22465537 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2012.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2012] [Revised: 03/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Parasite evolution is increasingly being recognized as one of the most important issues in applied evolutionary biology. Understanding how parasites maximize fitness whilst facing the diverse challenges of living in cells, hosts, and vectors, is central to disease control and offers a novel testing ground for evolutionary theory. The Centre for Immunity, Infection, and Evolution at the University of Edinburgh recently held a symposium to address the question "How do parasites maximise fitness across a range of biological scales?" The symposium brought together researchers whose work looks across scales and environments to understand why and how parasites 'do what they do', tying together mechanism, evolutionary explanations, and public health implications. With a broad range of speakers, our aim was to define and encourage more holistic approaches to studying parasite evolution. Here, we present a synthesis of the current state of affairs in parasite evolution, the research presented at the symposium, and insights gained through our discussions. We demonstrate that such interdisciplinary approaches are possible and identify key areas for future progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Mideo
- Centre for Immunity, Infection & Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, United Kingdom.
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Barnwell EM, van Deursen FJ, Jeacock L, Smith KA, Maizels RM, Acosta-Serrano A, Matthews K. Developmental regulation and extracellular release of a VSG expression-site-associated gene product from Trypanosoma brucei bloodstream forms. J Cell Sci 2010; 123:3401-11. [PMID: 20826456 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.068684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosomes evade host immunity by exchanging variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) coats. VSG genes are transcribed from telomeric expression sites, which contain a diverse family of expression-site-associated genes (ESAGs). We have discovered that the mRNAs for one ESAG family, ESAG9, are strongly developmentally regulated, being enriched in stumpy forms, a life-cycle stage in the mammalian bloodstream that is important for the maintenance of chronic parasite infections and for tsetse transmission. ESAG9 gene sequences are highly diverse in the genome and encode proteins with weak similarity to the massively diverse MASP proteins in Trypanosoma cruzi. We demonstrate that ESAG9 proteins are modified by N-glycosylation and can be shed to the external milieu, this being dependent upon coexpression with at least one other family member. The expression profile and extracellular release of ESAG9 proteins represents a novel and unexpected aspect of the transmission biology of trypanosomes in their mammalian host. We suggest that these molecules might interact with the external environment, with possible implications for infection chronicity or parasite transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor M Barnwell
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, Kings' Buildings, University of Edinburgh, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK
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Kuehn A, Simon N, Pradel G. Family members stick together: multi-protein complexes of malaria parasites. Med Microbiol Immunol 2010; 199:209-26. [PMID: 20419315 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-010-0157-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Malaria parasites express a broad repertoire of proteins whose expression is tightly regulated depending on the life-cycle stage of the parasite and the environment of target organs in the respective host. Transmission of malaria parasites from the human to the anopheline mosquito is mediated by intraerythrocytic sexual stages, termed gametocytes, which circulate in the peripheral blood and are essential for the spread of the tropical disease. In Plasmodium falciparum, gametocytes express numerous extracellular proteins with adhesive motifs, which might mediate important interactions during transmission. Among these is a family of six secreted proteins with adhesive modules, termed PfCCp proteins, which are highly conserved throughout the apicomplexan clade. In P. falciparum, the proteins are expressed in the parasitophorous vacuole of gametocytes and are subsequently exposed on the surface of macrogametes during parasite reproduction in the mosquito midgut. One characteristic of the family is a co-dependent expression, such that loss of all six proteins occurs if expression of one member is disrupted via gene knockout. The six PfCCp proteins interact by adhesion domain-mediated binding and thus form complexes on the sexual stage surface having adhesive properties. To date, the PfCCp proteins represent the only protein family of the malaria parasite sexual stages that assembles to multimeric complexes, and only a small number of such protein complexes have so far been identified in other life-cycle stages of the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Kuehn
- Research Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Strasse 2, Building D15, Würzburg, Germany
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35
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Mosquitocidal vaccines: a neglected addition to malaria and dengue control strategies. Trends Parasitol 2008; 24:396-400. [PMID: 18678529 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2008.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2008] [Revised: 06/09/2008] [Accepted: 06/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The transmission of vector-borne diseases is dependent upon the ability of the vector to survive for longer than the period of development of the pathogen within the vector. One means of reducing mosquito lifespan, and thereby reducing their capacity to transmit diseases, is to target mosquitoes with vaccines. Here, the principle behind mosquitocidal vaccines is described, their potential impact in malaria and dengue control is modeled and the current research that could make these vaccines a reality is reviewed. Mosquito genome data, combined with modern molecular techniques, can be exploited to overcome the limited advances in this field. Given the large potential benefit to vector-borne disease control, research into the development of mosquitocidal vaccines deserves a high profile.
