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Otero CE, Petkova S, Ebermann M, Taher H, John N, Hoffmann K, Davalos A, Moström MJ, Gilbride RM, Papen CR, Barber-Axthelm A, Scheef EA, Barfield R, Sprehe LM, Kendall S, Manuel TD, Vande Burgt NH, Chan C, Denton M, Streblow ZJ, Streblow DN, Hansen SG, Kaur A, Permar S, Früh K, Hengel H, Malouli D, Kolb P. Rhesus Cytomegalovirus-encoded Fcγ-binding glycoproteins facilitate viral evasion from IgG-mediated humoral immunity. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.27.582371. [PMID: 38464092 PMCID: PMC10925275 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.27.582371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) encodes four viral Fc-gamma receptors (vFcγRs) that counteract antibody-mediated activation in vitro , but their role in infection and pathogenesis is unknown. To examine the in vivo function of vFcγRs in animal hosts closely related to humans, we identified and characterized vFcγRs encoded by rhesus CMV (RhCMV). We demonstrate that Rh05, Rh152/151 and Rh173 represent the complete set of RhCMV vFcγRs, each displaying functional similarities to their respective HCMV orthologs with respect to antagonizing host FcγR activation in vitro . When RhCMV-naïve rhesus macaques were infected with vFcγR-deleted RhCMV, peak plasma viremia levels and anti-RhCMV antibody responses were comparable to wildtype infections. However, the duration of plasma viremia was significantly shortened in immunocompetent, but not in CD4+ T cell-depleted animals. Since vFcγRs were not required for superinfection, we conclude that vFcγRs delay control by virus-specific adaptive immune responses, particularly antibodies, during primary infection.
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Membraneless Compartmentalization of Nuclear Assembly Sites during Murine Cytomegalovirus Infection. Viruses 2023; 15:v15030766. [PMID: 36992475 PMCID: PMC10053344 DOI: 10.3390/v15030766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Extensive reorganization of infected cells and the formation of large structures known as the nuclear replication compartment (RC) and cytoplasmic assembly compartment (AC) is a hallmark of beta-herpesvirus infection. These restructurings rely on extensive compartmentalization of the processes that make up the virus manufacturing chain. Compartmentalization of the nuclear processes during murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection is not well described. In this study, we visualized five viral proteins (pIE1, pE1, pM25, pm48.2, and pM57) and replicated viral DNA to reveal the nuclear events during MCMV infection. As expected, these events can be matched with those described for other beta and alpha herpesviruses and contribute to the overall picture of herpesvirus assembly. Imaging showed that four viral proteins (pE1, pM25, pm48.2, and pM57) and replicated viral DNA condense in the nucleus into membraneless assemblies (MLAs) that undergo a maturation sequence to form the RC. One of these proteins (pM25), which is also expressed in a cytoplasmic form (pM25l), showed similar MLAs in the AC. Bioinformatics tools for predicting biomolecular condensates showed that four of the five proteins had a high propensity for liquid–liquid phase separation (LLPS), suggesting that LLPS may be a mechanism for compartmentalization within RC and AC. Examination of the physical properties of MLAs formed during the early phase of infection by 1,6-hexanediol treatment in vivo revealed liquid-like properties of pE1 MLAs and more solid-like properties of pM25 MLAs, indicating heterogeneity of mechanisms in the formation of virus-induced MLAs. Analysis of the five viral proteins and replicated viral DNA shows that the maturation sequence of RC and AC is not completed in many cells, suggesting that virus production and release is carried out by a rather limited number of cells. This study thus lays the groundwork for further investigation of the replication cycle of beta-herpesviruses, and the results should be incorporated into plans for high-throughput and single-cell analytic approaches.
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Characterization of M116.1p, a murine cytomegalovirus protein required for efficient infection of mononuclear phagocytes. J Virol 2021; 96:e0087621. [PMID: 34705561 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00876-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Broad tissue tropism of cytomegaloviruses (CMVs) is facilitated by different glycoprotein entry complexes, which are conserved between human CMV (HCMV) and murine CMV (MCMV). Among the wide array of cell types susceptible to the infection, mononuclear phagocytes (MNPs) play a unique role in the pathogenesis of the infection as they contribute both to the virus spread and immune control. CMVs have dedicated numerous genes for the efficient infection and evasion of macrophages and dendritic cells. In this study, we have characterized the properties and function of M116, a previously poorly described but highly transcribed MCMV gene region which encodes M116.1p, a novel protein necessary for the efficient infection of MNPs and viral spread in vivo. Our study further revealed that M116.1p shares similarities with its positional homologs in HCMV and RCMV, UL116 and R116, respectively, such as late kinetics of expression, N-glycosylation, localization to the virion assembly compartment, and interaction with gH - a member of the CMVs fusion complex. This study, therefore, expands our knowledge about virally encoded glycoproteins that play important roles in viral infectivity and tropism. Importance Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a species-specific herpesvirus that causes severe disease in immunocompromised individuals and immunologically immature neonates. Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) is biologically similar to HCMV, and it serves as a widely used model for studying the infection, pathogenesis, and immune responses to HCMV. In our previous work, we have identified the M116 ORF as one of the most extensively transcribed regions of the MCMV genome without an assigned function. This study shows that the M116 locus codes for a novel protein, M116.1p, which shares similarities with UL116 and R116 in HCMV and RCMV, respectively, and is required for the efficient infection of mononuclear phagocytes and virus spread in vivo. Furthermore, this study establishes the α-M116 monoclonal antibody and MCMV mutants lacking M116, generated in this work, as valuable tools for studying the role of macrophages and dendritic cells in limiting CMV infection following different MCMV administration routes.
