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Cun WY, Keller PA, Pyne SG. Current and Ongoing Developments in Targeting Clostridioides difficile Infection and Recurrence. Microorganisms 2024; 12:1206. [PMID: 38930588 PMCID: PMC11205563 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12061206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2024] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is a Gram-positive, spore-forming anaerobic bacterial pathogen that causes severe gastrointestinal infection in humans. This review provides background information on C. difficile infection and the pathogenesis and toxigenicity of C. difficile. The risk factors, causes, and the problem of recurrence of disease and current therapeutic treatments are also discussed. Recent therapeutic developments are reviewed including small molecules that inhibit toxin formation, disrupt the cell membrane, inhibit the sporulation process, and activate the host immune system in cells. Other treatments discussed include faecal microbiota treatment, antibody-based immunotherapies, probiotics, vaccines, and violet-blue light disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy Y. Cun
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Science, Molecular Horizons Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia;
| | | | - Stephen G. Pyne
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Science, Molecular Horizons Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia;
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2
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Hu C, Garey KW. Microscopy methods for Clostridioides difficile. Anaerobe 2024; 86:102822. [PMID: 38341023 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2024.102822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Microscopic technologies including light and fluorescent, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and cryo-electron microscopy have been widely utilized to visualize Clostridioides difficile at the molecular, cellular, community, and structural biology level. This comprehensive review summarizes the microscopy tools (fluorescent and reporter system) in their use to study different aspects of C. difficile life cycle and virulence (sporulation, germination) or applications (detection of C. difficile or use of antimicrobials). With these developing techniques, microscopy tools will be able to find broader applications and address more challenging questions to study C. difficile and C. difficile infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenlin Hu
- University of Houston College of Pharmacy, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Kevin W Garey
- University of Houston College of Pharmacy, Houston, TX, USA.
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3
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Marini E, Olivença C, Ramalhete S, Aguirre AM, Ingle P, Melo MN, Antunes W, Minton NP, Hernandez G, Cordeiro TN, Sorg JA, Serrano M, Henriques AO. A sporulation signature protease is required for assembly of the spore surface layers, germination and host colonization in Clostridioides difficile. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011741. [PMID: 37956166 PMCID: PMC10681294 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
A genomic signature for endosporulation includes a gene coding for a protease, YabG, which in the model organism Bacillus subtilis is involved in assembly of the spore coat. We show that in the human pathogen Clostridioidesm difficile, YabG is critical for the assembly of the coat and exosporium layers of spores. YabG is produced during sporulation under the control of the mother cell-specific regulators σE and σK and associates with the spore surface layers. YabG shows an N-terminal SH3-like domain and a C-terminal domain that resembles single domain response regulators, such as CheY, yet is atypical in that the conserved phosphoryl-acceptor residue is absent. Instead, the CheY-like domain carries residues required for activity, including Cys207 and His161, the homologues of which form a catalytic diad in the B. subtilis protein, and also Asp162. The substitution of any of these residues by Ala, eliminates an auto-proteolytic activity as well as interdomain processing of CspBA, a reaction that releases the CspB protease, required for proper spore germination. An in-frame deletion of yabG or an allele coding for an inactive protein, yabGC207A, both cause misassemby of the coat and exosporium and the formation of spores that are more permeable to lysozyme and impaired in germination and host colonization. Furthermore, we show that YabG is required for the expression of at least two σK-dependent genes, cotA, coding for a coat protein, and cdeM, coding for a key determinant of exosporium assembly. Thus, YabG also impinges upon the genetic program of the mother cell possibly by eliminating a transcriptional repressor. Although this activity has not been described for the B. subtilis protein and most of the YabG substrates vary among sporeformers, the general role of the protease in the assembly of the spore surface is likely to be conserved across evolutionary distance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Marini
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República EAN, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Carmen Olivença
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República EAN, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Sara Ramalhete
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República EAN, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Andrea Martinez Aguirre
- Texas A&M University, Department of Biology, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Patrick Ingle
- Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Manuel N Melo
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República EAN, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Wilson Antunes
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República EAN, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Nigel P Minton
- Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Guillem Hernandez
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República EAN, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Tiago N Cordeiro
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República EAN, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Joseph A Sorg
- Texas A&M University, Department of Biology, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Mónica Serrano
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República EAN, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Adriano O Henriques
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República EAN, Oeiras, Portugal
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Ribis JW, Melo L, Shrestha S, Giacalone D, Rodriguez EE, Shen A, Rohlfing A. Single-spore germination analyses reveal that calcium released during Clostridioides difficile germination functions in a feedforward loop. mSphere 2023; 8:e0000523. [PMID: 37338207 PMCID: PMC10449524 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00005-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile infections begin when its metabolically dormant spores germinate in response to sensing bile acid germinants alongside amino acid and divalent cation co-germinants in the small intestine. While bile acid germinants are essential for C. difficile spore germination, it is currently unclear whether both co-germinant signals are required. One model proposes that divalent cations, particularly Ca2+, are essential for inducing germination, while another proposes that either co-germinant class can induce germination. The former model is based on the finding that spores defective in releasing large stores of internal Ca2+ in the form of calcium dipicolinic acid (CaDPA) cannot germinate when germination is induced with bile acid germinant and amino acid co-germinant alone. However, since the reduced optical density of CaDPA-less spores makes it difficult to accurately measure their germination, we developed a novel automated, time-lapse microscopy-based germination assay to analyze CaDPA mutant germination at the single-spore level. Using this assay, we found that CaDPA mutant spores germinate in the presence of amino acid co-germinant and bile acid germinant. Higher levels of amino acid co-germinants are nevertheless required to induce CaDPA mutant spores to germinate relative to WT spores because CaDPA released by WT spores during germination can function in a feedforward loop to potentiate the germination of other spores within the population. Collectively, these data indicate that Ca2+ is not essential for inducing C. difficile spore germination because amino acid and Ca2+ co-germinant signals are sensed by parallel signaling pathways. IMPORTANCE Clostridioides difficile spore germination is essential for this major nosocomial pathogen to initiate infection. C. difficile spores germinate in response to sensing bile acid germinant signals alongside co-germinant signals. There are two classes of co-germinant signals: Ca2+ and amino acids. Prior work suggested that Ca2+ is essential for C. difficile spore germination based on bulk population analyses of germinating CaDPA mutant spores. Since these assays rely on optical density to measure spore germination and the optical density of CaDPA mutant spores is reduced relative to WT spores, this bulk assay is limited in its capacity to analyze germination. To overcome this limitation, we developed an automated image analysis pipeline to monitor C. difficile spore germination using time-lapse microscopy. With this analysis pipeline, we demonstrate that, although Ca2+ is dispensable for inducing C. difficile spore germination, CaDPA can function in a feedforward loop to potentiate the germination of neighboring spores.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W. Ribis
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Luana Melo
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Shailab Shrestha
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - David Giacalone
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Aimee Shen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Amy Rohlfing
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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5
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Kadowaki R, Tanno H, Maeno S, Endo A. Spore-forming properties and enhanced oxygen tolerance of butyrate-producing Anaerostipes spp. Anaerobe 2023; 82:102752. [PMID: 37301503 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2023.102752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Butyrate producing bacteria are promising candidates for next-generation probiotics. However, they are extremely sensitive to oxygen, which is a significant obstacle to their inclusion in food matrices in a viable form. The present study characterized the spore-forming properties and stress tolerance of human gut butyrate-producing Anaerostipes spp. METHODS Spore formation properties in six species of Anaerostipes spp. were studied by in vitro and in silico tests. RESULTS Spores were observed from the cells of three species using microscopic analyses, while the remaining three did not form spores under the tested conditions. Spore-forming properties were confirmed by an ethanol treatment. The spores of Anaerostipes caccae were tolerant to oxygen and survived for 15 weeks under atmospheric conditions. Spores tolerated heat stress at 70 °C, but not at 80 °C. An in silico analysis of the conservation of potential sporulation signature genes revealed that the majority of human gut butyrate-producing bacteria were classified as potential spore formers. Comparative genomics revealed that three spore-forming Anaerostipes spp. specifically possessed the spore formation-related genes of bkdR, sodA, and splB, which may be key genes for different sporulation properties in Anaerostipes spp. CONCLUSIONS The present study demonstrated the enhanced stress tolerance of butyrate producing Anaerostipes spp. for future probiotic application. Presence of specific gene(s) are possibly keys for sporulation in Anaerostipes spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ren Kadowaki
- Department of Food, Aroma and Cosmetic Chemistry, Faculty of Bioindustry, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 099-2493, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Hiroki Tanno
- Department of Food, Aroma and Cosmetic Chemistry, Faculty of Bioindustry, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 099-2493, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Shintaro Maeno
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 812-8582, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Akihito Endo
- Department of Food, Aroma and Cosmetic Chemistry, Faculty of Bioindustry, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 099-2493, Hokkaido, Japan; Department of Nutritional Science and Food Safety, Faculty of Applied Bioscience, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 156-8502, Tokyo, Japan.