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36
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Progression of Plasmodium berghei through Anopheles stephensi is density-dependent. PLoS Pathog 2008; 3:e195. [PMID: 18166078 PMCID: PMC2156095 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.0030195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2007] [Accepted: 11/05/2007] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
It is well documented that the density of Plasmodium in its vertebrate host modulates the physiological response induced; this in turn regulates parasite survival and transmission. It is less clear that parasite density in the mosquito regulates survival and transmission of this important pathogen. Numerous studies have described conversion rates of Plasmodium from one life stage to the next within the mosquito, yet few have considered that these rates might vary with parasite density. Here we establish infections with defined numbers of the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei to examine how parasite density at each stage of development (gametocytes; ookinetes; oocysts and sporozoites) influences development to the ensuing stage in Anopheles stephensi, and thus the delivery of infectious sporozoites to the vertebrate host. We show that every developmental transition exhibits strong density dependence, with numbers of the ensuing stages saturating at high density. We further show that when fed ookinetes at very low densities, oocyst development is facilitated by increasing ookinete number (i.e., the efficiency of ookinete–oocyst transformation follows a sigmoid relationship). We discuss how observations on this model system generate important hypotheses for the understanding of malaria biology, and how these might guide the rational analysis of interventions against the transmission of the malaria parasites of humans by their diverse vector species. Malaria, one of the world's most devastating parasitic diseases, is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium and is transmitted between mammalian hosts by Anopheles mosquitoes. Within the mosquito, the parasite undergoes four sequential developmental transformations as it passes from the bloodmeal through the mosquito's midgut epithelium to the salivary glands, from where the parasite is inoculated when the mosquito bites the vertebrate host. This study demonstrates, in a laboratory model, that parasite input density at every developmental stage in the mosquito regulates output to the ensuing form. Statistical models were fitted to experimental data to identify and describe the most appropriate functional relationships. In all cases, the relationships between two consecutive parasite stages can saturate at high parasite densities, suggesting that at high parasite densities parasite numbers may have to be reduced substantially to effect an appreciable decrease in parasite transmission. These results may help establish a rational basis for new studies on species of medical importance and further our understanding of how interventions designed to reduce parasite survival within the mosquito might be expected to impact upon transmission.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review highlights progress made in the development of vaccines aimed at the stages of malaria parasites found in mosquitoes that block the transmission of malaria within a community. RECENT FINDINGS Substantial progress has been made on the production and characterization of the leading candidates P25 and P28 from Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax. Immunogenicity data have been obtained for P25 in humans that showed significant transmission blocking activity and further advances in formulation should boost this activity. The completion of the malaria genome and ongoing proteomics identified further candidate antigens now entering development. SUMMARY Recent advances increase confidence that a mosquito stage transmission blocking malaria vaccine will be feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allan Saul
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Biology, NIAID, NIH, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA.
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38
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Gouagna LC, van der Kolk M, Roeffen W, Verhave JP, Eling W, Sauerwein R, Boudin C. Role of heat-labile serum factor or host complement in the inhibition of Plasmodium falciparum sporogonic stages in Anopheles stephensi by gametocyte carriers' serological factors. Parasitology 2007; 134:1315-27. [PMID: 17645813 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182007002685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the significance of serum complement on transmission-reducing activity (TRA) of field sera from 24 infected Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte carriers (from Cameroon) against cultured NF54 P. falciparum. Laboratory-reared Anopheles stephensi were given infectious blood meals prepared either with sera from naïve Dutch donor (AB type) or pair-matched field serum samples, both with and without active complement. TRA of serum factors and host complement on mosquito infection rate and oocyst intensity were divided into the various components involved in the early stages of sporogony. The majority (>80%) of sera tested showed positive antibody titres to Pfs230, the relevant complement-dependent target of transmission-reducing mechanisms. Regardless of the presence of active complement, bloodmeals with field sera exhibited significantly lower infection rates and oocyst intensity than the control group. Serological reactivity in Capture-ELISA against Pfs230 was significantly correlated with the reduction of parasite infectivity. Contrary to our expectation, the presence of active complement in the mosquito bloodmeal did not increase parasite losses and therefore the magnitude of transmission reduction by individual immune sera. Our findings on P. falciparum are consistent with previous studies on animal hosts of Plasmodium, indicating that early P. falciparum sporogonic stages may be insensitive to the antibody-dependent pathways of complement in human serum.