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Štimac I, Jug Vučko N, Blagojević Zagorac G, Marcelić M, Mahmutefendić Lučin H, Lučin P. Dynamin Inhibitors Prevent the Establishment of the Cytomegalovirus Assembly Compartment in the Early Phase of Infection. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11090876. [PMID: 34575026 PMCID: PMC8469281 DOI: 10.3390/life11090876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection initiates massive rearrangement of cytoplasmic organelles to generate assembly compartment (AC). The earliest events, the establishment of the preAC, are initiated in the early phase as an extensive reorganization of early endosomes (EEs), endosomal recycling compartment (ERC), trans-Golgi network (TGN), and the Golgi. Here, we demonstrate that dynamin inhibitors (Dynasore, Dyngo-4a, MiTMAB, and Dynole-34-2) block the establishment of the preAC in murine CMV (MCMV) infected cells. In this study, we extensively analyzed the effect of Dynasore on the Golgi reorganization sequence into the outer preAC. We also monitored the development of the inner preAC using a set of markers that define EEs (Rab5, Vps34, EEA1, and Hrs), the EE-ERC interface (Rab10), the ERC (Rab11, Arf6), three layers of the Golgi (GRASP65, GM130, Golgin97), and late endosomes (Lamp1). Dynasore inhibited the pericentriolar accumulation of all markers that display EE-ERC-TGN interface in the inner preAC and prevented Golgi unlinking and dislocation to the outer preAC. Furthermore, in pulse-chase experiments, we demonstrated that the presence of dynasore only during the early phase of MCMV infection (4-14 hpi) is sufficient to prevent not only AC formation but also the synthesis of late-phase proteins and virion production. Therefore, our results indicate that dynamin-2 acts as a part of the machinery required for AC generation and rearrangement of EE/ERC/Golgi membranes in the early phase of CMV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Štimac
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (I.Š.); (N.J.V.); (G.B.Z.); (M.M.); (P.L.)
| | - Natalia Jug Vučko
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (I.Š.); (N.J.V.); (G.B.Z.); (M.M.); (P.L.)
| | - Gordana Blagojević Zagorac
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (I.Š.); (N.J.V.); (G.B.Z.); (M.M.); (P.L.)
- Nursing Department, University North, University Center Varaždin, Jurja Križanića 31b, 42000 Varaždin, Croatia
| | - Marina Marcelić
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (I.Š.); (N.J.V.); (G.B.Z.); (M.M.); (P.L.)
| | - Hana Mahmutefendić Lučin
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (I.Š.); (N.J.V.); (G.B.Z.); (M.M.); (P.L.)
- Nursing Department, University North, University Center Varaždin, Jurja Križanića 31b, 42000 Varaždin, Croatia
- Correspondence:
| | - Pero Lučin
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (I.Š.); (N.J.V.); (G.B.Z.); (M.M.); (P.L.)
- Nursing Department, University North, University Center Varaždin, Jurja Križanića 31b, 42000 Varaždin, Croatia
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5
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Pavišić V, Mahmutefendić Lučin H, Blagojević Zagorac G, Lučin P. Arf GTPases Are Required for the Establishment of the Pre-Assembly Compartment in the Early Phase of Cytomegalovirus Infection. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:867. [PMID: 34440611 PMCID: PMC8399710 DOI: 10.3390/life11080867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Shortly after entering the cells, cytomegaloviruses (CMVs) initiate massive reorganization of cellular endocytic and secretory pathways, which results in the forming of the cytoplasmic virion assembly compartment (AC). We have previously shown that the formation of AC in murine CMV- (MCMV) infected cells begins in the early phase of infection (at 4-6 hpi) with the pre-AC establishment. Pre-AC comprises membranes derived from the endosomal recycling compartment, early endosomes, and the trans-Golgi network, which is surrounded by fragmented Golgi cisterns. To explore the importance of Arf GTPases in the biogenesis of the pre-AC, we infected Balb 3T3 cells with MCMV and analyzed the expression and intracellular localization of Arf proteins in the early phases (up to 16 hpi) of infection and the development of pre-AC in cells with a knockdown of Arf protein expression by small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). Herein, we show that even in the early phase, MCMVs cause massive reorganization of the Arf system of the host cells and induce the over-recruitment of Arf proteins onto the membranes of pre-AC. Knockdown of Arf1, Arf3, Arf4, or Arf6 impaired the establishment of pre-AC. However, the knockdown of Arf1 and Arf6 also abolished the establishment of infection. Our study demonstrates that Arf GTPases are required for different steps of early cytomegalovirus infection, including the establishment of the pre-AC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentino Pavišić
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (V.P.); (H.M.L.); (P.L.)
| | - Hana Mahmutefendić Lučin
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (V.P.); (H.M.L.); (P.L.)
- Nursing Department, University North, University Center Varaždin, Jurja Križanića 31b, 42000 Varaždin, Croatia
| | - Gordana Blagojević Zagorac
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (V.P.); (H.M.L.); (P.L.)
- Nursing Department, University North, University Center Varaždin, Jurja Križanića 31b, 42000 Varaždin, Croatia
| | - Pero Lučin
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (V.P.); (H.M.L.); (P.L.)
- Nursing Department, University North, University Center Varaždin, Jurja Križanića 31b, 42000 Varaždin, Croatia
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Marcelić M, Lučin HM, Begonja AJ, Zagorac GB, Lisnić VJ, Lučin P. Endosomal Phosphatidylinositol-3-Phosphate-Associated Functions Are Dispensable for Establishment of the Cytomegalovirus Pre-Assembly Compartment but Essential for the Virus Growth. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:859. [PMID: 34440603 PMCID: PMC8398575 DOI: 10.3390/life11080859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) initiates the stepwise establishment of the pre-assembly compartment (pre-AC) in the early phase of infection by the expansion of the early endosome (EE)/endosomal recycling compartment (ERC) interface and relocation of the Golgi complex. We depleted Vps34-derived phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate (PI(3)P) at EEs by VPS34-IN1 and inhibited PI(3)P-associated functions by overexpression of 2xFYVE- and p40PX PI(3)P-binding modules to assess the role of PI(3)P-dependent EE domains in the pre-AC biogenesis. We monitored the accumulation of Rab10 and Evectin-2 in the inner pre-AC and the relocation of GM130-positive cis-Golgi organelles to the outer pre-AC by confocal microscopy. Although PI(3)P- and Vps34-positive endosomes build a substantial part of pre-AC, the PI(3)P depletion and the inhibition of PI(3)P-associated functions did not prevent the establishment of infection and progression through the early phase. The PI(3)P depletion in uninfected and MCMV-infected cells rapidly dispersed PI(3)P-bond proteins and reorganized EEs, including ablation of EE-to-ERC transport and relocation of Rab11 endosomes. The PI(3)P depletion one hour before pre-AC initiation and overexpression of 2xFYVE and p40PX domains neither prevented Rab10- and Evectin-2 accumulation, nor Golgi unlinking and relocation. These data demonstrate that PI(3)P-dependent functions, including the Rab11-dependent EE-to-ERC route, are dispensable for pre-AC initiation. Nevertheless, the virus growth was drastically reduced in PI(3)P-depleted cells, indicating that PI(3)P-associated functions are essential for the late phase of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Marcelić
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (M.M.); (H.M.L.); (G.B.Z.)
| | - Hana Mahmutefendić Lučin
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (M.M.); (H.M.L.); (G.B.Z.)
