Identification and genetic definition of a bovine papillomavirus type 1 E7 protein and absence of a low-copy-number phenotype exhibited by E5, E6, or E7 viral mutants

Molecular Mechanisms of MmuPV1 E6 and E7 and Implications for Human Disease

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) cause a substantial amount of human disease from benign disease such as warts to malignant cancers including cervical carcinoma, head and neck cancer, and non-melanoma skin cancer. Our ability to model HPV-induced malignant disease has been impeded by species specific barriers and pre-clinical animal models have been challenging to develop. The recent discovery of a murine papillomavirus, MmuPV1, that infects laboratory mice and causes the same range of malignancies caused by HPVs provides the papillomavirus field the opportunity to test mechanistic hypotheses in a genetically manipulatable laboratory animal species in the context of natural infections. The E6 and E7 proteins encoded by high-risk HPVs, which are the HPV genotypes associated with human cancers, are multifunctional proteins that contribute to HPV-induced cancers in multiple ways. In this review, we describe the known activities of the MmuPV1-encoded E6 and E7 proteins and how those activities relate to the activities of HPV E6 and E7 oncoproteins encoded by mucosal and cutaneous high-risk HPV genotypes.

In vitro and Animal Models for Antiviral Therapy in Papillomavirus Infections

The need for antiviral therapies for papillomavirus infections is well recognized but the difficulties of reproducing the infectious cycle of papillomaviruses in vitro has hindered our understanding of virus-cell interactions and the regulation of viral gene expression during permissive growth. Recent advances in understanding the temporal expression and function of papillomavirus proteins has enabled consideration of a targeted approach to papillomavirus chemotherapy and in particular the inhibition of viral replication by targeting the E1 and E2 proteins. There are in vitro culture systems available for the screening of new chemotherapeutic agents, since significant advances have been made with culture systems which promote epithelial differentiation in vitro. However, to date, there are no published data which show that virions generated in vitro can infect keratinocytes and initiate another round of replication in vitro. In vivo animal models are therefore necessary to assess the efficacy of antivirals in preventing and treating viral infection, particularly for the low-risk genital viruses which are on the whole refractory to culture in vitro. Although papillomaviruses affect a wide variety of hosts in a species-specific manner, the animals most useful for modelling papillomavirus infections include the rabbit, ox, mouse, dog, horse, primate and sheep. The ideal animal model should be widely available, easy to house and handle, be large enough to allow for adequate tissue sampling, develop lesions on anatomical sites comparable with those in human diseases and these lesions should be readily accessible for monitoring and ideally should yield large amounts of infectious virus particles for use in both in vivo and in vitro studies. The relative merits of the various papillomavirus animal models available in relation to these criteria are discussed.

Regulation of bovine papillomavirus type 1 gene expression by RNA processing

Bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV-1) has served as a prototype for studying the molecular biology and pathogenesis of papillomaviruses. The expression of BPV-1 early and late genes is highly regulated at both transcription and post-transcriptional levels and strictly tied to the differentiation of keratinocytes. BPV-1 infects keratinocytes in the basal layer of the skin and replicates in the nucleus of infected cells in a differentiation-dependent manner. Although viral early genes begin to be expressed from the infected, undifferentiated basal cells, viral late genes are not expressed until the infected cells enter the terminal differentiation stage. Both BPV-1 early and late transcripts are intron-containing bicistronic or polycistronic RNAs, bearing more than one open reading frame and are polyadenylated at either an early or late poly (A) site. Nuclear RNA processing of these transcripts by RNA splicing and poly (A) site selection has been extensively analyzed in the past decade and various viral cis-elements and cellular factors involved in regulation of viral RNA processing were discovered, leading to our better understanding of the gene expression and biology of human papillomaviruses.

