1
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Block AM, Wiegert PC, Namugenyi SB, Tischler AD. Transposon sequencing reveals metabolic pathways essential for Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1011663. [PMID: 38498580 PMCID: PMC10977890 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
New drugs are needed to shorten and simplify treatment of tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Metabolic pathways that M. tuberculosis requires for growth or survival during infection represent potential targets for anti-tubercular drug development. Genes and metabolic pathways essential for M. tuberculosis growth in standard laboratory culture conditions have been defined by genome-wide genetic screens. However, whether M. tuberculosis requires these essential genes during infection has not been comprehensively explored because mutant strains cannot be generated using standard methods. Here we show that M. tuberculosis requires the phenylalanine (Phe) and de novo purine and thiamine biosynthetic pathways for mammalian infection. We used a defined collection of M. tuberculosis transposon (Tn) mutants in essential genes, which we generated using a custom nutrient-rich medium, and transposon sequencing (Tn-seq) to identify multiple central metabolic pathways required for fitness in a mouse infection model. We confirmed by individual retesting and complementation that mutations in pheA (Phe biosynthesis) or purF (purine and thiamine biosynthesis) cause death of M. tuberculosis in the absence of nutrient supplementation in vitro and strong attenuation in infected mice. Our findings show that Tn-seq with defined Tn mutant pools can be used to identify M. tuberculosis genes required during mouse lung infection. Our results also demonstrate that M. tuberculosis requires Phe and purine/thiamine biosynthesis for survival in the host, implicating these metabolic pathways as prime targets for the development of new antibiotics to combat tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alisha M. Block
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Parker C. Wiegert
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Sarah B. Namugenyi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Anna D. Tischler
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
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2
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Hessel M van Dijk J, van der Marel GA, Codée JDC. Developments in the Synthesis of Mycobacterial Phenolic Glycolipids. CHEM REC 2021; 21:3295-3312. [PMID: 34581501 DOI: 10.1002/tcr.202100200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The highly lipophilic outer barrier of mycobacteria, such as M. tuberculosis and M. leprae, is key to their virulence and intrinsic antibiotic resistance. Various components of this mycomembrane interact with the host immune system but many of these interactions remain ill-understood. This review covers several chemical syntheses of one of these components, mycobacterial phenolic glycolipids (PGLs), and outlines the interaction of these PGLs with the human immune system, as established using these well-defined pure compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Hessel M van Dijk
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Gijs A van der Marel
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen D C Codée
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
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3
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Chhotaray C, Tan Y, Mugweru J, Islam MM, Adnan Hameed HM, Wang S, Lu Z, Wang C, Li X, Tan S, Liu J, Zhang T. Advances in the development of molecular genetic tools for Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Genet Genomics 2018; 45:S1673-8527(18)30114-0. [PMID: 29941353 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgg.2018.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a clinically relevant Gram-positive bacterium of great clinical relevance, is a lethal pathogen owing to its complex physiological characteristics and development of drug resistance. Several molecular genetic tools have been developed in the past few decades to study this microorganism. These tools have been instrumental in understanding how M. tuberculosis became a successful pathogen. Advanced molecular genetic tools have played a significant role in exploring the complex pathways involved in M. tuberculosis pathogenesis. Here, we review various molecular genetic tools used in the study of M. tuberculosis. Further, we discuss the applications of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat interference (CRISPRi), a novel technology recently applied in M. tuberculosis research to study target gene functions. Finally, prospective outcomes of the applications of molecular techniques in the field of M. tuberculosis genetic research are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiranjibi Chhotaray
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yaoju Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Guangzhou Chest Hospital, Guangzhou 510095, China
| | - Julius Mugweru
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Embu, P.O Box 6 -60100, Embu, Kenya
| | - Md Mahmudul Islam
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - H M Adnan Hameed
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Shuai Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhili Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China
| | - Changwei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China
| | - Xinjie Li
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Guangzhou Chest Hospital, Guangzhou 510095, China
| | - Shouyong Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Guangzhou Chest Hospital, Guangzhou 510095, China
| | - Jianxiong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Guangzhou Chest Hospital, Guangzhou 510095, China.
| | - Tianyu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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4
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Gharun K, Senges J, Seidl M, Lösslein A, Kolter J, Lohrmann F, Fliegauf M, Elgizouli M, Alber M, Vavra M, Schachtrup K, Illert AL, Gilleron M, Kirschning CJ, Triantafyllopoulou A, Henneke P. Mycobacteria exploit nitric oxide-induced transformation of macrophages into permissive giant cells. EMBO Rep 2017; 18:2144-2159. [PMID: 29097394 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201744121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Revised: 09/23/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunity to mycobacteria involves the formation of granulomas, characterized by a unique macrophage (MΦ) species, so-called multinucleated giant cells (MGC). It remains unresolved whether MGC are beneficial to the host, that is, by prevention of bacterial spread, or whether they promote mycobacterial persistence. Here, we show that the prototypical antimycobacterial molecule nitric oxide (NO), which is produced by MGC in excessive amounts, is a double-edged sword. Next to its antibacterial capacity, NO propagates the transformation of MΦ into MGC, which are relatively permissive for mycobacterial persistence. The mechanism underlying MGC formation involves NO-induced DNA damage and impairment of p53 function. Moreover, MGC have an unsurpassed potential to engulf mycobacteria-infected apoptotic cells, which adds a further burden to their antimycobacterial capacity. Accordingly, mycobacteria take paradoxical advantage of antimicrobial cellular efforts by driving effector MΦ into a permissive MGC state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kourosh Gharun
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Julia Senges
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Maximilian Seidl
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Department of Pathology, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Anne Lösslein
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Julia Kolter
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Florens Lohrmann
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Spemann Graduate School for Biology and Medicine (SGBM), University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Manfred Fliegauf