- University North, University Center Varaždin, Jurja Križanića 31b, 42000 Varaždin, Croatia
| | - Antonija Jurak Begonja
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Rijeka, Radmile Matejčić 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia;
| | - Gordana Blagojević Zagorac
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (M.M.); (H.M.L.); (G.B.Z.)
- University North, University Center Varaždin, Jurja Križanića 31b, 42000 Varaždin, Croatia
| | - Vanda Juranić Lisnić
- Center for Proteomics, Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia;
| | - Pero Lučin
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (M.M.); (H.M.L.); (G.B.Z.)
- University North, University Center Varaždin, Jurja Križanića 31b, 42000 Varaždin, Croatia
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7
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Angulo G, Zeleznjak J, Martínez-Vicente P, Puñet-Ortiz J, Hengel H, Messerle M, Oxenius A, Jonjic S, Krmpotić A, Engel P, Angulo A. Cytomegalovirus restricts ICOSL expression on antigen-presenting cells disabling T cell co-stimulation and contributing to immune evasion. eLife 2021; 10:59350. [PMID: 33459589 PMCID: PMC7840182 DOI: 10.7554/elife.59350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral infections are controlled, and very often cleared, by activated T lymphocytes. The inducible co-stimulator (ICOS) mediates its functions by binding to its ligand ICOSL, enhancing T-cell activation and optimal germinal center (GC) formation. Here, we show that ICOSL is heavily downmodulated during infection of antigen-presenting cells by different herpesviruses. We found that, in murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV), the immunoevasin m138/fcr-1 physically interacts with ICOSL, impeding its maturation and promoting its lysosomal degradation. This viral protein counteracts T-cell responses, in an ICOS-dependent manner, and limits virus control during the acute MCMV infection. Additionally, we report that blockade of ICOSL in MCMV-infected mice critically regulates the production of MCMV-specific antibodies due to a reduction of T follicular helper and GC B cells. Altogether, these findings reveal a novel mechanism evolved by MCMV to counteract adaptive immune surveillance, and demonstrates a role of the ICOS:ICOSL axis in the host defense against herpesviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillem Angulo
- Immunology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jelena Zeleznjak
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Pablo Martínez-Vicente
- Immunology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joan Puñet-Ortiz
- Immunology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Hartmut Hengel
- Institute of Virology, University Medical Center, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Martin Messerle
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Annette Oxenius
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Biology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Stipan Jonjic
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Astrid Krmpotić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Pablo Engel
- Immunology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ana Angulo
- Immunology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain
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8
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Majima R, Koshizuka T, Inoue N. The Guinea pig cytomegalovirus GP119.1 gene encodes an IgG-binding glycoprotein that is incorporated into the virion. Microbiol Immunol 2021; 65:28-39. [PMID: 33616978 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cytomegaloviruses (CMVs) encode various immunoevasins, including viral receptors for the Fc domain of host IgG (vFcγR), to evade host immune responses. Although guinea pig CMV (GPCMV) provides a useful animal model for congenital CMV infection, the GPCMV genes encoding such receptors have not yet been characterized. In this study, we analyzed a locus that may encode gene products for the GPCMV immune evasion mechanisms and identified the following. (a) RACE analyses identified four transcripts in the GP117 to GP122 locus. One of the transcripts contained the GP119.1 ORF, which has weak homologies with human CMV UL119/UL118 encoding a viral FcγR and with guinea pig FcγR. (b) A transient transfection assay with plasmids expressing EGFP-tagged GP119.1 or its mutated forms identified its true translational initiation site, localization mainly in the endoplasmic reticulum, and N-glycosylation. (c) Importantly, GP119.1 bound to guinea pig IgG or the IgG-Fc fragment. (d) GP119.1 is present in the virion with a molecular mass of 15 and 23~30 kDa, and a portion of the GP119.1 products are N-glycosylated. (e) GP119.1 was dispensable for viral growth on guinea pig fibroblasts and epithelial cells in vitro. Taken together, our findings indicate that GP119.1 is an IgG-Fc binding glycoprotein incorporated into the virion, and this finding warrants further studies on the functions of GP119.1 in animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryuichi Majima
- Microbiology and Immunology, Gifu Pharmaceutical University, Japan
| | - Tetsuo Koshizuka
- Microbiology and Immunology, Gifu Pharmaceutical University, Japan
| | - Naoki Inoue
- Microbiology and Immunology, Gifu Pharmaceutical University, Japan
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9
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Boppana SB, Britt WJ. Recent Approaches and Strategies in the Generation of Anti-human Cytomegalovirus Vaccines. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2244:403-463. [PMID: 33555597 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1111-1_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus is the largest human herpesvirus and shares many core features of other herpesviruses such as tightly regulated gene expression during genome replication and latency as well as the establishment of lifelong persistence following infection. In contrast to stereotypic clinical syndromes associated with alpha-herpesvirus infections, almost all primary HCMV infections are asymptomatic and acquired early in life in most populations in the world. Although asymptomatic in most individuals, HCMV is a major cause of disease in hosts with deficits in adaptive and innate immunity such as infants who are infected in utero and allograft recipients following transplantation. Congenital HCMV is a commonly acquired infection in the developing fetus that can result in a number of neurodevelopmental abnormalities. Similarly, HCMV is a major cause of disease in allograft recipients in the immediate and late posttransplant period and is thought to be a major contributor to chronic allograft rejection. Even though HCMV induces robust innate and adaptive immune responses, it also encodes a vast array of immune evasion functions that are thought aid in its persistence. Immune correlates of protective immunity that prevent or modify intrauterine HCMV infection remain incompletely defined but are thought to consist primarily of adaptive responses in the pregnant mother, thus making congenital HCMV a potentially vaccine modifiable disease. Similarly, HCMV infection in allograft recipients is often more severe in recipients without preexisting adaptive immunity to HCMV. Thus, there has been a considerable effort to modify HCMV specific immunity in transplant recipient either through active immunization or passive transfer of adaptive effector functions. Although efforts to develop an efficacious vaccine and/or passive immunotherapy to limit HCMV disease have been underway for nearly six decades, most have met with limited success at best. In contrast to previous efforts, current HCMV vaccine development has relied on observations of unique properties of HCMV in hopes of reproducing immune responses that at a minimum will be similar to that following natural infection. However, more recent findings have suggested that immunity following naturally acquired HCMV infection may have limited protective activity and almost certainly, is not sterilizing. Such observations suggest that either the induction of natural immunity must be specifically tailored to generate protective activity or alternatively, that providing targeted passive immunity to susceptible populations could be prove to be more efficacious.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suresh B Boppana
- Departments of Pediatrics, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.,Departments of Microbiology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - William J Britt
- Departments of Pediatrics, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA. .,Departments of Microbiology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA. .,Departments of Neurobiology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