Activation of c-Myc contributes to bovine papillomavirus type 1 E7-induced cell proliferation

Inactivation of the tumor suppressor pRB by the human papillomavirus (HPV) oncoprotein E7 is a mechanism by which HPV promotes cell growth. The bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV-1) E7 does not bind pRB efficiently yet is required for full transformation of murine cells by BPV-1. In the present study, we investigated the mechanism of BPV-1 E7-induced cell proliferation. Our studies indicate that expression of BPV-1 E7 induces DNA synthesis and stimulates cells to enter S phase in quiescent cells. The induction of cell proliferation by BPV-1 E7 can occur in the retinoblastoma gene (Rb)-null cells, suggesting an Rb-independent mechanism. Consistent with this observation, BPV-1 E7 does not efficiently activate the transcription of the E2F family of transcription factors (E2F)-responsive promoters. Notably, c-Myc is able to induce cells to enter S phase in quiescent cells through an Rb/E2F-independent pathway. Significantly, c-Myc levels are increased in BPV-1 E7-expressing cells. Moreover, expression of a dominant negative c-Myc mutant inhibited BPV-1 E7-induced DNA synthesis. Consistent with the notion that c-Myc could down-regulate p27 and activate Cdk2, p27 level is decreased while both cyclin A and cyclin E-associated kinase activities are up-regulated in BPV-1 E7-expressing cells. These studies indicate an important role for c-Myc in BPV-1 E7-induced cell proliferation.

Human papillomavirus type 31 replication modes during the early phases of the viral life cycle depend on transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation of E1 and E2 expression

The E1 and E2 proteins are both required for papillomavirus DNA replication, and replication efficiency is controlled by the abundance of these factors. In human papillomaviruses (HPVs), the regulation of E1 and E2 expression and its effect on viral replication are not well understood. In particular, it is not known if E1 and E2 modulate their own expression and how posttranscriptional mechanisms may affect the levels of the replication proteins. Previous studies have implicated splicing within the E6 open reading frame (ORF) as being important for modulating replication of HPV type 31 (HPV31) through altered expression of E1 and E2. To analyze the function of the E6 intron in viral replication more specifically, we examined the effects of E6 splicing mutations in the context of entire viral genomes in transient assays. HPV31 genomes which had mutations in the splice donor site (E6SD) or the splice acceptor site (E6SA), a deletion of the intron (E6ID), or substituted heterologous intron sequences (E6IS) were constructed. Compared to wild-type (wt) HPV31, pHPV31-E6SD, -E6SA, and -E6IS replicated inefficiently while pHPV31-E6ID replicated at an intermediate level. Cotransfection of the E6 mutant genomes with an E1 expression vector strongly activated their replication levels, indicating that efficient expression of E1 requires E6 internal splicing. In contrast, replication was activated only moderately with an E2 expression vector. Replacing the wt E6 intron in HPV31 with a heterologous intron from simian virus 40 (E6SR2) resulted in replication levels similar to that of the wt in the absence of expression vectors, suggesting that mRNA splicing upstream of the E1 ORF is important for high-level replication. To examine the effects of E6 intron splicing on E1 and E2 expression directly, we constructed reporter DNAs in which the luciferase coding sequences were fused in frame to the E1 (E1Luc) or E2 (E2Luc) gene. Reporter activities were then analyzed in transient assays with cotransfected E1 or E2 expression vectors. Both reporters were moderately activated by E1 in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, E1Luc was activated by low doses of E2 but was repressed at high doses. In contrast, E2 had little effect on E2Luc activity. These data indicate that E1 expression and that of E2 are interdependent and regulated differentially. When the E6 splicing mutations were analyzed in both reporter backgrounds, only E1Luc activities correlated with splicing competence in the E6 ORF. These findings support the hypothesis that the E6 intron primarily regulates expression of E1. Finally, in long-term replication assays, none of the E6 mutant genomes could be stably maintained. However, cotransfection of the E6 splicing mutant genomes with pHPV31-E7NS, which contains a nonsense mutation in the E7 coding sequence, restored stable replication of some mutants. Our observations indicate that E1 expression and that of E2 are differentially regulated at multiple levels and that efficient expression of E1 is required for transient and stable viral replication. These regulatory mechanisms likely act to control HPV copy number during the various phases of the viral life cycle.