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Magdeldin Elgizouli
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | | | - Martina Vavra
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine 2, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Kristina Schachtrup
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Anna L Illert
- Department of Medicine I, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Martine Gilleron
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Carsten J Kirschning
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Medical Center, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Antigoni Triantafyllopoulou
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Philipp Henneke
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany .,Center for Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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5
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Abana CM, Brannon JR, Ebbott RA, Dunigan TL, Guckes KR, Fuseini H, Powers J, Rogers BR, Hadjifrangiskou M. Characterization of blue light irradiation effects on pathogenic and nonpathogenic Escherichia coli. Microbiologyopen 2017; 6. [PMID: 28332311 PMCID: PMC5552948 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2016] [Revised: 01/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Blue light irradiation (BLI) is an FDA-approved method for treating certain types of infections, like acne, and is becoming increasingly attractive as an antimicrobial strategy as the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant "superbugs" rises. However, no study has delineated the effectiveness of BLI throughout different bacterial growth phases, especially in more BLI-tolerant organisms such as Escherichia coli. While the vast majority of E. coli strains are nonpathogenic, several E. coli pathotypes exist that cause infection within and outside the gastrointestinal tract. Here, we compared the response of E. coli strains from five phylogenetic groups to BLI with a 455 nm wavelength (BLI455 ), using colony-forming unit and ATP measurement assays. Our results revealed that BLI455 is not bactericidal, but can retard E. coli growth in a manner that is dependent on culture age and strain background. This observation is critical, given that bacteria on and within mammalian hosts are found in different phases of growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney M Abana
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - John R Brannon
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Rebecca A Ebbott
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Taryn L Dunigan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Kirsten R Guckes
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Hubaida Fuseini
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Jennifer Powers
- Vanderbilt Dermatology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Bridget R Rogers
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Maria Hadjifrangiskou
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.,Department of Urologic Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
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6
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A Nonsense Mutation in Mycobacterium marinum That Is Suppressible by a Novel Mechanism. Infect Immun 2017; 85:IAI.00653-16. [PMID: 27789543 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00653-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterial pathogens use the ESAT-6 system 1 (Esx-1) exporter to promote virulence. Previously, we used gene disruption and complementation to conclude that the MMAR_0039 gene in Mycobacterium marinum is required to promote Esx-1 export. Here we applied molecular genetics, proteomics, and whole-genome sequencing to demonstrate that the MMAR_0039 gene is not required for Esx-1 secretion or virulence. These findings suggest that we initially observed an indirect mechanism of genetic complementation. We identified a spontaneous nonsense mutation in a known Esx-1-associated gene which causes a loss of Esx-1 activity. We show that the Esx-1 function was restored by nonsense suppression. Moreover, we identified a polar mutation in the ppsC gene which reduced cellular impermeability but did not impact cytotoxicity in macrophages. Our studies reveal insight into Esx-1 export, nonsense suppression, and cell envelope lipid biogenesis.
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7
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Hartman TE, Wang Z, Jansen RS, Gardete S, Rhee KY. Metabolic Perspectives on Persistence. Microbiol Spectr 2017; 5:10.1128/microbiolspec.TBTB2-0026-2016. [PMID: 28155811 PMCID: PMC5302851 DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.tbtb2-0026-2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence has left little doubt about the importance of persistence or metabolism in the biology and chemotherapy of tuberculosis. However, knowledge of the intersection between these two factors has only recently begun to emerge. Here, we provide a focused review of metabolic characteristics associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis persistence. We focus on metabolism because it is the biochemical foundation of all physiologic processes and a distinguishing hallmark of M. tuberculosis physiology and pathogenicity. In addition, it serves as the chemical interface between host and pathogen. Existing knowledge, however, derives largely from physiologic contexts in which replication is the primary biochemical objective. The goal of this review is to reframe current knowledge of M. tuberculosis metabolism in the context of persistence, where quiescence is often a key distinguishing characteristic. Such a perspective may help ongoing efforts to develop more efficient cures and inform on novel strategies to break the cycle of transmission sustaining the pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Travis E. Hartman
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065
| | - Zhe Wang
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065
| | - Robert S. Jansen
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065
| | - Susana Gardete
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065
| | - Kyu Y. Rhee
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Division of Infectious Diseases, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065
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8
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Abstract
Infectious diseases have plagued humankind throughout history and have posed serious public health problems. Yet vaccines have eradicated smallpox and antibiotics have drastically decreased the mortality rate of many infectious agents. These remarkable successes in the control of infections came from knowing the causative agents of the diseases, followed by serendipitous discoveries of attenuated viruses and antibiotics. The discovery of DNA as genetic material and the understanding of how this information translates into specific phenotypes have changed the paradigm for developing new vaccines, drugs, and diagnostic tests. Knowledge of the mechanisms of immunity and mechanisms of action of drugs has led to new vaccines and new antimicrobial agents. The key to the acquisition of the knowledge of these mechanisms has been identifying the elemental causes (i.e., genes and their products) that mediate immunity and drug resistance. The identification of these genes is made possible by being able to transfer the genes or mutated forms of the genes into causative agents or surrogate hosts. Such an approach was limited in Mycobacterium tuberculosis by the difficulty of transferring genes or alleles into M. tuberculosis or a suitable surrogate mycobacterial host. The construction of shuttle phasmids-chimeric molecules that replicate in Escherichia coli as plasmids and in mycobacteria as mycobacteriophages-was instrumental in developing gene transfer systems for M. tuberculosis. This review will discuss M. tuberculosis genetic systems and their impact on tuberculosis research.