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Marcos P, Glennon C, Whyte P, Rogers TR, McElroy M, Fanning S, Frias J, Bolton D. The effect of cold storage and cooking on the viability of Clostridioides difficile spores in consumer foods. Food Microbiol 2023; 112:104215. [PMID: 36906315 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2023.104215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The increased detection of clinical cases of Clostridioides difficile coupled with the persistence of clostridial spores at various stages along the food chain suggest that this pathogen may be foodborne. This study examined C. difficile (ribotypes 078 and 126) spore viability in chicken breast, beef steak, spinach leaves and cottage cheese during refrigerated (4 °C) and frozen (-20 °C) storage with and without a subsequent sous vide mild cooking (60 °C, 1 h). Spore inactivation at 80 °C in phosphate buffer solution, beef and chicken were also investigated to provide D80°C values and determine if PBS was a suitable model system for real food matrices. There was no decrease in spore concentration after chilled or frozen storage and/or sous vide cooking at 60 °C. Non-log-linear thermal inactivation was observed for both C. difficile ribotypes at 80 °C in phosphate buffer solution (PBS), beef and chicken. The predicted PBS D80°C values of 5.72±[2.90, 8.55] min and 7.50±[6.61, 8.39] min for RT078 and RT126, respectively, were in agreement with the food matrices D80°C values of 5.65 min (95% CI range from 4.29 to 8.89 min) for RT078 and 7.35 min (95% CI range from 6.81 to 7.01 min) for RT126. It was concluded that C. difficile spores survive chilled and frozen storage and mild cooking at 60 °C but may be inactivated at 80 °C. Moreover thermal inactivation in PBS was representative of that observed in real food matrices (beef and chicken).
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Marcos
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin, D15 DY05, Ireland; School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, D04 N2E5, Ireland
| | - Chloe Glennon
- Environmental Sustainability and Health Institute, Technological University Dublin, Grangegorman, Dublin, D07 H6K8, Ireland
| | - Paul Whyte
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, D04 N2E5, Ireland
| | - Thomas R Rogers
- Clinical Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin, St James's Hospital Campus, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Máire McElroy
- Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Backweston, Celbridge, Kildare, Ireland
| | - Seamus Fanning
- UCD-Centre for Food Safety, School of Public Health, Physiotherapy & Sports Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, D04 N2E5, Ireland
| | - Jesus Frias
- Environmental Sustainability and Health Institute, Technological University Dublin, Grangegorman, Dublin, D07 H6K8, Ireland
| | - Declan Bolton
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin, D15 DY05, Ireland.
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Bassotti G, Fruganti A, Stracci F, Marconi P, Fettucciari K. Cytotoxic synergism of Clostridioides difficile toxin B with proinflammatory cytokines in subjects with inflammatory bowel diseases. World J Gastroenterol 2023; 29:582-596. [PMID: 36742168 PMCID: PMC9896618 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v29.i4.582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile) is progressively colonizing humans and animals living with humans. During this process, hypervirulent strains and mutated toxin A and B of C. difficile (TcdA and TcdB) are originating and developing. While in healthy subjects colonization by C. difficile becomes a risk after the use of antibiotics that alter the microbiome, other categories of people are more susceptible to infection and at risk of relapse, such as those with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Recent in vitro studies suggest that this increased susceptibility could be due to the strong cytotoxic synergism between TcdB and proinflammatory cytokines the tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interferon-gamma (CKs). Therefore, in subjects with IBD the presence of an inflammatory state in the colon could be the driver that increases the susceptibility to C. difficile infection and its progression and relapses. TcdB is internalized in the cell via three receptors: chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan 4; poliovirus receptor-like 3; and Wnt receptor frizzled family. Chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan 4 and Wnt receptor frizzled family are involved in cell death by apoptosis or necrosis depending on the concentration of TcdB and cell types, while poliovirus receptor-like 3 induces only necrosis. It is possible that cytokines could also induce a greater expression of receptors for TcdB that are more involved in necrosis than in apoptosis. Therefore, in subjects with IBD there are the conditions: (1) For greater susceptibility to C. difficile infection, such as the inflammatory state, and abnormalities of the microbiome and of the immune system; (2) for the enhancement of the cytotoxic activity of TcdB +Cks; and (3) for a greater expression of TcdB receptors stimulated by cytokines that induce cell death by necrosis rather than apoptosis. The only therapeutic approach currently possible in IBD patients is monitoring of C. difficile colonization for interventions aimed at reducing tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interferon-gamma levels when the infection begins. The future perspective is to generate bacteriophages against C. difficile for targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrio Bassotti
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Gastroenterology, Hepatology & Digestive Endoscopy Section University of Perugia Medical School, Piazza Lucio Severi, Perugia 06132, Italy, and Santa Maria della Misericordia Hospital, Gastroenterology & Hepatology Unit Perugia 06156, Italy
| | - Alessandro Fruganti
- School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, Matelica 62024, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Stracci
- Medicine and Surgery, Hygiene and Public Health Section, University of Perugia, Perugia 06123, Italy
| | - Pierfrancesco Marconi
- Medicine and Surgery, Biosciences & Medical Embryology Section, University of Perugia, Perugia 06132, Italy
| | - Katia Fettucciari
- Medicine and Surgery, Biosciences & Medical Embryology Section, University of Perugia, Perugia 06132, Italy
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Romero-Rodríguez A, Ruiz-Villafán B, Martínez-de la Peña CF, Sánchez S. Targeting the Impossible: A Review of New Strategies against Endospores. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:antibiotics12020248. [PMID: 36830159 PMCID: PMC9951900 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12020248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Endospore-forming bacteria are ubiquitous, and their endospores can be present in food, in domestic animals, and on contaminated surfaces. Many spore-forming bacteria have been used in biotechnological applications, while others are human pathogens responsible for a wide range of critical clinical infections. Due to their resistant properties, it is challenging to eliminate spores and avoid the reactivation of latent spores that may lead to active infections. Furthermore, endospores play an essential role in the survival, transmission, and pathogenesis of some harmful strains that put human and animal health at risk. Thus, different methods have been applied for their eradication. Nevertheless, natural products are still a significant source for discovering and developing new antibiotics. Moreover, targeting the spore for clinical pathogens such as Clostridioides difficile is essential to disease prevention and therapeutics. These strategies could directly aim at the structural components of the spore or their germination process. This work summarizes the current advances in upcoming strategies and the development of natural products against endospores. This review also intends to highlight future perspectives in research and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Romero-Rodríguez
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Biotecnología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
- Correspondence:
| | - Beatriz Ruiz-Villafán
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Biotecnología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
| | - Claudia Fabiola Martínez-de la Peña
- Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Microbiológicas, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla 72592, Mexico
| | - Sergio Sánchez
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Biotecnología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
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Wahia H, Fakayode OA, Mustapha AT, Zhou C, Dabbour M. Application and potential of multifrequency ultrasound in juice industry: Comprehensive analysis of inactivation and germination of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris spores. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 64:4561-4586. [PMID: 36412233 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2143475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The majority of acidic fruits are perishable owing to their high-water activity, which promotes microbial activity, thus exhibiting metabolic functions that cause spoilage. Along with sanitary practices, several treatments are used during processing and/or storage to inhibit the development of undesirable bacteria. To overcome the challenges caused by mild heat treatment, juice manufacturers have recently increased their involvement in developing novel non-thermal processing procedures. Ultrasonication alone or in combination with other hurdle technologies may be used to pasteurize processed fruit juices. Multifrequency ultrasound has gained popularity due to the fact that mono-frequency ultrasound has less impact on bacterial inactivation and bioactive compound enhancement of fruit juice. Here, we present and discuss the fundamental information and technological knowledge of how spoilage bacteria, specifically Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris, assemble resistant spores and inactivate and germinate dormant spores in response to nutrient germinants and physical treatments such as heat and ultrasound. To the authors' knowledge, no prior review of ultrasonic inactivation and germination of A. acidoterrestris in fruit juice exists. Therefore, this article aims to provide a review of previously published research on the inactivation and germination of A. acidoterrestris in fruit juice by ultrasound and heat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hafida Wahia
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, PR China
| | | | | | - Cunshan Zhou
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, PR China
- School of Biological and Food Engineering, Chuzhou University, Chuzhou, PR China
| | - Mokhtar Dabbour
- Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Benha University, Moshtohor, Qaluobia, Egypt
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10