Cooperative transformation and coexpression of bovine papillomavirus type 1 E5 and E7 proteins

Productively infected bovine fibropapillomas were examined for bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV-1) E7 localization. BPV-1 E7 was observed in the cytoplasm of basal and lower spinous epithelial cells, coexpressed in the cytoplasm of basal cells with the E5 oncoprotein. E7 was also observed in nucleoli throughout the basal and spinous layers but not in the granular cell layer. Ectopic expression of E7 in cultured epithelial cells gave rise to localization similar to that seen in productive fibropapillomas, with cytoplasmic and nucleolar expression observed. Consistent with the coexpression of E7 and E5 in basal keratinocytes, BPV-1 E7 cooperated with E5 as well as E6 in an anchorage independence transformation assay. While E5 is expressed in both basal and superficial differentiating keratinocytes, BPV-1 E7 is only observed in basal and lower spinous epithelial cells. Therefore, BPV-1 E7 may serve to modulate the cellular response of basal epithelial cells to E5 expression.

Rb-independent induction of apoptosis by bovine papillomavirus type 1 E7 in response to tumor necrosis factor alpha

Bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV-1) is a small DNA virus that causes fibropapillomas of the host. BPV-1 has served as the prototype for studies of the molecular biology of the papillomaviruses. BPV-1 efficiently induces anchorage-independent growth and focus formation in murine C127 cells. The transforming properties of BPV-1 primarily reside in two genes, E5 and E6. Each of these genes is sufficient to transform cells. Although no independent transformation activity has been detected for E7, it was shown to be required for full transformation of C127 by BPV-1. We investigated the biological activities of BPV-1 E7 in several assays. Our results indicate that expression of BPV-1 E7 sensitizes cells to tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF)-induced apoptosis. The TNF-induced apoptosis in E7-expressing cells was accompanied by increased release of arachidonic acid, indicating that phospholipase A(2) was activated. Unlike the E7 proteins from the cancer-related human papillomaviruses, the BPV-1 E7 protein does not associate efficiently with the retinoblastoma protein (pRB) in vitro, nor does it significantly affect the pRB levels in cultured cells. Furthermore, BPV-1 E7 sensitizes Rb-null cells to TNF-induced apoptosis. These studies indicate that BPV-1 E7 can sensitize cells to apoptosis through mechanisms that are independent of pRB.

Altered susceptibility to tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced apoptosis of mouse cells expressing polyomavirus middle and small T antigens

Infection with some virus types induces susceptibility to the cytotoxic effect of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha). To investigate whether expression of polyomavirus proteins has this effect on cells, the TNF-alpha sensitivity of C127 and L929 mouse cells transfected with viral DNA was analyzed. Expression of all three polyomavirus early proteins, the tumor (T) antigens, had no apparent effect. In contrast, middle T antigen by itself induced hypersensitivity to TNF-alpha. This effect was reversed by retransfection of the cells with DNA encoding small T antigen. Expression of this polypeptide also decreased the sensitivity of bovine papillomavirus type 1-transformed cells to TNF-alpha, showing that the protective function of the polyomavirus small T antigen was not strictly linked to a middle-T-antigen-induced event. Mouse and human TNF-alpha had the same effect on normal and transformed mouse cells, suggesting that this effect was mediated by TNF receptor 1. Consistent with this conclusion, all cell clones used in the experiments expressed TNF receptor 1 at similar levels, while we failed to detect TNF receptor 2. The amount of receptor on the cells was not influenced by binding of the ligand. Addition of TNF-alpha at cytotoxic concentrations to cells expressing middle T antigen by itself resulted in significant fragmentation of chromosomal DNA after only a few hours, indicating induction of apoptosis. Addition of the cytokine to these cells also leads to release of arachidonic acid, showing that phospholipase A2 was activated. However, production of arachidonic acid did not appear to significantly precede loss of cell viability.