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9
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Quadri LEN. Biosynthesis of mycobacterial lipids by polyketide synthases and beyond. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 2014; 49:179-211. [DOI: 10.3109/10409238.2014.896859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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10
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Tischler AD, Leistikow RL, Kirksey MA, Voskuil MI, McKinney JD. Mycobacterium tuberculosis requires phosphate-responsive gene regulation to resist host immunity. Infect Immun 2013; 81:317-28. [PMID: 23132496 PMCID: PMC3536151 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01136-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 10/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis persists in the tissues of mammalian hosts despite inducing a robust immune response dominated by the macrophage-activating cytokine gamma interferon (IFN-γ). We identified the M. tuberculosis phosphate-specific transport (Pst) system component PstA1 as a factor required to resist IFN-γ-dependent immunity. A ΔpstA1 mutant was fully virulent in IFN-γ(-/-) mice but attenuated in wild-type (WT) mice and mice lacking specific IFN-γ-inducible immune mechanisms: nitric oxide synthase (NOS2), phagosome-associated p47 GTPase (Irgm1), or phagocyte oxidase (phox). These phenotypes suggest that ΔpstA1 bacteria are sensitized to an IFN-γ-dependent immune mechanism(s) other than NOS2, Irgm1, or phox. In other species, the Pst system has a secondary role as a negative regulator of phosphate starvation-responsive gene expression through an interaction with a two-component signal transduction system. In M. tuberculosis, we found that ΔpstA1 bacteria exhibited dysregulated gene expression during growth in phosphate-rich medium that was mediated by the two-component sensor kinase/response regulator system SenX3-RegX3. Remarkably, deletion of the regX3 gene suppressed the replication and virulence defects of ΔpstA1 bacteria in NOS2(-/-) mice, suggesting that M. tuberculosis requires the Pst system to negatively regulate activity of RegX3 in response to available phosphate in vivo. We therefore speculate that inorganic phosphate is readily available during replication in the lung and is an important signal controlling M. tuberculosis gene expression via the Pst-SenX3-RegX3 signal transduction system. Inability to sense this environmental signal, due to Pst deficiency, results in dysregulation of gene expression and sensitization of the bacteria to the host immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna D Tischler
- School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, Switzerland.
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11
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Lamrabet O, Drancourt M. Genetic engineering of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: a review. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2012; 92:365-76. [PMID: 22789498 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2012.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2012] [Accepted: 06/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Genetic engineering has been used for decades to mutate and delete genes in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis genome with the translational goal of producing attenuated mutants with conserved susceptibility to antituberculous antibiotics. The development of plasmids and mycobacteriophages that can transfer DNA into the M. tuberculosis chromosome has effectively overcome M. tuberculosis slow growth rate and the capsule and mycolic acid wall, which limit DNA uptake. The use of genetic engineering techniques has shed light on many aspects of pathogenesis mechanisms, including cellular growth, mycolic acid biosynthesis, metabolism, drug resistance and virulence. Moreover, such research gave clues to the development of new vaccines or new drugs for routine clinical practice. The use of genetic engineering tools is mainly based on the underlying concept that altering or reducing the M. tuberculosis genome could decrease its virulence. A contrario, recent post-genomic analyses indicated that reduced bacterial genomes are often associated with increased bacterial virulence and that M. tuberculosis acquired genes by lateral genetic exchange during its evolution. Therefore, ancestors utilizing genetic engineering to add genes to the M. tuberculosis genome may lead to new vaccines and the availability of M. tuberculosis isolates with increased susceptibility to antituberculous antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Otmane Lamrabet
- Unité de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Emergentes, UMR CNRS 6236 IRD 3R198, Méditerranée Infection, FRIDMM, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France.
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12
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Mertens K, Samuel JE. Defense Mechanisms Against Oxidative Stress in Coxiella burnetii: Adaptation to a Unique Intracellular Niche. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2012; 984:39-63. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4315-1_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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13
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Kirksey MA, Tischler AD, Siméone R, Hisert KB, Uplekar S, Guilhot C, McKinney JD. Spontaneous phthiocerol dimycocerosate-deficient variants of Mycobacterium tuberculosis are susceptible to gamma interferon-mediated immunity. Infect Immun 2011; 79:2829-38. [PMID: 21576344 PMCID: PMC3191967 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00097-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2011] [Accepted: 05/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Onset of the adaptive immune response in mice infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis is accompanied by slowing of bacterial replication and establishment of a chronic infection. Stabilization of bacterial numbers during the chronic phase of infection is dependent on the activity of the gamma interferon (IFN-γ)-inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2). Previously, we described a differential signature-tagged mutagenesis screen designed to identify M. tuberculosis "counterimmune" mechanisms and reported the isolation of three mutants in the H37Rv strain background containing transposon insertions in the rv0072, rv0405, and rv2958c genes. These mutants were impaired for replication and virulence in NOS2(-/-) mice but were growth-proficient and virulent in IFN-γ(-/-) mice, suggesting that the disrupted genes were required for bacterial resistance to an IFN-γ-dependent immune mechanism other than NOS2. Here, we report that the attenuation of these strains is attributable to an underlying transposon-independent deficiency in biosynthesis of phthiocerol dimycocerosate (PDIM), a cell wall lipid that is required for full virulence in mice. We performed whole-genome resequencing of a PDIM-deficient clone and identified a spontaneous point mutation in the putative polyketide synthase PpsD that results in a G44C amino acid substitution. We demonstrate by complementation with the wild-type ppsD gene and reversion of the ppsD gene to the wild-type sequence that the ppsD(G44C) point mutation is responsible for PDIM deficiency, virulence attenuation in NOS2(-/-) and wild-type C57BL/6 mice, and a growth advantage in vitro in liquid culture. We conclude that PDIM biosynthesis is required for M. tuberculosis resistance to an IFN-γ-mediated immune response that is independent of NOS2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan A. Kirksey
- Laboratory of Infection Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10021
| | - Anna D. Tischler
- Global Health Institute, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Roxane Siméone
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and Université P. Sabatier (Unité Mixte de Recherche 5089), 31077 Toulouse Cedex, France
| | - Katherine B. Hisert
- Laboratory of Infection Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10021
| | - Swapna Uplekar
- Global Health Institute, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Christophe Guilhot
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and Université P. Sabatier (Unité Mixte de Recherche 5089), 31077 Toulouse Cedex, France
| | - John D. McKinney
- Laboratory of Infection Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10021