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Affiliation(s)
- L C Gouagna
- Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale (OCEAC), Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Paludisme, Yaoundé, Cameroon.
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Ramjanee S, Robertson JS, Franke-Fayard B, Sinha R, Waters AP, Janse CJ, Wu Y, Blagborough AM, Saul A, Sinden RE. The use of transgenic Plasmodium berghei expressing the Plasmodium vivax antigen P25 to determine the transmission-blocking activity of sera from malaria vaccine trials. Vaccine 2006; 25:886-94. [PMID: 17049690 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2006] [Revised: 08/15/2006] [Accepted: 09/04/2006] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
P25 is a major surface protein of Plasmodium ookinetes. Antibodies against P25 prevent the formation of oocysts in the mosquito and thereby block transmission of the parasite through an endemic population. Plasmodium vivax transmission-blocking vaccines based on Pv25 have undergone human trials and inhibit transmission significantly. The current assay to determine transmission-blocking activity (TBA) of these sera, the 'standard membrane feeding assay', is complex and can be performed by few groups worldwide that require both mosquito breeding facilities and access to volunteers naturally infected with P.vivax--a costly, and uncontrolled source of parasites. Here we report the development of novel assays to determine TBA using two clones (Pv25DR and Pv25DR3) of transgenic rodent parasites (Plasmodium berghei) expressing Pv25. We show that oocyst development of the transgenic parasites is inhibited by monoclonal antibody against Pv25 with the same kinetics exhibited by wild type parasites when exposed to mouse monoclonal antibodies targeted to a paralogous protein P28. Human transmission-blocking sera from a clinical vaccine trial of Pv25 inhibited oocyst development of Pv25DR and Pv25DR3, whereas non-blocking sera did not. We further show transmission-blocking activity can be determined in a simple assays of ookinete development in vitro, assays that obviate the need for mosquito colonies. These results demonstrate that transgenic rodent malarias expressing proteins from human Plasmodium species can be cheap, safe, and simple tools for testing TBA from sera. To this end the cloned lines have been deposited with, and are freely available from, MR4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Souraya Ramjanee
- Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Imperial College London, Imperial College Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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40
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Bergmann-Leitner ES, Leitner WW, Tsokos GC. Complement 3d: from molecular adjuvant to target of immune escape mechanisms. Clin Immunol 2006; 121:177-85. [PMID: 16914381 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2006.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2006] [Revised: 06/29/2006] [Accepted: 07/01/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
C3d is a fragment of the complement factor C3 and is generated in the course of complement activation. When bound to antigen in single or multiple copies, the B cell receptor and complement receptor 2 become co-crosslinked resulting in decreased or increased B cell responses depending on the valence of the antigen-C3d construct. When antigen-C3d constructs are used for the purpose of generating a protective immune response (vaccines), they may either enhance the expected response or suppress it depending on the nature of the antigen. Various pathogens use C3d to evade the immune system by inhibiting complement activation, invading and homing in host cells or masking immunogenic areas of pathogen proteins. Therefore, future vaccination strategies for infectious diseases and cancer employing C3d as a molecular adjuvant need to be carefully evaluated before choosing a target antigen in order to take advantage of the adjuvant effect of the complement component while avoiding potential vaccine complications associated with immune escape mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elke S Bergmann-Leitner
- Department of Immunology, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 503 Robert Grant Ave, Room 3W76, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA.