Cis and trans requirements for stable episomal maintenance of the BPV-1 replicator

Papillomavirus genomes are maintained as multicopy nuclear plasmids in transformed cells. To address the mechanisms by which the viral DNA is stably propagated in the transformed cells, we have constructed a cell line CH04.15 expressing constitutively the viral proteins E1 and E2, that are required for initiation of viral DNA replication. We show that these viral proteins are necessary and sufficient for stable extrachromosomal replication. Using the cell line CH04.15, we have shown that the bovine papillomavirus-1 (BPV-1) minimal origin of replication (MO) is absolutely necessary, but is not sufficient for stable extrachromosomal replication of viral plasmids. By deletion and insertion analysis, we identified an additional element (minichromosome maintenance element, MME) in the upstream regulatory region of BPV-1 which assures stable replication of the MO-containing plasmids. This element is composed of multiple binding sites for the transcription activator E2. MME appears to function in the absence of replication but requires E1 and E2 proteins for activity. In contrast to, for example, Epstein-Barr virus oriP, stably maintained BPV-1 plasmids are not subject to once-per-cell cycle replication as determined by density labelling experiments. These results indicate that papillomavirus episomal replicators replicate independently of the chromosomal DNA of their hosts.

Construction of a novel bovine papillomavirus vector without detectable transforming activity suitable for gene transfer

Bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV-1)-derived vectors may be useful for gene therapy because of their episomal maintenance at intermediate to high copy number and stable, high-level expression of gene products. To increase the safety of BPV-1 for human trials, the transforming early genes E5, E6, and E7 were deleted and a new vector, B45-Neo, was established and its transforming potential, episomal maintenance, and cDNA expression determined. Deletion of E5, E6, and E7, caused a decrease of the copy number to 80 in 3T3 fibroblasts when B45-Neo was compared to the parent vector that supported more than 1,000 copies per cell. No significant difference in the copy number, which ranged between 13 and 30 per cell, was detected in other cell lines of murine or human origin. The episomal maintenance of B45 and its ability to express cDNA was retained. B45-Neo, in contrast to BMG-Neo, however, was unable to transform NIH-3T3 and C1271 cells in soft agar colony assays. Unlike BMG-Neo, B45-Neo did not cause morphological changes in 3T3 and C1271 cells characteristic for transformation. It is concluded that B45-Neo is an efficient expression vector without detectable transforming activity and may be useful and safe for human gene therapy trials.

Anomalous transforming behavior of a bovine papillomavirus type 1 mutant with an upstream promoter mutation

We show that the previously described high-transformation phenotype of the bovine papillomavirus type 1 mutant BPV730 is manifested only in an E6-dependent cell transformation assay. The BPV730 mutation was associated with superinduction of the putative E6 promoter, P89, after cycloheximide treatment, and with reduced activity of the P3080 promoter.

Regulation of DNA synthesis in division-arrested mouse C127 cells permissive for bovine papillomavirus DNA amplification

Spontaneous amplification of bovine papillomavirus type 1 DNA occurs following a prolonged period of serum starvation of wild-type virus-transformed C127 cell lines and is associated with abundant viral E2 protein synthesis and a concomitant induction of viral oncogene (E5 and E6) expression. We show here that a subpopulation of the permissive cells incorporate bromo-deoxyuridine under conditions of cell growth arrest (serum starvation), whereas DNA synthesis is suppressed in the resting population of nonpermissive cells. Flow cytometric measurements of the cellular DNA content of the permissive cell population indicated that it contained predominantly a 4n DNA content, suggesting that these cells were blocked in the G2 phase of the cell cycle. In keeping with the hypothesis that viral DNA amplification is associated with the induction of a cellular S phase, we observed a specific induction of expression of two cell proliferation-related cellular antigens (PCNA and Ki67) in a subpopulation of permissive cells. C127 cell lines transformed by an E5-minus bovine papillomavirus type 1 mutant, which was competent for autonomous plasmid replication in mitotic cells, were completely defective for the induction of DNA synthesis and mutant viral DNA amplification under conditions of serum starvation. Moreover, the E5 protein is shown by immunofluorescence analysis to be expressed at a high level specifically in the permissive cell population. These results imply a dual role for the viral E5 protein in the C127 model system, both as a transforming protein and as a factor required for the induction of viral DNA amplification in postmitotic cells. We suggest that E5 acts at an early step in the induction of this process in C127 cells and may be required to turn on host cell DNA synthesis as a prerequisite for viral DNA amplification.