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10
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Lučin P, Jug Vučko N, Karleuša L, Mahmutefendić Lučin H, Blagojević Zagorac G, Lisnić B, Pavišić V, Marcelić M, Grabušić K, Brizić I, Lukanović Jurić S. Cytomegalovirus Generates Assembly Compartment in the Early Phase of Infection by Perturbation of Host-Cell Factors Recruitment at the Early Endosome/Endosomal Recycling Compartment/Trans-Golgi Interface. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:563607. [PMID: 33042998 PMCID: PMC7516400 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.563607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Beta-herpesviruses develop a unique structure within the infected cell known as an assembly compartment (AC). This structure, as large as the nucleus, is composed of host-cell-derived membranous elements. The biogenesis of the AC and its contribution to the final stages of beta-herpesvirus assembly are still unclear. In this study, we performed a spatial and temporal analysis of the AC in cells infected with murine CMV (MCMV), a member of the beta-herpesvirus family, using a panel of markers that characterize membranous organelle system. Out of 64 markers that were analyzed, 52 were cytosolic proteins that are recruited to membranes as components of membrane-shaping regulatory cascades. The analysis demonstrates that MCMV infection extensively reorganizes interface between early endosomes (EE), endosomal recycling compartment (ERC), and the trans-Golgi network (TGN), resulting in expansion of various EE-ERC-TGN intermediates that fill the broad area of the inner AC. These intermediates are displayed as over-recruitment of host-cell factors that control membrane flow at the EE-ERC-TGN interface. Most of the reorganization is accomplished in the early (E) phase of infection, indicating that the AC biogenesis is controlled by MCMV early genes. Although it is known that CMV infection affects the expression of a large number of host-cell factors that control membranous system, analysis of the host-cell transcriptome and protein expression in the E phase of infection demonstrated no sufficiently significant alteration in expression levels of analyzed markers. Thus, our study demonstrates that MCMV-encoded early phase function targets recruitment cascades of host cell-factors that control membranous flow at the EE-ERC-TGN interface in order to initiate the development of the AC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pero Lučin
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,University North, University Center Varaždin, Varaždin, Croatia
| | - Natalia Jug Vučko
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Ljerka Karleuša
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Hana Mahmutefendić Lučin
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,University North, University Center Varaždin, Varaždin, Croatia
| | - Gordana Blagojević Zagorac
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,University North, University Center Varaždin, Varaždin, Croatia
| | - Berislav Lisnić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Valentino Pavišić
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Marina Marcelić
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Kristina Grabušić
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Ilija Brizić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Silvija Lukanović Jurić
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
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11
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Strazic Geljic I, Kucan Brlic P, Angulo G, Brizic I, Lisnic B, Jenus T, Juranic Lisnic V, Pietri GP, Engel P, Kaynan N, Zeleznjak J, Schu P, Mandelboim O, Krmpotic A, Angulo A, Jonjic S, Lenac Rovis T. Cytomegalovirus protein m154 perturbs the adaptor protein-1 compartment mediating broad-spectrum immune evasion. eLife 2020; 9:50803. [PMID: 31928630 PMCID: PMC6957316 DOI: 10.7554/elife.50803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytomegaloviruses (CMVs) are ubiquitous pathogens known to employ numerous immunoevasive strategies that significantly impair the ability of the immune system to eliminate the infected cells. Here, we report that the single mouse CMV (MCMV) protein, m154, downregulates multiple surface molecules involved in the activation and costimulation of the immune cells. We demonstrate that m154 uses its cytoplasmic tail motif, DD, to interfere with the adaptor protein-1 (AP-1) complex, implicated in intracellular protein sorting and packaging. As a consequence of the perturbed AP-1 sorting, m154 promotes lysosomal degradation of several proteins involved in T cell costimulation, thus impairing virus-specific CD8+ T cell response and virus control in vivo. Additionally, we show that HCMV infection similarly interferes with the AP-1 complex. Altogether, we identify the robust mechanism employed by single viral immunomodulatory protein targeting a broad spectrum of cell surface molecules involved in the antiviral immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Strazic Geljic
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Paola Kucan Brlic
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Guillem Angulo
- Immunology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ilija Brizic
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Berislav Lisnic
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Tina Jenus
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Vanda Juranic Lisnic
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Gian Pietro Pietri
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Pablo Engel
- Immunology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Noa Kaynan
- The Lautenberg Center for General and Tumor Immunology, The BioMedical Research Institute, Hadassah Medical School, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Jelena Zeleznjak
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Peter Schu
- Zentrum für Biochemie und Molekulare Zellbiologie Institut für Zellbiochemie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Ofer Mandelboim
- The Lautenberg Center for General and Tumor Immunology, The BioMedical Research Institute, Hadassah Medical School, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Astrid Krmpotic
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Ana Angulo
- Immunology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Stipan Jonjic
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Tihana Lenac Rovis
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
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12
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Berry R, Watson GM, Jonjic S, Degli-Esposti MA, Rossjohn J. Modulation of innate and adaptive immunity by cytomegaloviruses. Nat Rev Immunol 2019; 20:113-127. [PMID: 31666730 DOI: 10.1038/s41577-019-0225-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The coordinated activities of innate and adaptive immunity are critical for effective protection against viruses. To counter this, some viruses have evolved sophisticated strategies to circumvent immune cell recognition. In particular, cytomegaloviruses encode large arsenals of molecules that seek to subvert T cell and natural killer cell function via a remarkable array of mechanisms. Consequently, these 'immunoevasins' play a fundamental role in shaping the nature of the immune system by driving the evolution of new immune receptors and recognition mechanisms. Here, we review the diverse strategies adopted by cytomegaloviruses to target immune pathways and outline the host's response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Berry
- Infection and Immunity Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia. .,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia. .,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Gabrielle M Watson
- Infection and Immunity Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Stipan Jonjic
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Mariapia A Degli-Esposti
- Infection and Immunity Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.,Centre for Experimental Immunology, Lions Eye Institute, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Jamie Rossjohn
- Infection and Immunity Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.,Institute of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
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13