- Global Health Institute, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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14
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Köser CU, Niemann S, Summers DK, Archer JAC. Overview of errors in the reference sequence and annotation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv, and variation amongst its isolates. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2011; 12:807-10. [PMID: 21723422 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2011.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2011] [Revised: 06/15/2011] [Accepted: 06/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Since its publication in 1998, the genome sequence of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv laboratory strain has acted as the cornerstone for the study of tuberculosis. In this review we address some of the practical aspects that have come to light relating to the use of H37Rv throughout the past decade which are of relevance for the ongoing genomic and laboratory studies of this pathogen. These include errors in the genome reference sequence and its annotation, as well as the recently detected variation amongst isolates of H37Rv from different laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio U Köser
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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15
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Blumenthal A, Trujillo C, Ehrt S, Schnappinger D. Simultaneous analysis of multiple Mycobacterium tuberculosis knockdown mutants in vitro and in vivo. PLoS One 2010; 5:e15667. [PMID: 21203517 PMCID: PMC3008731 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2010] [Accepted: 11/19/2010] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) represents one of the most persistent bacterial threats to human health and new drugs are needed to limit its impact. Conditional knockdown mutants can help validate new drug targets, but the analysis of individual mutants is laborious and time consuming. Here, we describe quantitative DNA tags (qTags) and their use to simultaneously analyze conditional Mtb knockdown mutants that allowed silencing the glyoxylate and methylcitrate cycles (via depletion of isocitrate lyase, ICL), the serine protease Rv3671c, and the core subunits of the mycobacterial proteasome, PrcB and PrcA. The impact of gene silencing in multi-strain cultures was determined by measuring the relative abundance of mutant-specific qTags with real-time PCR. This achieved accurate quantification over a broad range of qTag abundances and depletion of ICL, Rv3671c, or PrcBA resulted in the expected impairment of growth of Mtb with butyrate as the primary carbon source, survival during oxidative stress, acid stress and starvation. The impact of depleting ICL, Rv3671c, or PrcBA in multi-strain mouse infections was analyzed with two approaches. We first measured the relative abundance of mutant-specific qTags in total chromosomal DNA isolated from bacteria that were recovered from infected lungs on agar plates. We then developed a two-step amplification procedure, which allowed us to measure the abundances of individual mutants directly in infected lung tissue. Both strategies confirmed that inactivation of Rv3671c and PrcBA severely reduced persistence of Mtb in mice. The multi-strain infections furthermore suggested that silencing ICL not only prevented growth of Mtb during acute infections but also prevented survival of Mtb during chronic infections. Analyses of the ICL knockdown mutant in single-strain infections confirmed this and demonstrated that silencing of ICL during chronic infections impaired persistence of Mtb to the extent that the pathogen was cleared from the lungs of most mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antje Blumenthal
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Carolina Trujillo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Sabine Ehrt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Dirk Schnappinger
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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16
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Beaulieu AM, Rath P, Imhof M, Siddall ME, Roberts J, Schnappinger D, Nathan CF. Genome-wide screen for Mycobacterium tuberculosis genes that regulate host immunity. PLoS One 2010; 5:e15120. [PMID: 21170273 PMCID: PMC3000826 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2010] [Accepted: 10/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In spite of its highly immunogenic properties, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) establishes persistent infection in otherwise healthy individuals, making it one of the most widespread and deadly human pathogens. Mtb's prolonged survival may reflect production of microbial factors that prevent even more vigorous immunity (quantitative effect) or that divert the immune response to a non-sterilizing mode (qualitative effect). Disruption of Mtb genes has produced a list of several dozen candidate immunomodulatory factors. Here we used robotic fluorescence microscopy to screen 10,100 loss-of-function transposon mutants of Mtb for their impact on the expression of promoter-reporter constructs for 12 host immune response genes in a mouse macrophage cell line. The screen identified 364 candidate immunoregulatory genes. To illustrate the utility of the candidate list, we confirmed the impact of 35 Mtb mutant strains on expression of endogenous immune response genes in primary macrophages. Detailed analysis focused on a strain of Mtb in which a transposon disrupts Rv0431, a gene encoding a conserved protein of unknown function. This mutant elicited much more macrophage TNFα, IL-12p40 and IL-6 in vitro than wild type Mtb, and was attenuated in the mouse. The mutant list provides a platform for exploring the immunobiology of tuberculosis, for example, by combining immunoregulatory mutations in a candidate vaccine strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimee M. Beaulieu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Poonam Rath
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Marianne Imhof
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Mark E. Siddall
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Julia Roberts
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Dirk Schnappinger
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Carl F. Nathan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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17
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Mycobacterium tuberculosis persistence mutants identified by screening in isoniazid-treated mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:12275-80. [PMID: 20566858 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1003219107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is notoriously difficult to cure, requiring administration of multiple antibiotics for 6 mo or longer. Conventional anti-TB drugs inhibit biosynthetic processes involved in cell growth and division, such as DNA replication, RNA transcription, protein translation, and cell wall biogenesis. Although highly effective against bacteria cultured in vitro under optimal growth conditions, these antibiotics are less effective against bacteria grown in vivo in the tissues of a mammalian host. The factors that contribute to the antibiotic tolerance of bacteria grown in vivo are unknown, although altered metabolism and sluggish growth are hypothesized to play a role. To address this question, we identified mutations in Mycobacterium tuberculosis that impaired or enhanced persistence in mice treated with isoniazid (INH), a front-line anti-TB drug. Disruption of cydC, encoding a putative ATP-binding cassette transporter subunit, accelerated bacterial clearance in INH-treated mice without affecting growth or survival in untreated mice. Conversely, transposon insertions within the rv0096-rv0101 gene cluster attenuated bacterial growth and survival in untreated mice but paradoxically prevented INH-mediated killing of bacteria in treated mice. These contrasting phenotypes were dependent on the interaction of the bacteria with the tissue environment because both mutants responded normally to INH when grown in macrophages ex vivo or in axenic cultures in vitro. Our findings have important implications because persistence-impairing mutations would be missed by conventional genetic screens to identify candidate drug targets. Conversely, persistence-enhancing mutations would be missed by standard diagnostic methods, which are performed on bacteria grown in vitro, to detect drug resistance.