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Wu Z, Xu Q, Wang Q, Chen Y, Lv L, Zheng B, Yan R, Jiang H, Shen J, Wang S, Wang K, Xia J, Han S, Li L. The impact of dietary fibers on Clostridioides difficile infection in a mouse model. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1028267. [PMID: 36439215 PMCID: PMC9682084 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1028267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Diets rich in fiber may provide health benefits and regulate the gut microbiome, which affects the immune system. However, the role of dietary fiber in Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) is controversial. Here, we investigated the use of fermentable fibers, such as inulin or pectin, to replace the insoluble fiber cellulose to explore how dietary fiber affects C. difficile-induced colitis in mice through intestinal microecology and metabolomics. Using C. difficile VPI 10463, we generated a mouse model of antibiotic-induced CDI. We evaluated disease outcomes and the microbial community among mice fed two fermentable fibers (inulin or pectin) versus the insoluble fiber cellulose. We analyzed and compared the gut microbiota, intestinal epithelium, cytokine levels, immune responses, and metabolites between the groups. Severe histological injury and elevated cytokine levels were observed in colon tissues after infection. Different diets showed different effects, and pectin administration protected intestinal epithelial permeability. Pectin also steadily increased the diversity of the microbiome and decreased the levels of C. difficile-induced markers of inflammation in serum and colonic tissues. The pectin group showed a higher abundance of Lachnospiraceae and a lower abundance of the conditionally pathogenic Enterobacteriaceae than the cellulose group with infection. The concentration of short-chain fatty acids in the cecal contents was also higher in the pectin group than in the cellulose group. Pectin exerted its effects through the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) pathway, which was confirmed by using the AhR agonist FICZ and the inhibitor CH2223191. Our results show that pectin alters the microbiome and metabolic function and triggers a protective immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengjie Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qiaomai Xu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qiangqiang Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yunbo Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Longxian Lv
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Beiwen Zheng
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ren Yan
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Huiyong Jiang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jian Shen
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shuting Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Kaicen Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jiafeng Xia
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shengyi Han
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lanjuan Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Jinan Microecological Biomedicine Shandong Laboratory, Jinan, China
- *Correspondence: Lanjuan Li,
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11
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Bell E, Rattray JE, Sloan K, Sherry A, Pilloni G, Hubert CRJ. Hyperthermophilic endospores germinate and metabolize organic carbon in sediments heated to 80°C. Environ Microbiol 2022; 24:5534-5545. [PMID: 36100999 PMCID: PMC9826295 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.16167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Cold surface sediments host a seedbank of functionally diverse thermophilic bacteria. These thermophiles are present as endospores, which are widely dispersed in aquatic environments. Here, we investigated the functional potential of endospore populations in cold surface sediments heated to 80°C. Microbial production of acetate was observed at 80°C and could be enhanced by supplying additional organic carbon substrates. Comparison of 16S rRNA gene amplicon libraries from 80°C enrichments to sediments heated to lower temperatures (50-70°C) showed that temperature selects for distinct populations of endospore-forming bacteria. Whereas sulfate-reducing thermophiles were enriched in 50-70°C incubations, 80°C exceeds their thermal tolerance and selects for hyperthermophilic organotrophic bacteria that are similarly detected in amplicon libraries from sediments heated to 90°C. Genome-resolved metagenomics revealed novel carbon cycling members of Symbiobacteriales, Thermosediminibacteraceae, Thermanaeromonas and Calditerricola with the genomic potential for the degradation of carbohydrates, sugars, amino acids and nucleotides. Endospores of thermophilic bacteria are deposited on seabed sediments worldwide where they remain dormant as they are buried in the accumulating sediments. Our results suggest that endospore populations could be activated by temperature increases encountered during burial and show the potential for organotrophic metabolic activity contributing to acetate generation in deep hot sediments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Bell
- Geomicrobiology Group, Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryAlbertaCanada,School of Natural and Environmental SciencesNewcastle UniversityNewcastle upon TyneUK
| | - Jayne E. Rattray
- Geomicrobiology Group, Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryAlbertaCanada
| | - Kathryn Sloan
- Geomicrobiology Group, Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryAlbertaCanada
| | - Angela Sherry
- Hub for Biotechnology in the Built Environment, Department of Applied SciencesNorthumbria UniversityNewcastle upon TyneUK
| | - Giovanni Pilloni
- ExxonMobil Technology and Engineering CompanyAnnandaleNew JerseyUSA
| | - Casey R. J. Hubert
- Geomicrobiology Group, Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryAlbertaCanada,School of Natural and Environmental SciencesNewcastle UniversityNewcastle upon TyneUK
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12
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Wu Z, Xu Q, Li A, Lv L, Li L. Apple Polyphenol Extract Suppresses Clostridioides difficile Infection in a Mouse Model. Metabolites 2022; 12:1042. [PMID: 36355125 PMCID: PMC9694464 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12111042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 08/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Fruits such as apples are a dietary source of polyphenols and have health benefits. We studied the benefits of apple polyphenols in reducing intestinal infections. We explored the potential roles of apple polyphenols in combating Clostridioides difficile-induced intestinal infections by modulating the intestinal microbiota and metabolism in our study. Mice fed with apple polyphenols exhibited higher survival rates and improved diarrhea symptoms in a C. difficile infection mouse model given once-daily apple polyphenol extract (200 or 400 mg/kg bw) or phosphate-buffered saline. Feeding polyphenols enhanced anti-inflammatory effects and colon barrier integrity. In addition, apple polyphenols mitigated intestinal microbiota disorders in C. difficile infection, modulating the intestinal microbiota and increasing the abundance of beneficial microbiota. Apple polyphenols also improved fecal metabolic alterations in C. difficile-infected mice and modulated the expression of pathways related to intestinal inflammation. Our results suggest that apple polyphenol extract is a potential prebiotic agent that affects the intestinal microbiota and metabolism, thereby positively influencing intestinal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengjie Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 79 Qingchun Rd., Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Qiaomai Xu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 79 Qingchun Rd., Hangzhou 310003, China
- Jinan Microecological Biomedicine Shandong Laboratory, Jinan 250021, China
| | - Ailing Li
- Shulan (Hangzhou) Hospital, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Longxian Lv
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 79 Qingchun Rd., Hangzhou 310003, China
- Jinan Microecological Biomedicine Shandong Laboratory, Jinan 250021, China
| | - Lanjuan Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 79 Qingchun Rd., Hangzhou 310003, China
- Jinan Microecological Biomedicine Shandong Laboratory, Jinan 250021, China
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13
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Martinez E, Rodriguez C, Crèvecoeur S, Lebrun S, Delcenserie V, Taminiau B, Daube G. Impact of environmental conditions and gut microbiota on the in vitro germination and growth of Clostridioides difficile. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2022; 369:6692865. [PMID: 36066913 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnac087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is a spore-forming anaerobic Gram-positive bacterium responsible for a broad spectrum of intestinal symptoms and healthcare-associated diarrhoea. The hypothesis of this work was that different in vitro conditions, notably pH and human faecal microbiota composition, impact the germination and/or the growth of C. difficile. This study aimed to correlate growth kinetics of the bacterium with these two physiochemical parameters by using a static in vitro model. To better understand the initial gut colonisation, several growth curve assays were carried out to monitor the behaviour of the spores and vegetative forms of C. difficile strain 078 under different conditions mimicking the gut environment. When the faeces were added, no spore germination or growth was observed, but C. difficile spores germinated in vitro when the pH was maintained between 6.6 and 6.9 for four different faeces donors. The evolution of microbiota studied by 16S rDNA profiling showed high proportions of Enterobacteriaceae and E. coli/Shigella when C. difficile grew, regardless of the inoculated faeces. This model helped us to understand that the germination and growth of C. difficile are strongly pH dependent, and further research is needed to evaluate the potential impact of the gut microbiota composition on C. difficile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Martinez
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Département des Sciences des Denrées alimentaires, Université de Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgique
| | - Cristina Rodriguez
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga-IBIMA. Málaga, Spain. Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Aparato Digestivo, Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Victoria, Málaga, 29590, Spain
| | - Sébastien Crèvecoeur
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Département des Sciences des Denrées alimentaires, Université de Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgique
| | - Sarah Lebrun
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Département des Sciences des Denrées alimentaires, Université de Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgique
| | - Véronique Delcenserie
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Département des Sciences des Denrées alimentaires, Université de Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgique
| | - Bernard Taminiau
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Département des Sciences des Denrées alimentaires, Université de Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgique
| | - Georges Daube
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Département des Sciences des Denrées alimentaires, Université de Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgique
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14
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Abstract
Clostridioides difficile spores are the infective form for this endospore-forming organism. The vegetative cells are intolerant to oxygen and poor competitors with a healthy gut microbiota. Therefore, in order for C. difficile to establish infection, the spores have to germinate in an environment that supports vegetative growth. To initiate germination, C. difficile uses Csp-type germinant receptors that consist of the CspC and CspA pseudoproteases as the bile acid and cogerminant receptors, respectively. CspB is a subtilisin-like protease that cleaves the inhibitory propeptide from the pro-SleC cortex lytic enzyme, thereby activating it and initiating cortex degradation. Though several locations have been proposed for where these proteins reside within the spore (i.e., spore coat, outer spore membrane, cortex, and inner spore membrane), these have been based, mostly, on hypotheses or prior data in Clostridium perfringens. In this study, we visualized the germination and outgrowth process using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and used immunogold labeling to visualize key germination regulators. These analyses localize these key regulators to the spore cortex region for the first time. IMPORTANCE Germination by C. difficile spores is the first step in the establishment of potentially life-threatening C. difficile infection (CDI). A deeper understanding of the mechanism by which spores germinate may provide insight for how to either prevent spore germination into a disease-causing vegetative form or trigger germination prematurely when the spore is either in the outside environment or in a host environment that does not support the establishment of colonization/disease.