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41
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Armstrong PB. Proteases and protease inhibitors: a balance of activities in host-pathogen interaction. Immunobiology 2006; 211:263-81. [PMID: 16697919 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2006.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2005] [Accepted: 01/12/2006] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The immune system is the collection of effector molecules and cells of the host that act against invading parasites and their products. Secreted proteases serve important roles in parasitic metabolism and virulence and the several families of protein protease inhibitors of the plasma and blood cells play an important role in immunity by inactivating and clearing the protease virulence factors of parasites. The protease inhibitors are of two classes, the active-site inhibitors and the alpha2-macroglobulins. Inhibitors for the first class bind and inactivate the active site of the target protease. Proteins of the second class bind proteases by a unique molecular trap mechanism and deliver the bound protease to a receptor-mediated endocytic system for degradation in secondary lysosomes. Proteins of the alpha2-macroglobulin family are present in a variety of animal phyla, including the nematodes, arthropods, mollusks, echinoderms, urochordates, and vertebrates. A shared suite of unique functional characteristics have been documented for the alpha2-macroglobulins of vertebrates, arthropods, and mollusks. The alpha2-macroglobulins of nematodes, arthropods, mollusks, and vertebrates show significant sequence identity in key functional domains. Thus, the alpha2-macroglobulins comprise an evolutionarily conserved arm of the innate immune system with similar structure and function in animal phyla separated by 0.6 billion years of evolution.
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42
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Abstract
To complete their life cycle, Plasmodium parasites must survive the environment in the insect host, cross multiple barriers including epithelial layers, and avoid destruction by the mosquito immune system. Completion of the Anopheles gambiae and Plasmodium falciparum genomes has opened the opportunity to apply high throughput methods to the analysis of gene function. The burst of information generated by these approaches and the use of molecular markers to investigate the cell biology of these interactions is broadening our understanding of this complex system. This review discusses our current understanding of the critical interactions that take place during the journey of Plasmodium through the mosquito host, with special emphasis on the responses of midgut epithelial cells to parasite invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Barillas-Mury
- Mosquito Immunity & Vector Competence Unit, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, NIAID, NIH, Rockville, MD 20852, USA.
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43
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Malkin EM, Durbin AP, Diemert DJ, Sattabongkot J, Wu Y, Miura K, Long CA, Lambert L, Miles AP, Wang J, Stowers A, Miller LH, Saul A. Phase 1 vaccine trial of Pvs25H: a transmission blocking vaccine for Plasmodium vivax malaria. Vaccine 2005; 23:3131-8. [PMID: 15837212 PMCID: PMC10994215 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2004.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2004] [Revised: 12/20/2004] [Accepted: 12/28/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium vivax is responsible for the majority of malaria cases outside of Africa, and results in substantial morbidity. Transmission blocking vaccines are a potentially powerful component of a multi-faceted public health approach to controlling or eliminating malaria. We report the first phase 1 clinical trial of a P. vivax transmission blocking vaccine in humans. The Pvs25H vaccine is a recombinant protein derived from the Pvs25 surface antigen of P. vivax ookinetes. The protein was expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, purified, and adsorbed onto Alhydrogel. Ten volunteers in each of three dose groups (5, 20, or 80 microg) were vaccinated by intramuscular injection in an open-label study at 0, 28 and 180 days. No vaccine-related serious adverse events were observed. The majority of adverse events causally related to vaccination were mild or moderate in severity. Injection site tenderness was the most commonly observed adverse event. Anti-Pvs25H antibody levels measured by ELISA peaked after the third vaccination. Vaccine-induced antibody is functionally active as evidenced by significant transmission blocking activity in the membrane feeding assay. Correlation between antibody concentration and degree of inhibition was observed. Pvs25H generates transmission blocking immunity in humans against P. vivax demonstrating the potential of this antigen as a component of a transmission blocking vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elissa M Malkin
- Malaria Vaccine Development Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 5640 Fishers Lane, Twinbrook 1, Room 1123, Rockville, MD 20852, USA.