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18
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Gupta D, Sharma S, Singhal J, Satsangi AT, Antony C, Natarajan K. Suppression of TLR2-Induced IL-12, Reactive Oxygen Species, and Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase Expression byMycobacterium tuberculosisAntigens Expressed inside Macrophages during the Course of Infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 184:5444-55. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0903283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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19
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Stokes RW, Waddell SJ. Adjusting to a new home: Mycobacterium tuberculosis gene expression in response to an intracellular lifestyle. Future Microbiol 2010; 4:1317-35. [PMID: 19995191 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.09.94] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis remains the most significant single species of bacteria causing disease in mankind. The ability of M. tuberculosis to survive and replicate within host macrophages is a pivotal step in its pathogenesis. Understanding the microenvironments that M. tuberculosis encounters within the macrophage and the adaptations that the bacterium undergoes to facilitate its survival will lead to insights into possible therapeutic targets for improved treatment of tuberculosis. This is urgently needed with the emergence of multi- and extensively drug resistant strains of M. tuberculosis. Significant advances have been made in understanding the macrophage response on encountering M. tuberculosis. Complementary information is also accumulating regarding the counter responses of M. tuberculosis during the various stages of its interactions with the host. As such, a picture is emerging delineating the gene expression of intracellular M. tuberculosis at different stages of the interaction with macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard W Stokes
- Department of Paediatrics, University of British Columbia, British Columbia, Canada.
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20
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ten Bokum AMC, Movahedzadeh F, Frita R, Bancroft GJ, Stoker NG. The case for hypervirulence through gene deletion in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Trends Microbiol 2008; 16:436-41. [PMID: 18701293 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2008.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2008] [Revised: 06/06/2008] [Accepted: 06/18/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Deletion of genes in a pathogen is commonly associated with a reduction in its ability to cause disease. However, some rare cases have been described in the literature whereby deletion of a gene results in an increase in virulence. Recently, there have been several reports of hypervirulence resulting from gene deletion in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Here, we explore this phenomenon in the context of the interaction between the pathogen and the host response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annemieke M C ten Bokum
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Royal Veterinary College, Royal College Street, London, NW1 0TU, UK
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21
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Pieters J. Mycobacterium tuberculosis and the macrophage: maintaining a balance. Cell Host Microbe 2008; 3:399-407. [PMID: 18541216 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2008.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 342] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2008] [Revised: 05/19/2008] [Accepted: 05/19/2008] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a highly efficient pathogen, killing millions of infected people annually. The capacity of M. tuberculosis to survive and cause disease is strongly correlated to their ability to escape immune defense mechanisms. In particular, M. tuberculosis has the remarkable capacity to survive within the hostile environment of the macrophage. Understanding M. tuberculosis virulence strategies will not only define novel targets for drug development but will also help to uncover previously unknown signaling pathways related to the host's response to M. tuberculosis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Pieters
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50, 4056 Basel, Switzerland.
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22
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Persson J, Vance RE. Genetics-squared: combining host and pathogen genetics in the analysis of innate immunity and bacterial virulence. Immunogenetics 2007; 59:761-78. [PMID: 17874090 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-007-0248-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2007] [Accepted: 08/20/2007] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The interaction of bacterial pathogens with their hosts' innate immune systems can be extremely complex and is often difficult to disentangle experimentally. Using mouse models of bacterial infections, several laboratories have successfully applied genetic approaches to identify novel host genes required for innate immune defense. In addition, a variety of creative bacterial genetic schemes have been developed to identify key bacterial genes involved in triggering or evading host immunity. In cases where both the host and pathogen are amenable to genetic manipulation, a combination of host and pathogen genetic approaches can be used. Focusing on bacterial infections of mice, this review summarizes the benefits and limitations of applying genetic analysis to the study of host-pathogen interactions. In particular, we consider how prokaryotic and eukaryotic genetic strategies can be combined, or "squared," to yield new insights in host-pathogen biology.
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23
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Lynett J, Stokes RW. Selection of transposon mutants of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with increased macrophage infectivity identifies fadD23 to be involved in sulfolipid production and association with macrophages. Microbiology (Reading) 2007; 153:3133-3140. [PMID: 17768256 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.2007/007864-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Alterations to the composition or architecture of the mycobacterial cell envelope can affect the macrophage infectivity of the bacillus. To further characterize the mycobacterial gene products that modulate the interaction with host cells, we employed transposon mutagenesis and screened for mutants that demonstrated an enhanced binding affinity toward macrophages. After successive rounds of mutant selection and enrichment, a total of five mutants were isolated that harboured gene disruptions within loci involved in lipid synthetic pathways as well as genes coding for putative hypothetical proteins. One mutant in particular, with a disruption in the Rv3826 gene (fadD23), was repeatedly isolated during library screening. Analysis of the cell envelope constituents of the Tn : : fadD23 strain revealed a lack of sulfolipid production which was restored following complementation with the wild-type gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Lynett
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Richard W Stokes
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology and Paediatrics, University of British Columbia; Division of Infectious and Immunological Diseases, British Columbia's Children's Hospital, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
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24
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Abstract
Granulomatous lung diseases, such as sarcoidosis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, Wegener's granulomatosis, and chronic beryllium disease, along with granulomatous diseases of known infectious etiologies, such as tuberculosis, are major causes of morbidity and mortality throughout the world. Clinical manifestations of these diseases are highly heterogeneous, and the determinants of disease susceptibility and clinical course (e.g., resolution vs. chronic, progressive fibrosis) are largely unknown. The underlying pathogenic mechanisms of these diseases also remain poorly understood. Within this context, these diseases have been approached using genomic and proteomic technologies to allow us to identify patterns of gene/protein expression that track with clinical disease or to identify new pathways involved in disease pathogenesis. The results from these initial studies highlight the potential for these "-omics" approaches to reveal novel insights into the pathogenesis of granulomatous lung disease and provide new tools to improve diagnosis, clinical classification, course prediction, and response to therapy. Realizing this potential will require collaboration among multidisciplinary groups with expertise in the respective technologies, bioinformatics, and clinical medicine for these complex diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward S Chen