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15
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Rakotonirina A, Galperine T, Allémann E. Fecal microbiota transplantation: a review on current formulations in Clostridioides difficile infection and future outlooks. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2022; 22:929-944. [PMID: 35763604 DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2022.2095901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The role of the gut microbiota in health and the pathogenesis of several diseases has been highlighted in recent years. Even though the precise mechanisms involving the microbiome in these ailments are still unclear, microbiota-modulating therapies have been developed. Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) has shown significant results against Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI), and its potential has been investigated for other diseases. Unfortunately, the technical aspects of the treatment make it difficult to implement. Pharmaceutical technology approaches to encapsulate microorganisms could play an important role in providing this treatment and render the treatment modalities easier to handle. AREAS COVERED After an overview of CDI, this narrative review aims to discuss the current formulations for FMT and specifically addresses the technical aspects of the treatment. This review also distinguishes itself by focusing on the hurdles and emphasizing the possible improvements using pharmaceutical technologies. EXPERT OPINION FMT is an efficient treatment for recurrent CDI. However, its standardization is overlooked. The approach of industrial and hospital preparations of FMT are different, but both show promise in their respective methodologies. Novel FMT formulations could enable further research on dysbiotic diseases in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adèle Rakotonirina
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.,Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Tatiana Galperine
- Infectious Diseases Service, Department of Medicine, University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,French Group of Faecal Microbiota Transplantation
| | - Eric Allémann
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.,Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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16
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Oliveira Paiva AM, Friggen AH, Douwes R, Wittekoek B, Smits WK. Practical observations on the use of fluorescent reporter systems in Clostridioides difficile. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 2022; 115:297-323. [PMID: 35039954 DOI: 10.1007/s10482-021-01691-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Fluorescence microscopy is a valuable tool to study a broad variety of bacterial cell components and dynamics thereof. For Clostridioides difficile, the fluorescent proteins CFPopt, mCherryOpt and phiLOV2.1, and the self-labelling tags SNAPCd and HaloTag, hereafter collectively referred as fluorescent systems, have been described to explore different cellular pathways. In this study, we sought to characterize previously used fluorescent systems in C. difficile cells. We performed single cell analyses using fluorescence microscopy of exponentially growing C. difficile cells harbouring different fluorescent systems, either expressing these separately in the cytosol or fused to the C-terminus of HupA, under defined conditions. We show that the intrinsic fluorescence of C. difficile cells increases during growth, independent of sigB or spo0A. However, when C. difficile cells are exposed to environmental oxygen autofluorescence is enhanced. Cytosolic overexpression of the different fluorescent systems alone, using the same expression signals, showed heterogeneous expression of the fluorescent systems. High levels of mCherryOpt were toxic for C. difficile cells limiting the applicability of this fluorophore as a transcriptional reporter. When fused to HupA, a C. difficile histone-like protein, the fluorescent systems behaved similarly and did not affect the HupA overproduction phenotype. The present study compares several commonly used fluorescent systems for application as transcriptional or translational reporters in microscopy and summarizes the limitations and key challenges for live-cell imaging of C. difficile. Due to independence of molecular oxygen and fluorescent signal, SNAPCd appears the most suitable candidate for live-cell imaging in C. difficile to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana M Oliveira Paiva
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Section Experimental Bacteriology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.,Center for Microbial Cell Biology, Leiden, The Netherlands.,Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Annemieke H Friggen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Section Experimental Bacteriology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.,Center for Microbial Cell Biology, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Roxanne Douwes
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Section Experimental Bacteriology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Bert Wittekoek
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Section Experimental Bacteriology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Wiep Klaas Smits
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Section Experimental Bacteriology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands. .,Center for Microbial Cell Biology, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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17
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Bassotti G, Fruganti A, Maconi G, Marconi P, Fettucciari K. Clostridioides difficile Infection in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease May be Favoured by the Effects of Proinflammatory Cytokines on the Enteroglial Network. J Inflamm Res 2022; 14:7443-7453. [PMID: 35002278 PMCID: PMC8722535 DOI: 10.2147/jir.s328628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile infection is widespread throughout countries and represents an important cause of nosocomial diarrhoea, with relatively high morbidity. This infection often occurs in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases and may complicate their clinical picture. Here, we propose, on the basis of evidence from basic science studies, that in patients affected by inflammatory bowel diseases, this infection might be facilitated by a derangement of the enteric glial cell (EGC) network caused by the effects of proinflammatory cytokines, such as tumour necrosis factor alpha and interferon gamma, which enhance the cytotoxic effects of C. difficile toxin B on EGCs. This hypothesis, if confirmed, could open the door to alternative treatment approaches to fight C. difficile infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrio Bassotti
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Gastroenterology, Hepatology & Digestive Endoscopy Section, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy.,Gastroenterology & Hepatology Unit, Santa Maria della Misericordia Hospital, Perugia, Italy
| | - Alessandro Fruganti
- School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, Macerata, Italy
| | - Giovanni Maconi
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Gastroenterology Unit, "L. Sacco" Hospital, University of Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Pierfrancesco Marconi
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Biosciences & Medical Embryology Section, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Katia Fettucciari
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Biosciences & Medical Embryology Section, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
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18
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Hain‐Saunders N, Knight DR, Bruce M, Riley TV. Clostridioides difficile
infection and One Health: An Equine Perspective. Environ Microbiol 2022; 24:985-997. [PMID: 35001483 PMCID: PMC9304292 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.15898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile presents a significant health risk to humans and animals. The complexity of the bacterial–host interaction affecting pathogenesis and disease development creates an ongoing challenge for epidemiological studies, control strategies and prevention planning. The recent emergence of human disease caused by strains of C. difficile found in animals adds to mounting evidence that C. difficile infection (CDI) may be a zoonosis. In equine populations, C. difficile is a known cause of diarrhoea and gastrointestinal inflammation, with considerable mortality and morbidity. This has a significant impact on both the well‐being of the animal and, in the case of performance and production animals, it may have an adverse economic impact on relevant industries. While C. difficile is regularly isolated from horses, many questions remain regarding the impact of asymptomatic carriage as well as optimization of diagnosis, testing and treatment. This review provides an overview of our understanding of equine CDI while also identifying knowledge gaps and the need for a holistic One Health approach to a complicated issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasza Hain‐Saunders
- Biosecurity and One Health Research Centre, Harry Butler Institute Murdoch University Murdoch Western Australia Australia
| | - Daniel R. Knight
- Biosecurity and One Health Research Centre, Harry Butler Institute Murdoch University Murdoch Western Australia Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Queen Elizabeth II Medical Centre Nedlands 6009 WA Australia
| | - Mieghan Bruce
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Centre for Biosecurity and One Health Murdoch University Murdoch Western Australia Australia
| | - Thomas V. Riley
- Biosecurity and One Health Research Centre, Harry Butler Institute Murdoch University Murdoch Western Australia Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Queen Elizabeth II Medical Centre Nedlands 6009 WA Australia
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia Australia
- Department of Microbiology, PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Queen Elizabeth II Medical Centre Nedlands Western Australia Australia
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19
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Fettucciari K, Marconi P, Marchegiani A, Fruganti A, Spaterna A, Bassotti G. Invisible steps for a global endemy: molecular strategies adopted by Clostridioides difficile. Therap Adv Gastroenterol 2021; 14:17562848211032797. [PMID: 34413901 PMCID: PMC8369858 DOI: 10.1177/17562848211032797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) is on the rise worldwide and is associated with an increase in deaths and socio-health burden. C. difficile has become ubiquitous in anthropized environments because of the extreme resistance of its spores. Based on the epidemiological data and knowledge of molecular pathogenesis of C. difficile, it is possible to predict its progressive colonization of the human population for the following reasons: first, its global spread is unstoppable; second, the toxins (Tcds) produced by C. difficile, TcdA and TcdB, mainly cause cell death by apoptosis, but the surviving cells acquire a senescence state that favours persistence of C. difficile in the intestine; third, proinflammatory cytokines, tumour necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ, induced during CDI, enhance the cytotoxicity of Tcds and can increase the survival of senescent cells; fourth, Tcds block mobility and induce apoptosis in immune cells recruited at the infection site; and finally, after remission from primary infection or relapse, C. difficile causes functional abnormalities in the enteric glial cell (EGC) network that can result in irritable bowel syndrome, characterized by a latent inflammatory response that contributes to C. difficile survival and enhances the cytotoxic activity of low doses of TcdB, thus favouring further relapses. Since a 'global endemy' of C. difficile seems inevitable, it is necessary to develop an effective vaccine against Tcds for at-risk individuals, and to perform a prophylaxis/selective therapy with bacteriophages highly specific for C. difficile. We must be aware that CDI will become a global health problem in the forthcoming years, and we must be prepared to face this menace.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katia Fettucciari
- Biosciences & Medical Embryology Section, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Medical School -Piazza Lucio Severi 1, Edificio B - IV piano; Sant’Andrea delle Fratte, Perugia, 06132, Italy
| | - Pierfrancesco Marconi
- Biosciences & Medical Embryology Section, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Andrea Marchegiani
- School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, Macerata, Italy
| | - Alessandro Fruganti
- School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, Macerata, Italy
| | - Andrea Spaterna
- School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, Macerata, Italy
| | - Gabrio Bassotti
- Gastroenterology, Hepatology & Digestive Endoscopy Section, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
- Gastroenterology & Hepatology Unit, Santa Maria della Misericordia Hospital, Perugia, Italy
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20
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Opportunities for Nanomedicine in Clostridioides difficile Infection. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:antibiotics10080948. [PMID: 34438998 PMCID: PMC8388953 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10080948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile, a spore-forming bacterium, is a nosocomial infectious pathogen which can be found in animals as well. Although various antibiotics and disinfectants were developed, C. difficile infection (CDI) remains a serious health problem. C. difficile spores have complex structures and dormant characteristics that contribute to their resistance to harsh environments, successful transmission and recurrence. C. difficile spores can germinate quickly after being exposed to bile acid and co-germinant in a suitable environment. The vegetative cells produce endospores, and the mature spores are released from the hosts for dissemination of the pathogen. Therefore, concurrent elimination of C. difficile vegetative cells and inhibition of spore germination is essential for effective control of CDI. This review focused on the molecular pathogenesis of CDI and new trends in targeting both spores and vegetative cells of this pathogen, as well as the potential contribution of nanotechnologies for the effective management of CDI.