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44
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Siden-Kiamos I, Louis C. Interactions between malaria parasites and their mosquito hosts in the midgut. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2004; 34:679-685. [PMID: 15242709 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2004.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2004] [Accepted: 03/18/2004] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
This review examines what is presently known of the molecular interactions between Plasmodium and Anopheles that take place in the latter's midgut upon ingestion of the parasites with an infectious blood meal. In order to become 'established' in the gut and to transform into a sporozoite-producing oocyst, the malaria parasite needs to undergo different developmental steps that are often characterized by the use of selected resources provided by the mosquito vector. Moreover, some of these resources may be used by the parasite in order to overcome the insect host's defence mechanisms. The molecular partners of this interplay are now in the process of being defined and analyzed for both Plasmodium and mosquito and, thus, understood; these will be presented here in some detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inga Siden-Kiamos
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, FORTH, 71110 Heraklion, Greece
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45
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Alavi Y, Arai M, Mendoza J, Tufet-Bayona M, Sinha R, Fowler K, Billker O, Franke-Fayard B, Janse CJ, Waters A, Sinden RE. The dynamics of interactions between Plasmodium and the mosquito: a study of the infectivity of Plasmodium berghei and Plasmodium gallinaceum, and their transmission by Anopheles stephensi, Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti. Int J Parasitol 2003; 33:933-43. [PMID: 12906877 DOI: 10.1016/s0020-7519(03)00112-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Knowledge of parasite-mosquito interactions is essential to develop strategies that will reduce malaria transmission through the mosquito vector. In this study we investigated the development of two model malaria parasites, Plasmodium berghei and Plasmodium gallinaceum, in three mosquito species Anopheles stephensi, Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti. New methods to study gamete production in vivo in combination with GFP-expressing ookinetes were employed to measure the large losses incurred by the parasites during infection of mosquitoes. All three mosquito species transmitted P. gallinaceum; P. berghei was only transmitted by Anopheles spp. Plasmodium gallinaceum initiates gamete production with high efficiency equally in the three mosquito species. By contrast P. berghei is less efficiently activated to produce gametes, and in Ae. aegypti microgamete formation is almost totally suppressed. In all parasite/vector combinations ookinete development is inefficient, 500-100,000-fold losses were encountered. Losses during ookinete-to-oocyst transformation range from fivefold in compatible vector parasite combinations (P. berghei/An. stephensi), through >100-fold in poor vector/parasite combinations (P. gallinaceum/An. stephensi), to complete blockade (>1,500 fold) in others (P. berghei/Ae. aegypti). Plasmodium berghei ookinetes survive poorly in the bloodmeal of Ae. aegypti and are unable to invade the midgut epithelium. Cultured mature ookinetes of P. berghei injected directly into the mosquito haemocoele produced salivary gland sporozoites in An. stephensi, but not in Ae. aegypti, suggesting that further species-specific incompatibilities occur downstream of the midgut epithelium in Ae. aegypti. These results show that in these parasite-mosquito combinations the susceptibility to malarial infection is regulated at multiple steps during the development of the parasites. Understanding these at the molecular level may contribute to the development of rational strategies to reduce the vector competence of malarial vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Alavi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
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46
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Abstract
The complement system is old, yet it may still have something new to teach us. For many years, research has existed which shows that C3d, in addition to its established role as an adjuvant, could have an immunosuppressive activity. Being true, it suggests that a common mechanism may be used both by organisms and by their pathogens to prevent unwanted immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Bennett
- Section for Immunology, BMC, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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47
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Rathinavelu S, Broadwater A, de Silva AM. Does host complement kill Borrelia burgdorferi within ticks? Infect Immun 2003; 71:822-9. [PMID: 12540562 PMCID: PMC145400 DOI: 10.1128/iai.71.2.822-829.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, inhabits the gut lumen of the tick vector. At this location the spirochete is exposed to host blood when a tick feeds. We report here on studies that were done with normal and complement-deficient (C3-knockout) mice to determine if the host complement system killed spirochetes within the vector. We found that spirochete numbers within feeding nymphs were not influenced by complement, most likely because host complement was inactivated within the vector. The Lyme disease outer surface protein A (OspA) vaccine is a transmission-blocking vaccine that targets spirochetes in the vector. In experiments with mice hyperimmunized with OspA, complement was not required to kill spirochetes within nymphs and to block transmission from nymphs to the vaccinated host. However, host complement did enhance the ability of OspA antibody to block larvae from acquiring spirochetes. Thus, the effects of OspA antibody on nymphal transmission and larval acquisition appear to be based on different mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sivaprakash Rathinavelu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 27599, USA