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Kolb P, Sijmons S, McArdle MR, Taher H, Womack J, Hughes C, Ventura A, Jarvis MA, Stahl-Hennig C, Hansen S, Picker LJ, Malouli D, Hengel H, Früh K. Identification and Functional Characterization of a Novel Fc Gamma-Binding Glycoprotein in Rhesus Cytomegalovirus. J Virol 2019; 93:e02077-18. [PMID: 30487278 PMCID: PMC6364020 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02077-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Receptors recognizing the Fc part of immunoglobulin G (FcγRs) are key determinants in antibody-mediated immune responses. Members of the Herpesviridae interfere with this immune regulatory network by expressing viral FcγRs (vFcγRs). Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) encodes four distinct vFcγRs that differ with respect to their IgG subtype specificity and their impact on antibody-mediated immune function in vitro The impact of vFcγRs on HCMV pathogenesis and immunomodulation in vivo is not known. The closest evolutionary animal model of HCMV is rhesus CMV (RhCMV) infection of rhesus macaques. To enable the characterization of vFcγR function in this model, we studied IgG binding by RhCMV. We show that lysates of RhCMV-infected cells contain an IgG-binding protein of 30 kDa encoded by the gene Rh05 that is a predicted type I glycoprotein belonging to the RL11 gene family. Upon deletion of Rh05, IgG-Fc binding by RhCMV strain 68-1 is lost, whereas ectopic expression of Rh05 results in IgG binding to transfected cells consistent with Rh05 being a vFcγR. Using a set of reporter cell lines stably expressing human and rhesus FcγRs, we further demonstrate that Rh05 antagonizes host FcγR activation. Compared to Rh05-intact RhCMV, RhCMVΔRh05 showed an increased activation of host FcγR upon exposure of infected cells to IgG from RhCMV-seropositive animals, suggesting that Rh05 protects infected cells from opsonization and IgG-dependent activation of host FcγRs. However, antagonizing host FcγR activation by Rh05 was not required for the establishment and maintenance of infection of RhCMV, even in a seropositive host, as shown by the induction of T cell responses to heterologous antigens expressed by RhCMV lacking the gene region encoding Rh05. In contrast to viral evasion of natural killer cells or T cell recognition, the evasion of antibody-mediated effects does not seem to be absolutely required for infection or reinfection. The identification of the first vFcγR that efficiently antagonizes host FcγR activation in the RhCMV genome will thus permit more detailed studies of this immunomodulatory mechanism in promoting viral dissemination in the presence of natural or vaccine-induced humoral immunity.IMPORTANCE Rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) offers a unique model for studying human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) pathogenesis and vaccine development. RhCMV infection of nonhuman primates greatly broadened the understanding of mechanisms by which CMVs evade or reprogram T cell and natural killer cell responses in vivo However, the role of humoral immunity and viral modulation of anti-CMV antibodies has not been studied in this model. There is evidence from in vitro studies that HCMVs can evade humoral immunity. By gene mapping and with the help of a novel cell-based reporter assay system we characterized the first RhCMV encoded IgG-Fcγ binding glycoprotein as a potent antagonist of rhesus FcγR activation. We further demonstrate that, unlike evasion of T cell immunity, this viral Fcγ receptor is not required to overcome anti-CMV immunity to establish secondary infections. These findings enable more detailed studies of the in vivo consequences of CMV evasion from IgG responses in nonhuman primate models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Kolb
- Institute of Virology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Steven Sijmons
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Matthew R McArdle
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Husam Taher
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Jennie Womack
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Colette Hughes
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Abigail Ventura
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Michael A Jarvis
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | | | - Scott Hansen
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Louis J Picker
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Daniel Malouli
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Hartmut Hengel
- Institute of Virology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Klaus Früh
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
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14
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Hammer Q, Rückert T, Borst EM, Dunst J, Haubner A, Durek P, Heinrich F, Gasparoni G, Babic M, Tomic A, Pietra G, Nienen M, Blau IW, Hofmann J, Na IK, Prinz I, Koenecke C, Hemmati P, Babel N, Arnold R, Walter J, Thurley K, Mashreghi MF, Messerle M, Romagnani C. Peptide-specific recognition of human cytomegalovirus strains controls adaptive natural killer cells. Nat Immunol 2018; 19:453-463. [PMID: 29632329 DOI: 10.1038/s41590-018-0082-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 271] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are innate lymphocytes that lack antigen-specific rearranged receptors, a hallmark of adaptive lymphocytes. In some people infected with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), an NK cell subset expressing the activating receptor NKG2C undergoes clonal-like expansion that partially resembles anti-viral adaptive responses. However, the viral ligand that drives the activation and differentiation of adaptive NKG2C+ NK cells has remained unclear. Here we found that adaptive NKG2C+ NK cells differentially recognized distinct HCMV strains encoding variable UL40 peptides that, in combination with pro-inflammatory signals, controlled the population expansion and differentiation of adaptive NKG2C+ NK cells. Thus, we propose that polymorphic HCMV peptides contribute to shaping of the heterogeneity of adaptive NKG2C+ NK cell populations among HCMV-seropositive people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quirin Hammer
- Innate Immunity, German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), Leibniz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Timo Rückert
- Innate Immunity, German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), Leibniz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Eva Maria Borst
- Institute for Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Josefine Dunst
- Inflammation Biology, German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), Leibniz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - André Haubner
- Innate Immunity, German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), Leibniz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Pawel Durek
- Cell Biology, German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), Leibniz Association, Berlin, Germany.,Microbiota and Inflammation, German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), Leibniz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Frederik Heinrich
- Therapeutic Gene Regulation German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), Leibniz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gilles Gasparoni
- Department of Genetics, University of Saarland, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Marina Babic
- Innate Immunity, German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), Leibniz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Adriana Tomic
- Institute for Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Gabriella Pietra
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy.,Immunologia, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Mikalai Nienen
- Medical Clinic I, Marien Hospital Herne, Ruhr University Bochum, Herne, Germany
| | - Igor Wolfgang Blau
- Department of Hematology, Oncology and Tumor Immunology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jörg Hofmann
- Institute of Virology Charité, Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Virology, Labor Berlin - Charité Vivantes GmbH, Berlin, Germany
| | - Il-Kang Na
- Department of Hematology, Oncology and Tumor Immunology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Experimental and Clinical Research Center, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Berlin Institute of Health (BIH), Berlin, Germany
| | - Immo Prinz
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Christian Koenecke
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Department of Hematology, Hemostasis, Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Philipp Hemmati
- Department of Hematology, Oncology and Tumor Immunology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Nina Babel