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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25
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Mazurkiewicz P, Tang CM, Boone C, Holden DW. Signature-tagged mutagenesis: barcoding mutants for genome-wide screens. Nat Rev Genet 2007; 7:929-39. [PMID: 17139324 DOI: 10.1038/nrg1984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
DNA signature tags (molecular barcodes) facilitate functional screens by identifying mutants in mixed populations that have a reduced or increased adaptation to a particular environment. Many innovative adaptations and refinements in the technology have been described since its original use with Salmonella; they have yielded a wealth of information on a broad range of biological processes--mainly in bacteria, but also in yeast and other fungi, viruses, parasites and, most recently, in mammalian cells. By combining whole-genome microarrays and comprehensive ordered libraries of mutants, high-throughput functional screens can now be achieved on a genomic scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Mazurkiewicz
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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26
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Sinha A, Singh A, Satchidanandam V, Natarajan K. Impaired Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species during Differentiation of Dendritic Cells (DCs) byMycobacterium tuberculosisSecretory Antigen (MTSA) and Subsequent Activation of MTSA-DCs by Mycobacteria Results in Increased Intracellular Survival. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 177:468-78. [PMID: 16785544 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.1.468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in dendritic cell (DC) differentiation by 10-kDa Mycobacterium tuberculosis secretory Ag (MTSA) and survival of mycobacteria therein. Compared with GM-CSF, MTSA induced lower ROS production during DC differentiation from precursors. This result correlated with higher superoxide dismutase 1 expression in MTSA stimulated precursors as compared with GM-CSF stimulation. Furthermore, a negative regulation of protein kinase C (PKC) activation by ROS was observed during DC differentiation. ROS inhibited the rapid and increased phosphorylation of PKCalpha observed during DC differentiation by MTSA. In contrast, ROS inhibition increased the weak and delayed PKCalpha phosphorylation by GM-CSF. Similar to DC differentiation, upon activation with either M. tuberculosis cell extract (CE) or live Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), DCs differentiated with MTSA (MTSA-DCs) generated lower ROS levels when compared with DCs differentiated with GM-CSF (GM-CSF-DCs). Likewise, a negative regulation of PKCalpha phosphorylation by ROS was once again observed in DCs activated with either M. tuberculosis CE or live M. bovis BCG. However, a reciprocal positive regulation between ROS and calcium was observed. Compared with MTSA-DCs, stimulation of GM-CSF-DCs with M. tuberculosis CE induced a 2-fold higher ROS-dependent calcium influx. However, pretreatment of MTSA-DCs with H(2)O(2) increased calcium mobilization. Finally, lower ROS levels in MTSA-DCs correlated with increased intracellular survival of M. bovis BCG when compared with survival in GM-CSF-DCs. Although inhibiting ROS in GM-CSF-DCs increased M. bovis BCG survival, H(2)O(2) treatment of MTSA-DCs decreased survival of M. bovis BCG. Overall our results suggest that DCs differentiated with Ags such as MTSA may provide a niche for survival and/or growth of mycobacteria following sequestration of ROS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aprajita Sinha
- Immunology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
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27
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Vandal OH, Gelb MH, Ehrt S, Nathan CF. Cytosolic phospholipase A2 enzymes are not required by mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages for the control of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in vitro. Infect Immun 2006; 74:1751-6. [PMID: 16495548 PMCID: PMC1418652 DOI: 10.1128/iai.74.3.1751-1756.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
During the course of infection Mycobacterium tuberculosis predominantly resides within macrophages, where it encounters and is often able to resist the antibacterial mechanisms of the host. In this study, we assessed the role of macrophage phospholipases A2 (PLA2s) in defense against M. tuberculosis. Mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) expressed cPLA2-IVA, cPLA2-IVB, iPLA2-VI, sPLA2-IIE, and sPLA2-XIIA. The expression of cPLA2-IVA was increased in response to M. tuberculosis, gamma interferon, or their combination, and cPLA2-IVA mediated the release of arachidonic acid, which was stimulated by M. tuberculosis in activated, but not unactivated, macrophages. We confirmed that arachidonic acid is highly mycobactericidal in a concentration- and pH-dependent manner in vitro. However, when M. tuberculosis-infected macrophages were treated with PLA2 inhibitors, intracellular survival of M. tuberculosis was not affected, even in inducible nitric oxide synthase-deficient macrophages, in which a major bactericidal mechanism is removed. Moreover, intracellular survival of M. tuberculosis was similar in cPLA2-IVA-deficient and wild-type macrophages. Our results demonstrate that the cytosolic PLA2s are not required by murine BMDMs to kill M. tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar H Vandal
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 1300 York Avenue, Box 57, New York, NY 10021, USA
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28
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Stadthagen G, Jackson M, Charles P, Boudou F, Barilone N, Huerre M, Constant P, Liav A, Bottova I, Nigou J, Brando T, Puzo G, Daffé M, Benjamin P, Coade S, Buxton RS, Tascon RE, Rae A, Robertson BD, Lowrie DB, Young DB, Gicquel B, Griffin R. Comparative investigation of the pathogenicity of three Mycobacterium tuberculosis mutants defective in the synthesis of p-hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives. Microbes Infect 2006; 8:2245-53. [PMID: 16782391 PMCID: PMC2964916 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2006.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2006] [Revised: 04/05/2006] [Accepted: 04/26/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
p-Hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives (p-HBADs) are glycoconjugates secreted by all Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates whose contribution to pathogenicity remains to be determined. The pathogenicity of three transposon mutants of M. tuberculosis deficient in the biosynthesis of some or all forms of p-HBADs was studied. Whilst the mutants grew similarly to the wild-type strain in macrophages and C57BL/6 mice, two of the mutants induced a more severe and diffuse inflammation in the lungs. The lack of production of some or all forms of p-HBADs in these two mutants also correlated with an increased secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumour-necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 6 and interleukin 12 in vivo. We propose that the loss of production of p-HBADs by tubercle bacilli results in their diminished ability to suppress the pro-inflammatory response to infection and that this ultimately provokes extensive pulmonary lesions in the C57BL/6 model of tuberculosis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mary Jackson
- Unité de Génétique Mycobactérienne, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Patricia Charles
- Unité de Génétique Mycobactérienne, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Frédéric Boudou
- Unité de Génétique Mycobactérienne, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | | | - Michel Huerre
- Unité de Recherche et d’Expertise Histotechnologie et Pathologie, Institut Pasteur, Paris
| | - Patricia Constant
- Département “Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes”, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie structurale, CNRS, 205, Route de Narbonne, 31077-Toulouse cedex, France
| | - Avraham Liav
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA
| | - Iveta Bottova
- Unité de Génétique Mycobactérienne, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Jérôme Nigou
- Département “Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes”, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie structurale, CNRS, 205, Route de Narbonne, 31077-Toulouse cedex, France
| | - Thérèse Brando
- Département “Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes”, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie structurale, CNRS, 205, Route de Narbonne, 31077-Toulouse cedex, France
| | - Germain Puzo
- Département “Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes”, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie structurale, CNRS, 205, Route de Narbonne, 31077-Toulouse cedex, France
| | - Mamadou Daffé
- Département “Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes”, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie structurale, CNRS, 205, Route de Narbonne, 31077-Toulouse cedex, France
| | - Pearline Benjamin
- Division of Mycobacterial Research, MRC, National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, London, UK
| | - Stephen Coade
- Division of Mycobacterial Research, MRC, National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, London, UK
| | - Roger S. Buxton
- Division of Mycobacterial Research, MRC, National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, London, UK
| | - Ricardo E. Tascon
- Division of Mycobacterial Research, MRC, National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, London, UK
| | - Aaron Rae
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Level 3, Flowers building, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Brian D. Robertson
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Level 3, Flowers building, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Douglas B. Lowrie
- Division of Mycobacterial Research, MRC, National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, London, UK
| | - Douglas B. Young
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Level 3, Flowers building, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Brigitte Gicquel
- Unité de Génétique Mycobactérienne, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Ruth Griffin
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Level 3, Flowers building, Imperial College, London, UK
- Corresponding author. TB Research Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK. Tel.: 44 1932 341 111; fax: +44 1932 359 448. (R. Griffin)
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29
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Abstract
Bacterial metabolism has been studied intensively since the first observations of these 'animalcules' by Leeuwenhoek and their isolation in pure cultures by Pasteur. Metabolic studies have traditionally focused on a small number of model organisms, primarily the Gram negative bacillus Escherichia coli, adapted to artificial culture conditions in the laboratory. Comparatively little is known about the physiology and metabolism of wild microorganisms living in their natural habitats. For approximately 500-1000 species of commensals and symbionts, and a smaller number of pathogenic bacteria, that habitat is the human body. Emerging evidence suggests that the metabolism of bacteria grown in vivo differs profoundly from their metabolism in axenic cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernesto J Muñoz-Elías
- Laboratory of Infection Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10021, USA
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30
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Mehta PK, Pandey AK, Subbian S, El-Etr SH, Cirillo SLG, Samrakandi MM, Cirillo JD. Identification of Mycobacterium marinum macrophage infection mutants. Microb Pathog 2006; 40:139-51. [PMID: 16451826 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2005.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2005] [Revised: 12/10/2005] [Accepted: 12/12/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium marinum is an important pathogen of humans, amphibians and fish. Most pathogenic mycobacteria, including M. marinum, infect, survive and replicate primarily intracellularly within macrophages. We constructed a transposon mutant library in M. marinum using Tn5367 delivered by phage transduction in the shuttle phasmid phAE94. We screened 529 clones from the transposon library directly in macrophage infection assays. All clones were screened for their ability to initially infect macrophages as well as survive and replicate intracellularly. We identified 19 mutants that fit within three classes: class I) defective for growth in association with macrophages (42%), class II) defective for macrophage infection (21%) and class III) defective for infection of and growth in association with macrophages (37%). Although 14 of the macrophage infection mutants (Mim) carry insertions in genes that have not been previously identified, five are associated with virulence of mycobacteria in animal models. These observations confirm the utility of mutant screens directly in association with macrophages to identify new virulence determinants in mycobacteria. We complemented four of the Mim mutants with their M. tuberculosis homologue, demonstrating that secondary mutations are not responsible for the observed defect in macrophage infection. The genes we identified provide insight into the molecular mechanisms of macrophage infection by M. marinum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parmod K Mehta
- Department of Microbial and Molecular Pathogenesis, Texas A&M University Health Sciences Center, 471 Reynolds Medical Building, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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31
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Saenz HL, Dehio C. Signature-tagged mutagenesis: technical advances in a negative selection method for virulence gene identification. Curr Opin Microbiol 2006; 8:612-9. [PMID: 16126452 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2005.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2005] [Accepted: 08/16/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Signature-tagged mutagenesis (STM) is a powerful negative selection method, predominantly used to identify the genes of a pathogen that are required for the successful colonization of an animal host. Since its first description a decade ago, STM has been applied to screen a vast amount of transposon insertion mutants in 31 bacterial species. This has led to the identification of over 1,700 bacterial genes that are involved in virulence. Despite the preservation of the basic design, the STM method has been developed further owing to recent advances including different designs of the signature-tags and profound changes in the mode of detection. These advances promoted substantially the application range and versatility of the STM method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henri L Saenz
- Division of Molecular Microbiology, Biozentrum, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 70, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
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Salgame P. Host innate and Th1 responses and the bacterial factors that control Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Curr Opin Immunol 2005; 17:374-80. [PMID: 15963709 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2005.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2005] [Accepted: 06/02/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
It is clear that resistance against acute tuberculosis (TB) is dependent on the host's ability to generate Th1 immunity. Nevertheless, the role of host immunity in latent TB remains incompletely defined. Recent progress in elucidating host innate and adaptive immune responses to M. tuberculosis (Mtb) and their impact on latent infection includes identification of TLR2-dependent anti-inflammatory responses, a MyD88-independent, non-protective Th1 response, the formation of secondary lymphoid follicles in granulomas and the role of Th1 responses, IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha in preventing re-activation of infection; IFN-gamma also appears to be involved in activating latency genes in Mtb. When Mtb re-infects a patient, it appears to localize in established granulomas; however, different bacterial strains may behave differently. Although these advances do not provide all the answers regarding host defense mechanisms, they nevertheless bring us closer to new and better design strategies for immunotherapy and immunoprophylaxis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Padmini Salgame
- University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Newark, New Jersey 07101, USA.