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21
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Onizuka S, Tanaka M, Mishima R, Nakayama J. Cultivation of Spore-Forming Gut Microbes Using a Combination of Bile Acids and Amino Acids. Microorganisms 2021; 9:1651. [PMID: 34442730 PMCID: PMC8401671 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9081651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Spores of certain species belonging to Firmicutes are efficiently germinated by nutrient germinators, such as amino acids, in addition to bile acid. We attempted to culture difficult-to-culture or yet-to-be cultured spore-forming intestinal bacteria, using a combination of bile acids and amino acids. The combination increased the number of colonies that formed on agar medium plated with ethanol-treated feces. The operational taxonomic units of these colonized bacteria were classified into two types. One type was colonized only by the bile acid (BA) mixture and the other type was colonized using amino acids, in addition to the BA mixture. The latter contained 13 species, in addition to 14 species of the former type, which mostly corresponds to anaerobic difficult-to-culture Clostridiales species, including several new species candidates. The use of a combination of BAs and amino acids effectively increased the culturability of spore-forming intestinal bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jiro Nakayama
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan; (S.O.); (M.T.); (R.M.)
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22
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Shen A. Clostridioides difficile Spore Formation and Germination: New Insights and Opportunities for Intervention. Annu Rev Microbiol 2021; 74:545-566. [PMID: 32905755 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-micro-011320-011321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Spore formation and germination are essential for the bacterial pathogen Clostridioides difficile to transmit infection. Despite the importance of these developmental processes to the infection cycle of C. difficile, the molecular mechanisms underlying how this obligate anaerobe forms infectious spores and how these spores germinate to initiate infection were largely unknown until recently. Work in the last decade has revealed that C. difficile uses a distinct mechanism for sensing and transducing germinant signals relative to previously characterized spore formers. The C. difficile spore assembly pathway also exhibits notable differences relative to Bacillus spp., where spore formation has been more extensively studied. For both these processes, factors that are conserved only in C. difficile or the related Peptostreptococcaceae family are employed, and even highly conserved spore proteins can have differential functions or requirements in C. difficile compared to other spore formers. This review summarizes our current understanding of the mechanisms controlling C. difficile spore formation and germination and describes strategies for inhibiting these processes to prevent C. difficile infection and disease recurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimee Shen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02111, USA;
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Chiu CW, Tsai PJ, Lee CC, Ko WC, Hung YP. Inhibition of spores to prevent the recurrence of Clostridioides difficile infection - A possibility or an improbability? JOURNAL OF MICROBIOLOGY, IMMUNOLOGY, AND INFECTION = WEI MIAN YU GAN RAN ZA ZHI 2021; 54:1011-1017. [PMID: 34229970 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2021.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is one of the most common nosocomial gastrointestinal pathogens, and recurrence is a problematic issue because approximately 20-30% of patients experience at least one episode of recurrence, even after treatment with a therapeutic drug of choice for C. difficile infection (CDI), such as vancomycin. CDI recurrence has a multifactorial complex mechanism, in which gut microbiota disruption coincident with viable C. difficile spores, is considered the most important factor. The effectiveness of an anti-C. difficile antimicrobial agent against CDI cannot guarantee its inhibitory effect on C. difficile spores and vice versa. However, an antimicrobial agent, such as fidaxomicin, which has a good inhibitory effect on both C. difficile vegetative cells and spores is assumed to not only treat CDI but also prevent its recurrence. Prolonged adherence to the exosporium has been proposed as a possible mechanism of inhibiting spores, and as a result, redesigning anti-C. difficile antimicrobial agents with the ability to adhere to the exosporium may provide another pathway for the development of anti-C. difficile spore agents. For example, vancomycin lacks an inhibitory effect against C. difficile spores, but a vancomycin-loaded spore-targeting iron oxide nanoparticle that selectively binds to C. difficile spores has been developed to successfully delay spore germination. Some new antimicrobial agents in phase II clinical trials, including cadazolid and ridinilazole, have shown exceptional anti-C. difficile and spore-inhibiting effects that can be expected to not only treat CDI but also prevent its recurrence in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Wei Chiu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Tainan Hospital, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Jane Tsai
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Medical College, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Chi Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung Univeristy, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Chien Ko
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung Univeristy, Tainan, Taiwan; Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
| | - Yuan-Pin Hung
- Department of Internal Medicine, Tainan Hospital, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tainan, Taiwan; Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung Univeristy, Tainan, Taiwan.