- Medical Clinic I, Marien Hospital Herne, Ruhr University Bochum, Herne, Germany.,Berlin-Brandenburg Center for Regenerative Therapies, Institute of Medical Immunology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Renate Arnold
- Department of Hematology, Oncology and Tumor Immunology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jörn Walter
- Department of Genetics, University of Saarland, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Kevin Thurley
- Systems Biology of Inflammation, German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), Leibniz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mir-Farzin Mashreghi
- Therapeutic Gene Regulation German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), Leibniz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Messerle
- Institute for Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Chiara Romagnani
- Innate Immunity, German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), Leibniz Association, Berlin, Germany. .,Medical Department I, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
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15
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Landmarks of endosomal remodeling in the early phase of cytomegalovirus infection. Virology 2017; 515:108-122. [PMID: 29277005 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2017.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2017] [Revised: 11/29/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Cytomegaloviruses (CMVs) extensively rearrange the cellular membrane system to develop assembly compartment (AC), but the earliest events in this process are poorly characterized. Here, we demonstrate that murine CMV (MCMV) infection restrains endosomal trafficking of cargo molecules that travel along the recycling (TfR and MHC-I) and the late endosomal (EGFR, M6PR, Lamp1) circuit. Internalized cargo accumulates in Arf6-, Rab5-, Rab22A-, and Rab11-positive and Rab35-, Rab8-, and Rab10-negative juxtanuclear endosomes, suggesting the disruption of Arf/Rab regulatory cascade at the stage of sorting endosomes and the endosomal recycling compartment. Rearrangement of the endosomal system is initiated by an MCMV-encoded function very early in the infection. Our study, thus, establishes a set of landmarks of endosomal remodeling in the early phase of MCMV-infection which coincide with the Golgi rearrangement, suggesting that these perturbations are the earliest membrane reorganizations that may represent an initial step in the biogenesis of the AC.
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16
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Farré D, Martínez-Vicente P, Engel P, Angulo A. Immunoglobulin superfamily members encoded by viruses and their multiple roles in immune evasion. Eur J Immunol 2017; 47:780-796. [PMID: 28383780 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201746984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2017] [Revised: 03/11/2017] [Accepted: 03/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Pathogens have developed a plethora of strategies to undermine host immune defenses in order to guarantee their survival. For large DNA viruses, these immune evasion mechanisms frequently rely on the expression of genes acquired from host genomes. Horizontally transferred genes include members of the immunoglobulin superfamily, whose products constitute the most diverse group of proteins of vertebrate genomes. Their promiscuous immunoglobulin domains, which comprise the building blocks of these molecules, are involved in a large variety of functions mediated by ligand-binding interactions. The flexible structural nature of the immunoglobulin domains makes them appealing targets for viral capture due to their capacity to generate high functional diversity. Here, we present an up-to-date review of immunoglobulin superfamily gene homologs encoded by herpesviruses, poxviruses, and adenoviruses, that include CD200, CD47, Fc receptors, interleukin-1 receptor 2, interleukin-18 binding protein, CD80, carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecules, and signaling lymphocyte activation molecules. We discuss their distinct structural attributes, binding properties, and functions, shaped by evolutionary pressures to disarm specific immune pathways. We include several novel genes identified from extensive genome database surveys. An understanding of the properties and modes of action of these viral proteins may guide the development of novel immune-modulatory therapeutic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domènec Farré
- Immunology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Medical School, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pablo Martínez-Vicente
- Immunology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Medical School, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pablo Engel
- Immunology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Medical School, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ana Angulo
- Immunology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Medical School, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain
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17
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Popovic B, Golemac M, Podlech J, Zeleznjak J, Bilic-Zulle L, Lukic ML, Cicin-Sain L, Reddehase MJ, Sparwasser T, Krmpotic A, Jonjic S. IL-33/ST2 pathway drives regulatory T cell dependent suppression of liver damage upon cytomegalovirus infection. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006345. [PMID: 28448566 PMCID: PMC5423658 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Regulatory T (Treg) cells dampen an exaggerated immune response to viral infections in order to avoid immunopathology. Cytomegaloviruses (CMVs) are herpesviruses usually causing asymptomatic infection in immunocompetent hosts and induce strong cellular immunity which provides protection against CMV disease. It remains unclear how these persistent viruses manage to avoid induction of immunopathology not only during the acute infection but also during life-long persistence and virus reactivation. This may be due to numerous viral immunoevasion strategies used to specifically modulate immune responses but also induction of Treg cells by CMV infection. Here we demonstrate that liver Treg cells are strongly induced in mice infected with murine CMV (MCMV). The depletion of Treg cells results in severe hepatitis and liver damage without alterations in the virus load. Moreover, liver Treg cells show a high expression of ST2, a cellular receptor for tissue alarmin IL-33, which is strongly upregulated in the liver of infected mice. We demonstrated that IL-33 signaling is crucial for Treg cell accumulation after MCMV infection and ST2-deficient mice show a more pronounced liver pathology and higher mortality compared to infected control mice. These results illustrate the importance of IL-33 in the suppressive function of liver Treg cells during CMV infection. Treg cells are crucial for immune homeostasis and for dampening immune response to several diseased conditions, including viral infections. Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) is a herpesvirus with pathogenic potential, so that early immune mechanisms are essential in controlling virus and protecting from virus-induced pathology. Studies on Foxp3+ Treg cells have revealed their inhibitory role on the early T cell response to MCMV infection and have suggested Treg cells as a target of MCMV’s immunoevasion mechanisms. Here we demonstrate that the number and activation status of liver Treg cells is strongly induced upon MCMV infection in order to protect the host from severe liver damage. They constitutively express high amounts of IL-33 receptor ST2 and their accumulation depends on IL-33, which is released as a tissue alarmin after the cell damage. For the first time, we show an immunoregulatory role of IL-33-dependent Treg cells in the liver of MCMV infected mice and their suppression of MCMV-induced immunopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Branka Popovic
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Mijo Golemac
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Jürgen Podlech
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunotherapy, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Jelena Zeleznjak
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Lidija Bilic-Zulle
- Clinical Institute of Laboratory Diagnostics, Clinical Hospital Center, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Miodrag L. Lukic
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Faculty of Medicine, University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Luka Cicin-Sain