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48
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Abstract
Our understanding of the intricate interactions between the malarial parasite and the mosquito vector is complicated both by the number and diversity of parasite and vector species, and by the experimental inaccessibility of phenomena under investigation. Steady developments in techniques to study the parasite in the mosquito have recently been augmented by methods to culture in their entirety the sporogonic stages of some parasite species. These, together with the new saturation technologies, and genetic transformation of both parasite and vector will permit penetrating studies into an exciting and largely unknown area of parasite-host interactions, an understanding of which must result in the development of new intervention strategies. This microreview highlights key areas of current basic molecular interest, and identifies numerous lacunae in our knowledge that must be filled if we are to make rational decisions for future control strategies. It will conclude by trying to explain why in the opinion of this reviewer understanding malaria-mosquito interactions may be critical to our future attempts to limit a disease of growing global importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Sinden
- Biological Sciences Department, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
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49
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Lanz-Mendoza H, Hernández-Martínez S, Ku-López M, Rodríguez MDC, Herrera-Ortiz A, Rodríguez MH. Superoxide anion in Anopheles albimanus hemolymph and midgut is toxic to Plasmodium berghei ookinetes. J Parasitol 2002; 88:702-6. [PMID: 12197117 DOI: 10.1645/0022-3395(2002)088[0702:saiaah]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms of Plasmodium spp. elimination in resistant mosquitoes are not completely understood. Some resistant anopheline strains are able to melanize Plasmodium spp. ookinetes in their midguts. Because quinoid compounds are potent catalysts for free radical generation and because these radicals can be generated in association with melanogenesis, it is probable that they play an important role in the elimination of parasites. The production of the superoxide anion (O-2) in the hemolymph and midgut of Anopheles albimanus female mosquitoes and its cytotoxic effect on Plasmodium berghei ookinetes were analyzed. Ookinetes inoculated into the hemocoel of A. albimanus were covered with melanin and then encapsulated by hemocytes within 1 hr. The presence of O-2 in midguts and in hemolymph obtained by perfusion was verified by the reduction of 3-(4,5 dimethylthiazolil-2)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide. O-2 was generated in the hemolymph obtained by perfusion and midguts only in the presence of dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA), and this reaction was inhibited by superoxide dismutase (SOD). Plasmodium berghei ookinetes exposed to hemolymph plus L-DOPA were killed in vitro, but addition of SOD prevented their killing. Prophenoloxidase transcripts were not observed in midgut epithelium, suggesting that toxic compounds may be imported from the hemolymph. These results suggest that A. albimanus hemolymph and midguts produce O-2 that may limit Plasmodium spp. parasite development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humberto Lanz-Mendoza
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Av. Universidad 655, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico CP 62508.
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50
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Delrieu I, Waller CC, Mota MM, Grainger M, Langhorne J, Holder AA. PSLAP, a protein with multiple adhesive motifs, is expressed in Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2002; 121:11-20. [PMID: 11985859 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-6851(02)00016-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A gene coding for a protein containing two Scavenger Receptor Cysteine-Rich (SRCR) motifs, four Limulus factor C, Coch-5b2 and Lgl1 (LCCL) motifs; and one Polycystin-1, Lipoxygenase and Alpha Toxin (PLAT) motif was cloned from Plasmodium chabaudi and homologues identified in the P. falciparum and P. yoelii genome data bases. At least one of these sequence motifs (SRCR) has adhesive properties in other proteins, therefore, we propose to name this protein PSLAP for Plasmodium SRCR, LCCL Adhesive-like Protein. Southern blotting and chromosome analysis showed that pslap is a single copy gene on chromosome 14 in P. falciparum 3D7. pslap mRNA is strongly expressed in P. falciparum gametocytes, but was undetectable on Northern blots of RNA from the asexual blood stages. Polyclonal antibodies raised to different parts of PSLAP detected a protein expressed in late gametocytes, but not in the early stages of gametocytogenesis or asexual blood stages of P. falciparum. We suggest that PSLAP functions in the mosquito, for example, in modulation of the invertebrate host immune response or in protection against complement factors in the blood meal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Delrieu
- Division of Parasitology, National Institute for Medical Research, The Ridgeway, London, UK
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