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Stadthagen G, Korduláková J, Griffin R, Constant P, Bottová I, Barilone N, Gicquel B, Daffé M, Jackson M. p-Hydroxybenzoic acid synthesis in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:40699-706. [PMID: 16210318 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m508332200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycosylated p-hydroxybenzoic acid methyl esters and structurally related phenolphthiocerol glycolipids are important virulence factors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Although both types of molecules are thought to be derived from p-hydroxybenzoic acid, the origin of this putative biosynthetic precursor in mycobacteria remained to be established. We describe the characterization of a transposon mutant of M. tuberculosis deficient in the production of all forms of p-hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives. The transposon was found to be inserted in Rv2949c, a gene located in the vicinity of the polyketide synthase gene pks15/1, involved in the elongation of p-hydroxybenzoate to phenolphthiocerol in phenolic glycolipid-producing strains. A recombinant form of the Rv2949c enzyme was produced in the fast-growing non-pathogenic Mycobacterium smegmatis and purified to near homogeneity. The recombinant enzyme catalyzed the removal of the pyruvyl moiety of chorismate to form p-hydroxybenzoate with an apparent K(m) value for chorismate of 19.7 microm and a k(cat) value of 0.102 s(-1). Strong inhibition of the reaction by p-hydroxybenzoate but not by pyruvate was observed. These results establish Rv2949c as a chorismate pyruvate-lyase responsible for the direct conversion of chorismate to p-hydroxybenzoate and identify Rv2949c as the sole enzymatic source of p-hydroxybenzoic acid in M. tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Stadthagen
- Unité deGénétique Mycobactérienne, Institut Pasteur, 75015, Paris, France
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Onwueme KC, Vos CJ, Zurita J, Ferreras JA, Quadri LEN. The dimycocerosate ester polyketide virulence factors of mycobacteria. Prog Lipid Res 2005; 44:259-302. [PMID: 16115688 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2005.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in the study of mycobacterial lipids indicate that the class of outer membrane lipids known as dimycocerosate esters (DIMs) are major virulence factors of clinically relevant mycobacteria including Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae. DIMs are a structurally intriguing class of polyketide synthase-derived wax esters discovered over seventy years ago, yet, little was known until recently about their biosynthesis. Availability of several mycobacterial genomes has accelerated progress toward clarifying steps in the DIM biosynthetic pathway and it is our belief that reviewing the bases of our current knowledge will clarify outstanding issues and help direct future endeavors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenolisa C Onwueme
- Cornell/Rockefeller/Sloan-Kettering Tri-Institutional MD-PhD Program, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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Abstract
Mutations in Mycobacterium tuberculosis uvrB result in severe sensitivity to acidified nitrite, a source of nitric oxide (6). In this study, we show that a uvrB mutant is exquisitely sensitive to UV light but not to several sources of reactive oxygen species in vitro. Furthermore, a uvrB mutant was attenuated in mice as judged by an extension of life span. Attenuation in mice was partially reversed by genetic inactivation of nitric oxide synthase 2 (iNOS) and almost completely reversed in mice lacking both iNOS and phagocyte oxidase. Thus, a gene predicted to encode a key element of DNA repair is required for resistance of M. tuberculosis to both reactive nitrogen and reactive oxygen species in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Heran Darwin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 1300 York Avenue, Box 57, New York, NY 10021, USA
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Murry JP, Rubin EJ. New genetic approaches shed light on TB virulence. Trends Microbiol 2005; 13:366-72. [PMID: 15982889 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2005.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2005] [Revised: 05/24/2005] [Accepted: 06/13/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Although tuberculosis has been studied for more than a century, insights into the molecular mechanisms by which it causes disease remain fairly limited. The current genetic boom in this system promises to reveal new virulence mechanisms, making this an exciting time to be studying this disease. Long considered a technical "poor relation", tuberculosis research has developed into a source for creative techniques and ideas. In the midst of this development, it is important to keep in mind the limitations of each new approach that is employed to study this organism. This review examines the genetic approaches that are currently being used to study tuberculosis, with an emphasis on new developments that promise to improve our understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey P Murry
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, 200 Longwood Ave, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Kaufmann SHE, McMichael AJ. Annulling a dangerous liaison: vaccination strategies against AIDS and tuberculosis. Nat Med 2005; 11:S33-44. [PMID: 15812488 PMCID: PMC7095892 DOI: 10.1038/nm1221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis annually cause 3 million and 2 million deaths, respectively. Last year, 600,000 individuals, doubly infected with HIV and M. tuberculosis, died. Since World War I, approximately 150 million people have succumbed to these two infections--more total deaths than in all wars in the last 2,000 years. Although the perceived threats of new infections such as SARS, new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and anthrax are real, these outbreaks have caused less than 1,000 deaths globally, a death toll AIDS and tuberculosis exact every 2 h. In 2003, 40 million people were infected with HIV, 2 billion with M. tuberculosis, and 15 million with both. Last year, 5 million and 50 million were newly infected with HIV or M. tuberculosis, respectively, with 2 million new double infections. Better control measures are urgently needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan H E Kaufmann
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Department of Immunology, Schumannstrasse 21-22, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
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