- Department of Vaccinology and Applied Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Braunschweig, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Hannover-Braunschweig site, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Matthias J. Reddehase
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunotherapy, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Tim Sparwasser
- Institute of Infection Immunology, TWINCORE, Hannover, Germany
| | - Astrid Krmpotic
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Stipan Jonjic
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
- * E-mail:
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18
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Lenac Rovis T, Kucan Brlic P, Kaynan N, Juranic Lisnic V, Brizic I, Jordan S, Tomic A, Kvestak D, Babic M, Tsukerman P, Colonna M, Koszinowski U, Messerle M, Mandelboim O, Krmpotic A, Jonjic S. Inflammatory monocytes and NK cells play a crucial role in DNAM-1-dependent control of cytomegalovirus infection. J Exp Med 2016; 213:1835-50. [PMID: 27503073 PMCID: PMC4995080 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20151899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Jonjic et al. show that inflammatory macrophages play an essential role in the control of murine CMV (MCMV) infection through a DNAM-1–PVR pathway. The poliovirus receptor (PVR) is a ubiquitously expressed glycoprotein involved in cellular adhesion and immune response. It engages the activating receptor DNAX accessory molecule (DNAM)-1, the inhibitory receptor TIGIT, and the CD96 receptor with both activating and inhibitory functions. Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) down-regulates PVR expression, but the significance of this viral function in vivo remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate that mouse CMV (MCMV) also down-regulates the surface PVR. The m20.1 protein of MCMV retains PVR in the endoplasmic reticulum and promotes its degradation. A MCMV mutant lacking the PVR inhibitor was attenuated in normal mice but not in mice lacking DNAM-1. This attenuation was partially reversed by NK cell depletion, whereas the simultaneous depletion of mononuclear phagocytes abolished the virus control. This effect was associated with the increased expression of DNAM-1, whereas TIGIT and CD96 were absent on these cells. An increased level of proinflammatory cytokines in sera of mice infected with the virus lacking the m20.1 and an increased production of iNOS by inflammatory monocytes was observed. Blocking of CCL2 or the inhibition of iNOS significantly increased titer of the virus lacking m20.1. In this study, we have demonstrated that inflammatory monocytes, together with NK cells, are essential in the early control of CMV through the DNAM-1–PVR pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tihana Lenac Rovis
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka 51000, Croatia
| | - Paola Kucan Brlic
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka 51000, Croatia
| | - Noa Kaynan
- The Lautenberg Center for General and Tumor Immunology, The Hebrew University, The BioMedical Research Institute, Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Vanda Juranic Lisnic
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka 51000, Croatia
| | - Ilija Brizic
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka 51000, Croatia
| | - Stefan Jordan
- Max von Pettenkofer-Institute, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Adriana Tomic
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka 51000, Croatia Department of Virology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Daria Kvestak
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka 51000, Croatia
| | - Marina Babic
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka 51000, Croatia
| | - Pinchas Tsukerman
- The Lautenberg Center for General and Tumor Immunology, The Hebrew University, The BioMedical Research Institute, Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Marco Colonna
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Ulrich Koszinowski
- Max von Pettenkofer-Institute, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Martin Messerle
- Department of Virology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Ofer Mandelboim
- The Lautenberg Center for General and Tumor Immunology, The Hebrew University, The BioMedical Research Institute, Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Astrid Krmpotic
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka 51000, Croatia
| | - Stipan Jonjic
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka 51000, Croatia Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka 51000, Croatia
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19
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Corrales-Aguilar E, Hoffmann K, Hengel H. CMV-encoded Fcγ receptors: modulators at the interface of innate and adaptive immunity. Semin Immunopathol 2014; 36:627-40. [PMID: 25288477 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-014-0448-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The constant region of IgG antibodies mediates antiviral activities upon engaging host Fcγ receptors (FcγRs) expressed by a variety of immune cells, such as antibody-dependent cellullar cytotoxcity (ADCC) executed by natural killer (NK)cells. Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is unique among viruses by encoding also an array of several Fcγ-binding glycoproteins with cell surface disposition and concomitant incorporation into the virion. Evidence is increasing that the virus-encoded Fcγ receptors differ in their Fcγ binding mode but effectively operate as adversaries of host FcγRs since they are able to prevent IgG-mediated triggering of activating host FcγRs, i.e., FcγRI, FcγRIIA, and FcγRIIIA. Here we discuss virus-encoded FcγRs as the first known HCMV inhibitors of IgG-mediated immunity which could account for the limited efficacy of HCMV hyperimmune globulin in clinical settings. A better understanding of their molecular mode of action opens up new perspectives for improving IgG therapies against HCMV disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia Corrales-Aguilar
- Virology-CIET, Faculty of Microbiology, University of Costa Rica, 11501-2060, San José, Costa Rica
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20
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Recent approaches and strategies in the generation of antihuman cytomegalovirus vaccines. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1119:311-48. [PMID: 24639230 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-62703-788-4_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The development of prophylactic and to lesser extent therapeutic vaccines for the prevention of disease associated with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infections has received considerable attention from biomedical researchers and pharmaceutical companies over the previous 15 years, even though attempts to produce such vaccines have been described in the literature for over 40 years. Studies of the natural history of congenital HCMV infection and infection in allograft recipients have suggested that prophylaxis of disease associated with HCMV infection could be possible, particularly in hosts at risk for more severe disease secondary to the lack of preexisting immunity. Provided a substantial understanding of immune response to HCMV together with several animal models that faithfully recapitulate aspects of human infection and immunity, investigators seem well positioned to design and test candidate vaccines. Yet more recent studies of the role of a maternal immunity in the natural history of congenital HCMV infection, including the recognition that reinfection of previously immune women by genetically distinct strains of HCMV occur in populations with a high seroprevalence, have raised several questions about the nature of protective immunity in maternal populations. This finding coupled with observations that have documented a significant incidence of damaging congenital infections in offspring of women with immunity to HCMV prior to conception has suggested that vaccine development based on conventional paradigms of adaptive immunity to viral infections may be of limited value in the prevention of damaging congenital HCMV infections. Perhaps a more achievable goal will be prophylactic vaccines to modify HCMV associated disease in allograft transplant recipients. Although recent descriptions of the results from vaccine trials have been heralded as evidence of an emerging success in the quest for a HCMV vaccine, careful analyses of these studies have also revealed that major hurdles remain to be addressed by current strategies.