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Ashok N, He K, Bauer CE. No Light, No Germination: Excitation of the Rhodospirillum centenum Photosynthetic Apparatus Is Necessary and Sufficient for Cyst Germination. mBio 2021; 12:e03619-20. [PMID: 33727361 PMCID: PMC8092318 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03619-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhodospirillum centenum is a Gram-negative alphaproteobacterium that is capable of differentiating into dormant cysts that are metabolically inactive and desiccation resistant. Like spores synthesized by many Gram-positive species, dormant R. centenum cysts germinate in response to an environmental signal, indicating that conditions favor survival and proliferation. Factors that induce germination are called germinants and are often both niche and species specific. In this study, we have identified photosynthesis as a niche-specific germinant for R. centenum cyst germination. Specifically, excitation of wild-type cysts suspended in a nutrient-free buffer with far-red light at >750 nm results in rapid germination. This is in stark contrast to mutant strains deficient in photosynthesis that fail to germinate upon exposure to far-red light under all assayed conditions. We also show that photosynthesis-induced germination occurs in a carbon- and nitrogen-free buffer even in strains that are deficient in carbon or nitrogen fixation. These results demonstrate that photosynthesis not only is necessary for germination but is itself sufficient for the germination of R. centenum cysts.IMPORTANCE Environmental cues that signal Gram-positive spores to germinate (termed germinants) have been identified for several Bacillus and Clostridium species. These studies showed that germinants are niche and species specific. For example, Clostridium difficile spores sense bile salts as a germinant as their presence informs these cells of an intestinal environment. Bacillus fastidiosus spores use uric acid as a germinant that is present in soil and poultry litter as this species inhabits poultry litter. It is evident from these studies that dormant cells sample their environment to assess whether conditions are advantageous for the propagation and survival of vegetative cells. To date, a limited number of germinants have been defined for only a few Gram-positive spore-forming species. Beyond that group, there is scant information on what cues signal dormant cells to exit dormancy. In our study, we show that the versatile Gram-negative photosynthetic bacterium Rhodospirillum centenum uses light-driven photosynthesis, and not the availability of nutrients, to trigger the germination of dormant cysts. This use of light-driven photosynthesis as a germinant is surprising as this species is also capable of growing under dark conditions using exogenous carbon sources for energy. Consequently, photosynthetic growth appears to be the preferred growth mechanism by this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nandhini Ashok
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
| | - Kuang He
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
| | - Carl E Bauer
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
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Beskrovnaya P, Sexton DL, Golmohammadzadeh M, Hashimi A, Tocheva EI. Structural, Metabolic and Evolutionary Comparison of Bacterial Endospore and Exospore Formation. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:630573. [PMID: 33767680 PMCID: PMC7985256 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.630573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporulation is a specialized developmental program employed by a diverse set of bacteria which culminates in the formation of dormant cells displaying increased resilience to stressors. This represents a major survival strategy for bacteria facing harsh environmental conditions, including nutrient limitation, heat, desiccation, and exposure to antimicrobial compounds. Through dispersal to new environments via biotic or abiotic factors, sporulation provides a means for disseminating genetic material and promotes encounters with preferable environments thus promoting environmental selection. Several types of bacterial sporulation have been characterized, each involving numerous morphological changes regulated and performed by non-homologous pathways. Despite their likely independent evolutionary origins, all known modes of sporulation are typically triggered by limited nutrients and require extensive membrane and peptidoglycan remodeling. While distinct modes of sporulation have been observed in diverse species, two major types are at the forefront of understanding the role of sporulation in human health, and microbial population dynamics and survival. Here, we outline endospore and exospore formation by members of the phyla Firmicutes and Actinobacteria, respectively. Using recent advances in molecular and structural biology, we point to the regulatory, genetic, and morphological differences unique to endo- and exospore formation, discuss shared characteristics that contribute to the enhanced environmental survival of spores and, finally, cover the evolutionary aspects of sporulation that contribute to bacterial species diversification.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Elitza I. Tocheva
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Life Sciences Institute, Health Sciences Mall, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Faecal microbiota transplantation for Clostridioides difficile: mechanisms and pharmacology. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2021; 18:67-80. [PMID: 32843743 DOI: 10.1038/s41575-020-0350-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) has emerged as a remarkably successful treatment for recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection that cannot be cured with antibiotics alone. Understanding the complex biology and pathogenesis of C. difficile infection, which we discuss in this Perspective, is essential for understanding the potential mechanisms by which FMT cures this disease. Although FMT has already entered clinical practice, different microbiota-based products are currently in clinical trials and are vying for regulatory approval. However, all these therapeutics belong to an entirely new class of agents that require the development of a new branch of pharmacology. Characterization of microbiota therapeutics uses novel and rapidly evolving technologies and requires incorporation of microbial ecology concepts. Here, we consider FMT within a pharmacological framework, including its essential elements: formulation, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. From this viewpoint, multiple gaps in knowledge become apparent, identifying areas that require systematic research. This knowledge is needed to help clinical providers use microbiota therapeutics appropriately and to facilitate development of next-generation microbiota products with improved safety and efficacy. The discussion here is limited to FMT as a representative of microbiota therapeutics and recurrent C. difficile as the indication; however, consideration of the intrinsic basic principles is relevant to this entire class of microbiota-based therapeutics.
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Tanaka M, Onizuka S, Mishima R, Nakayama J. Cultural isolation of spore-forming bacteria in human feces using bile acids. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15041. [PMID: 32929101 PMCID: PMC7490687 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71883-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Structurally-diversified bile acids (BAs) are involved in shaping of intestinal microbiota as well as absorption of dietary lipids. Taurocholic acid, a conjugated form of BA, has been reported to be a factor triggering germination of a wide range of spore-forming bacteria in intestine. To test a hypothesis that other BAs also promote germination of intestinal bacteria, we attempted culture of bacteria from ethanol-treated feces by using a series of BAs. It was found that conjugated-BAs, notably three glycine-conjugated BAs, glycodeoxycholic acid and glycochenodeoxycholic acid, significantly increased the number and the species variety of colonies formed on the agar plate. These colonized bacteria mostly belonged to class Clostridia, mainly consisting of families Lachnospiraceae, Clostridiaceae, and Peptostreptococcaceae. There were several types of bacteria associated with different sensitivity to each BA. Eventually, we isolated 72 bacterial species of which 61 are known and 11 novel. These results demonstrate that the culturable range of bacteria in intestine can be widened using the germination-inducing activity of BAs. This approach would advance the research on spore-forming Clostridia that contains important but difficult-to-cultured bacteria associate with host health and diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaru Tanaka
- Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Division of Systems Bioengineering, Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Sakura Onizuka
- Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Division of Systems Bioengineering, Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Riko Mishima
- Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Division of Systems Bioengineering, Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Jiro Nakayama
- Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Division of Systems Bioengineering, Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.
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Lawler AJ, Lambert PA, Worthington T. A Revised Understanding of Clostridioides difficile Spore Germination. Trends Microbiol 2020; 28:744-752. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2020.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Revised: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Budi N, Safdar N, Rose WE. Treatment issues in recurrent Clostridioides difficile infections and the possible role of germinants. FEMS MICROBES 2020; 1:xtaa001. [PMID: 37333958 PMCID: PMC10117431 DOI: 10.1093/femsmc/xtaa001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is the number one cause of hospital-acquired infections in the United States and one of the CDC's urgent-level pathogen threats. The inflammation caused by pathogenic C. difficile results in diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis. Patients who undergo clinically successful treatment for this disease commonly experience recurrent infections. Current treatment options can eradicate the vegetative cell form of the bacteria but do not impact the spore form, which is impervious to antibiotics and resists conventional environmental cleaning procedures. Antibiotics used in treating C. difficile infections (CDI) often do not eradicate the pathogen and can prevent regeneration of the microbiome, leaving them vulnerable to recurrent CDI and future infections upon subsequent non-CDI-directed antibiotic therapy. Addressing the management of C. difficile spores in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is important to make further progress in CDI treatment. Currently, no treatment options focus on reducing GI spores throughout CDI antibiotic therapy. This review focuses on colonization of the GI tract, current treatment options and potential treatment directions emphasizing germinant with antibiotic combinations to prevent recurrent disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah Budi
- Corresponding author: School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Room 4123, 777 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705, USA. Tel: +1-920-419-7704; E-mail:
| | - Nasia Safdar
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA, 53726
| | - Warren E Rose
- School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA, 53705
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Aldrete-Tapia JA, Torres JA. Enhancing the Inactivation of Bacterial Spores during Pressure-Assisted Thermal Processing. FOOD ENGINEERING REVIEWS 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12393-020-09252-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Christie G, Setlow P. Bacillus spore germination: Knowns, unknowns and what we need to learn. Cell Signal 2020; 74:109729. [PMID: 32721540 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2020.109729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
How might a microbial cell that is entirely metabolically dormant - and which has the ability to remain so for extended periods of time - irreversibly commit itself to resuming vegetative growth within seconds of being exposed to certain amino acids or sugars? That this process takes place in the absence of any detectable ATP or de novo protein synthesis, and relies upon a pre-formed apparatus that is immobilised, respectively, in a semi-crystalline membrane or multi-layered proteinaceous coat, only exacerbates the challenge facing spores of Bacillales species when stimulated to germinate. Whereas the process by which spores are formed in response to nutrient starvation - sporulation - involves the orchestrated interplay between hundreds of distinct proteins, the process by which spores return to life - germination - is a much simpler affair, requiring a handful of receptor and channel proteins complemented with specialized peptidoglycan lysins. Despite this relative simplicity, and research effort spanning many decades, comprehensive understanding of key molecular and biochemical details and, in particular signal transduction mechanisms associated with spore germination, has remained elusive. In this review we provide an up to date overview of the field while identifying what we consider to be the key gaps in knowledge associated with germination of Bacillales spores, suggesting also technical approaches that may provide fresh insight to this unique biological process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham Christie
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 OAS, United Kingdom.
| | - Peter Setlow
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, UConn Health, Farmington, CT 06030-3305, USA.
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Moore JH, Salahi A, Honrado C, Warburton C, Warren CA, Swami NS. Quantifying bacterial spore germination by single-cell impedance cytometry for assessment of host microbiota susceptibility to Clostridioides difficile infection. Biosens Bioelectron 2020; 166:112440. [PMID: 32745926 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The germination of ingested spores is often a necessary first step required for enabling bacterial outgrowth and host colonization, as in the case of Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile) infection. Spore germination rate in the colon depends on microbiota composition and its level of disruption by antibiotic treatment since secretions by commensal bacteria modulate primary to secondary bile salt levels to control germination. Assessment of C. difficile spore germination typically requires measurement of colony-forming units, which is labor intensive and takes at least 24 h to perform but is regularly required due to the high recurrence rates of nosocomial antibiotic-associated diarrhea. We present a rapid method to assess spore germination by using high throughput single-cell impedance cytometry (>300 events/s) to quantify live bacterial cells, by gating for their characteristic electrophysiology versus spores, so that germination can be assessed after just 4 h of culture at a detection limit of ~100 live cells per 50 μL sample. To detect the phenotype of germinated C. difficile bacteria, we utilize its characteristically higher net conductivity versus that of spore aggregates and non-viable C. difficile forms, which causes a distinctive high-frequency (10 MHz) impedance phase dispersion within moderately conductive media (0.8 S/m). In this manner, we can detect significant differences in spore germination rates within just 4 h, with increasing primary bile salt levels in vitro and using ex vivo microbiota samples from an antibiotic-treated mouse model to assess susceptibility to C. difficile infection. We envision a rapid diagnostic tool for assessing host microbiota susceptibility to bacterial colonization after key antibiotic treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- John H Moore
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22904, USA
| | - Armita Salahi
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22904, USA
| | - Carlos Honrado
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22904, USA
| | | | - Cirle A Warren
- Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, VA, 22904, USA
| | - Nathan S Swami
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22904, USA.
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Differential effects of 'resurrecting' Csp pseudoproteases during Clostridioides difficile spore germination. Biochem J 2020; 477:1459-1478. [PMID: 32242623 PMCID: PMC7200643 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20190875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is a spore-forming bacterial pathogen that is the leading cause of hospital-acquired gastroenteritis. C. difficile infections begin when its spore form germinates in the gut upon sensing bile acids. These germinants induce a proteolytic signaling cascade controlled by three members of the subtilisin-like serine protease family, CspA, CspB, and CspC. Notably, even though CspC and CspA are both pseudoproteases, they are nevertheless required to sense germinants and activate the protease, CspB. Thus, CspC and CspA are part of a growing list of pseudoenzymes that play important roles in regulating cellular processes. However, despite their importance, the structural properties of pseudoenzymes that allow them to function as regulators remain poorly understood. Our recently solved crystal structure of CspC revealed that its pseudoactive site residues align closely with the catalytic triad of CspB, suggesting that it might be possible to ‘resurrect' the ancestral protease activity of the CspC and CspA pseudoproteases. Here, we demonstrate that restoring the catalytic triad to these pseudoproteases fails to resurrect their protease activity. We further show that the pseudoactive site substitutions differentially affect the stability and function of the CspC and CspA pseudoproteases: the substitutions destabilized CspC and impaired spore germination without affecting CspA stability or function. Thus, our results surprisingly reveal that the presence of a catalytic triad does not necessarily predict protease activity. Since homologs of C. difficile CspA occasionally carry an intact catalytic triad, our results indicate that bioinformatic predictions of enzyme activity may underestimate pseudoenzymes in rare cases.
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Mefferd CC, Bhute SS, Phan JR, Villarama JV, Do DM, Alarcia S, Abel-Santos E, Hedlund BP. A High-Fat/High-Protein, Atkins-Type Diet Exacerbates Clostridioides ( Clostridium) difficile Infection in Mice, whereas a High-Carbohydrate Diet Protects. mSystems 2020; 5:e00765-19. [PMID: 32047064 PMCID: PMC7018531 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.00765-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile (formerly Clostridium difficile) infection (CDI) can result from the disruption of the resident gut microbiota. Western diets and popular weight-loss diets drive large changes in the gut microbiome; however, the literature is conflicted with regard to the effect of diet on CDI. Using the hypervirulent strain C. difficile R20291 (RT027) in a mouse model of antibiotic-induced CDI, we assessed disease outcome and microbial community dynamics in mice fed two high-fat diets in comparison with a high-carbohydrate diet and a standard rodent diet. The two high-fat diets exacerbated CDI, with a high-fat/high-protein, Atkins-like diet leading to severe CDI and 100% mortality and a high-fat/low-protein, medium-chain-triglyceride (MCT)-like diet inducing highly variable CDI outcomes. In contrast, mice fed a high-carbohydrate diet were protected from CDI, despite the high levels of refined carbohydrate and low levels of fiber in the diet. A total of 28 members of the Lachnospiraceae and Ruminococcaceae decreased in abundance due to diet and/or antibiotic treatment; these organisms may compete with C. difficile for amino acids and protect healthy animals from CDI in the absence of antibiotics. Together, these data suggest that antibiotic treatment might lead to loss of C. difficile competitors and create a favorable environment for C. difficile proliferation and virulence with effects that are intensified by high-fat/high-protein diets; in contrast, high-carbohydrate diets might be protective regardless of the source of carbohydrate or of antibiotic-driven loss of C. difficile competitors.IMPORTANCE The role of Western and weight-loss diets with extreme macronutrient composition in the risk and progression of CDI is poorly understood. In a longitudinal study, we showed that a high-fat/high-protein, Atkins-type diet greatly exacerbated antibiotic-induced CDI, whereas a high-carbohydrate diet protected, despite the high monosaccharide and starch content. Our study results, therefore, suggest that popular high-fat/high-protein weight-loss diets may enhance CDI risk during antibiotic treatment, possibly due to the synergistic effects of a loss of the microorganisms that normally inhibit C. difficile overgrowth and an abundance of amino acids that promote C. difficile overgrowth. In contrast, a high-carbohydrate diet might be protective, despite reports on the recent evolution of enhanced carbohydrate metabolism in C. difficile.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Shrikant S Bhute
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA
| | - Jacqueline R Phan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA
| | - Jacob V Villarama
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA
| | - Dung M Do
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA
| | - Stephanie Alarcia
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA
| | - Ernesto Abel-Santos
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA
- Nevada Institute of Personalized Medicine, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA
| | - Brian P Hedlund
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA
- Nevada Institute of Personalized Medicine, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA
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De Wever A, Benzerara K, Coutaud M, Caumes G, Poinsot M, Skouri-Panet F, Laurent T, Duprat E, Gugger M. Evidence of high Ca uptake by cyanobacteria forming intracellular CaCO 3 and impact on their growth. GEOBIOLOGY 2019; 17:676-690. [PMID: 31347755 DOI: 10.1111/gbi.12358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Revised: 06/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Several species of cyanobacteria biomineralizing intracellular amorphous calcium carbonates (ACC) were recently discovered. However, the mechanisms involved in this biomineralization process and the determinants discriminating species forming intracellular ACC from those not forming intracellular ACC remain unknown. Recently, it was hypothesized that the intensity of Ca uptake (i.e., how much Ca was scavenged from the extracellular solution) might be a major parameter controlling the capability of a cyanobacterium to form intracellular ACC. Here, we tested this hypothesis by systematically measuring the Ca uptake by a set of 52 cyanobacterial strains cultured in the same growth medium. The results evidenced a dichotomy among cyanobacteria regarding Ca sequestration capabilities, with all strains forming intracellular ACC incorporating significantly more calcium than strains not forming ACC. Moreover, Ca provided at a concentration of 50 μM in BG-11 was shown to be limiting for the growth of some of the strains forming intracellular ACC, suggesting an overlooked quantitative role of Ca for these strains. All cyanobacteria forming intracellular ACC contained at least one gene coding for a mechanosensitive channel, which might be involved in Ca influx, as well as at least one gene coding for a Ca2+ /H+ exchanger and membrane proteins of the UPF0016 family, which might be involved in active Ca transport either from the cytosol to the extracellular solution or the cytosol toward an intracellular compartment. Overall, massive Ca sequestration may have an indirect role by allowing the formation of intracellular ACC. The latter may be beneficial to the growth of the cells as a storage of inorganic C and/or a buffer of intracellular pH. Moreover, high Ca scavenging by cyanobacteria biomineralizing intracellular ACC, a trait shared with endolithic cyanobacteria, suggests that these cyanobacteria should be considered as potentially significant geochemical reservoirs of Ca.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis De Wever
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, UMR CNRS 7590, Sorbonne Université, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Karim Benzerara
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, UMR CNRS 7590, Sorbonne Université, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Margot Coutaud
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, UMR CNRS 7590, Sorbonne Université, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Géraldine Caumes
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, UMR CNRS 7590, Sorbonne Université, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Mélanie Poinsot
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, UMR CNRS 7590, Sorbonne Université, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Fériel Skouri-Panet
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, UMR CNRS 7590, Sorbonne Université, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Thierry Laurent
- Collection des Cyanobactéries, Institut Pasteur, Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Elodie Duprat
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, UMR CNRS 7590, Sorbonne Université, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Muriel Gugger
- Collection des Cyanobactéries, Institut Pasteur, Paris Cedex 15, France
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Rohlfing AE, Eckenroth BE, Forster ER, Kevorkian Y, Donnelly ML, Benito de la Puebla H, Doublié S, Shen A. The CspC pseudoprotease regulates germination of Clostridioides difficile spores in response to multiple environmental signals. PLoS Genet 2019; 15:e1008224. [PMID: 31276487 PMCID: PMC6636752 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1008224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The gastrointestinal pathogen, Clostridioides difficile, initiates infection when its metabolically dormant spore form germinates in the mammalian gut. While most spore-forming bacteria use transmembrane germinant receptors to sense nutrient germinants, C. difficile is thought to use the soluble pseudoprotease, CspC, to detect bile acid germinants. To gain insight into CspC's unique mechanism of action, we solved its crystal structure. Guided by this structure, we identified CspC mutations that confer either hypo- or hyper-sensitivity to bile acid germinant. Surprisingly, hyper-sensitive CspC variants exhibited bile acid-independent germination as well as increased sensitivity to amino acid and/or calcium co-germinants. Since mutations in specific residues altered CspC's responsiveness to these different signals, CspC plays a critical role in regulating C. difficile spore germination in response to multiple environmental signals. Taken together, these studies implicate CspC as being intimately involved in the detection of distinct classes of co-germinants in addition to bile acids and thus raises the possibility that CspC functions as a signaling node rather than a ligand-binding receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy E. Rohlfing
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Brian E. Eckenroth
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
| | - Emily R. Forster
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Yuzo Kevorkian
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
- Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - M. Lauren Donnelly
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
- Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Hector Benito de la Puebla
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Sylvie Doublié
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
| | - Aimee Shen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Shrestha R, Cochran AM, Sorg JA. The requirement for co-germinants during Clostridium difficile spore germination is influenced by mutations in yabG and cspA. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007681. [PMID: 30943268 PMCID: PMC6464247 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium difficile spore germination is critical for the transmission of disease. C. difficile spores germinate in response to cholic acid derivatives, such as taurocholate (TA), and amino acids, such as glycine or alanine. Although the receptor with which bile acids are recognized (germinant receptor) is known, the amino acid co-germinant receptor has remained elusive. Here, we used EMS mutagenesis to generate mutants with altered requirements for the amino acid co-germinant, similar to the strategy we used previously to identify the bile acid germinant receptor, CspC. Surprisingly, we identified strains that do not require co-germinants, and the mutant spores germinated in response to TA alone. Upon sequencing these mutants, we identified different mutations in yabG. In C. difficile, yabG expression is required for the processing of key germination components to their mature forms (e.g., CspBA to CspB and CspA). A defined yabG mutant exacerbated the EMS mutant phenotype. Building upon this work, we found that small deletions in cspA resulted in spores that germinated in the presence of TA alone without the requirement of a co-germinant. cspA encodes a pseudoprotease that was previously shown to be important for incorporation of the CspC germinant receptor. Herein, our study builds upon the role of CspA during C. difficile spore germination by providing evidence that CspA is important for recognition of co-germinants during C. difficile spore germination. Our work suggests that two pseudoproteases (CspC and CspA) likely function as the C. difficile germinant receptors. Germination by C. difficile spores is one of the very first steps in the pathogenesis of this organism. The transition from the metabolically dormant spore form to the actively-growing, toxin-producing vegetative form is initiated by certain host-derived bile acids and amino acid signals. Despite near universal conservation in endospore-forming bacteria of the Ger-type germinant receptors, C. difficile and related organisms do not encode these proteins. In prior work, we identified the C. difficile bile acid germinant receptor as the CspC pseudoprotease. In this manuscript, we implicate the CspA pseudoprotease as the C. difficile co-germinant receptor. C. difficile cspA is encoded as a translational fusion to cspB. The resulting CspBA protein is processed post-translationally by the YabG protease. Inactivation of yabG resulted in strains whose spores no longer responded to amino acids or divalent cations as co-germinants and germinated in response to bile acid alone. Building upon this, we found that small deletions in the cspA portion of cspBA resulted in spores that could germinate in response to bile acids alone. Our results suggest that two pseudoproteases regulate C. difficile spore germination and provide further evidence that C. difficile spore germination proceeds through a novel spore germination pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritu Shrestha
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, United States of America
| | - Alicia M. Cochran
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, United States of America
| | - Joseph A. Sorg
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Shrestha R, Sorg JA. Terbium chloride influences Clostridium difficile spore germination. Anaerobe 2019; 58:80-88. [PMID: 30926439 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2019.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The germination of Clostridium difficile spores is an important stage of the C. difficile life cycle. In other endospore-forming bacteria, the composition of the medium in which the spores are generated influences the abundance of germination-specific proteins, thereby influencing the sensitivity of the spores towards germinants. In C. difficile media composition on the spores has only been reported to influence the number of spores produced. One of the measures of spore germination is the analysis of the release of DPA from the spore core. To detect DPA release in real time, terbium chloride is often added to the germination conditions because Tb3+ complexes with the released DPA and this can be detected using fluorescence measurements. Although C. difficile spores germinate in response to TA and glycine, recently calcium was identified as an enhancer for spore germination. Here, we find that germination by spores prepared in peptone rich media, such as 70:30, is positively influenced by terbium. We hypothesize that, in these assays, Tb3+ functions similarly to calcium. Although the mechanism(s) causing increased sensitivity of the C. difficile spores that are prepared in peptone rich media to terbium is still unknown, we suggest that the TbCl3 concentration used in the analysis of C. difficile DPA release be carefully titrated so as not to misinterpret future findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritu Shrestha
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Joseph A Sorg
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
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Abstract
Clostridium difficile is an anaerobic spore-forming human pathogen that is the leading cause of nosocomial infectious diarrhea worldwide. Germination of infectious spores is the first step in the development of a C. difficile infection (CDI) after ingestion and passage through the stomach. This study investigates the specific conditions that facilitate C. difficile spore germination, including the following: location within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, pH, temperature, and germinant concentration. The germinants that have been identified in culture include combinations of bile salts and amino acids or bile salts and calcium, but in vitro, these function at concentrations that far exceed normal physiological ranges normally found in the mammalian GI tract. In this work, we describe and quantify a previously unreported synergy observed when bile salts, calcium, and amino acids are added together. These germinant cocktails improve germination efficiency by decreasing the required concentrations of germinants to physiologically relevant levels. Combinations of multiple germinant types are also able to overcome the effects of inhibitory bile salts. In addition, we propose that the acidic conditions within the GI tract regulate C. difficile spore germination and could provide a biological explanation for why patients taking proton pump inhibitors are associated with increased risk of developing a CDI. Clostridium difficile is a Gram-positive obligate anaerobe that forms spores in order to survive for long periods in the unfavorable environment outside a host. C. difficile is the leading cause of nosocomial infectious diarrhea worldwide. C. difficile infection (CDI) arises after a patient treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics ingests infectious spores. The first step in C. difficile pathogenesis is the metabolic reactivation of dormant spores within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract through a process known as germination. In this work, we aim to elucidate the specific conditions and the location within the GI tract that facilitate this process. Our data suggest that C. difficile germination occurs through a two-step biochemical process that is regulated by pH and bile salts, amino acids, and calcium present within the GI tract. Maximal germination occurs at a pH ranging from 6.5 to 8.5 in the terminal small intestine prior to bile salt and calcium reabsorption by the host. Germination can be initiated by lower concentrations of germinants when spores are incubated with a combination of bile salts, calcium, and amino acids, and this synergy is dependent on the availability of calcium. The synergy described here allows germination to proceed in the presence of inhibitory bile salts and at physiological concentrations of germinants, effectively decreasing the concentrations of nutrients required to initiate an essential step of pathogenesis. IMPORTANCEClostridium difficile is an anaerobic spore-forming human pathogen that is the leading cause of nosocomial infectious diarrhea worldwide. Germination of infectious spores is the first step in the development of a C. difficile infection (CDI) after ingestion and passage through the stomach. This study investigates the specific conditions that facilitate C. difficile spore germination, including the following: location within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, pH, temperature, and germinant concentration. The germinants that have been identified in culture include combinations of bile salts and amino acids or bile salts and calcium, but in vitro, these function at concentrations that far exceed normal physiological ranges normally found in the mammalian GI tract. In this work, we describe and quantify a previously unreported synergy observed when bile salts, calcium, and amino acids are added together. These germinant cocktails improve germination efficiency by decreasing the required concentrations of germinants to physiologically relevant levels. Combinations of multiple germinant types are also able to overcome the effects of inhibitory bile salts. In addition, we propose that the acidic conditions within the GI tract regulate C. difficile spore germination and could provide a biological explanation for why patients taking proton pump inhibitors are associated with increased risk of developing a CDI.
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