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21
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Engel P, Angulo A. Viral Immunomodulatory Proteins: Usurping Host Genes as a Survival Strategy. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2012; 738:256-76. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-1680-7_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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22
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Slavuljica I, Krmpotić A, Jonjić S. Manipulation of NKG2D ligands by cytomegaloviruses: impact on innate and adaptive immune response. Front Immunol 2011; 2:85. [PMID: 22566874 PMCID: PMC3342069 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2011.00085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2011] [Accepted: 12/12/2011] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
NKG2D is a potent activating receptor expressed on NK cells, NKT cells, γδ T cells, and CD8 T cells. NKG2D recognizes cell surface molecules structurally related to MHC class I proteins induced by infection or other type of cellular stress. The engagement of NKG2D leads to NK cell cytotoxicity and cytokine secretion or to a co-stimulation of CD8 T cells. Both human and mouse cytomegalovirus (CMV) have evolved numerous mechanisms to evade NKG2D-mediated immune response. This review describes the mechanisms used by CMV to inhibit NKG2D ligand expression and the recent advances in exploiting the NKG2D recognition pathway for mounting efficient and long-lasting immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irena Slavuljica
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka Rijeka, Croatia
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23
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Lacaze P, Forster T, Ross A, Kerr LE, Salvo-Chirnside E, Lisnic VJ, López-Campos GH, García-Ramírez JJ, Messerle M, Trgovcich J, Angulo A, Ghazal P. Temporal profiling of the coding and noncoding murine cytomegalovirus transcriptomes. J Virol 2011; 85:6065-76. [PMID: 21471238 PMCID: PMC3126304 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02341-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2010] [Accepted: 03/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The global transcriptional program of murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV), involving coding, noncoding, and antisense transcription, remains unknown. Here we report an oligonucleotide custom microarray platform capable of measuring both coding and noncoding transcription on a genome-wide scale. By profiling MCMV wild-type and immediate-early mutant strains in fibroblasts, we found rapid activation of the transcriptome by 6.5 h postinfection, with absolute dependency on ie3, but not ie1 or ie2, for genomic programming of viral gene expression. Evidence is also presented to show, for the first time, genome-wide noncoding and bidirectional transcription at late stages of MCMV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Lacaze
- Division of Pathway Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, The Chancellor's Building, College of Medicine, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Thorsten Forster
- Division of Pathway Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, The Chancellor's Building, College of Medicine, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Alan Ross
- Division of Pathway Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, The Chancellor's Building, College of Medicine, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Lorraine E. Kerr
- Centre for Systems Biology at Edinburgh, The University of Edinburgh, Darwin Building, King's Buildings Campus, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Eliane Salvo-Chirnside
- Centre for Systems Biology at Edinburgh, The University of Edinburgh, Darwin Building, King's Buildings Campus, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Vanda Juranic Lisnic
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Rijeka University, Croatia
| | | | - José J. García-Ramírez
- Department of Inorganic and Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Medical School, Regional Center for Biomedical Research, University of Castilla—La Mancha, Avenida de Almansa 14, 02006 Albacete, Spain
| | - Martin Messerle
- Department of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Joanne Trgovcich
- Department of Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210
| | - Ana Angulo
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Peter Ghazal
- Division of Pathway Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, The Chancellor's Building, College of Medicine, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Systems Biology at Edinburgh, The University of Edinburgh, Darwin Building, King's Buildings Campus, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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24
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The herpes simplex virus 1 IgG fc receptor blocks antibody-mediated complement activation and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity in vivo. J Virol 2011; 85:3239-49. [PMID: 21228231 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02509-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) glycoprotein E (gE) mediates cell-to-cell spread and functions as an IgG Fc receptor (FcγR) that blocks the Fc domain of antibody targeting the virus or infected cell. Efforts to assess the functions of the HSV-1 FcγR in vivo have been hampered by difficulties in preparing an FcγR-negative strain that is relatively intact for spread. Here we report the FcγR and spread phenotypes of NS-gE264, which is a mutant strain that has four amino acids inserted after gE residue 264. The virus is defective in IgG Fc binding yet causes zosteriform disease in the mouse flank model that is only minimally reduced compared with wild-type and the rescue strains. The presence of zosteriform disease suggests that NS-gE264 spread functions are well maintained. The HSV-1 FcγR binds the Fc domain of human, but not murine IgG; therefore, to assess FcγR functions in vivo, mice were passively immunized with human IgG antibody to HSV. When antibody was inoculated intraperitoneally 20 h prior to infection or shortly after virus reached the dorsal root ganglia, disease severity was significantly reduced in mice infected with NS-gE264, but not in mice infected with wild-type or rescue virus. Studies of C3 knockout mice and natural killer cell-depleted mice demonstrated that the HSV-1 FcγR blocked both IgG Fc-mediated complement activation and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. Therefore, the HSV-1 FcγR promotes immune evasion from IgG Fc-mediated activities and likely contributes to virulence at times when antibody is present, such as during recurrent infections.
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25
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Murine cytomegalovirus perturbs endosomal trafficking of major histocompatibility complex class I molecules in the early phase of infection. J Virol 2010; 84:11101-12. [PMID: 20719942 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00988-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) functions interfere with protein trafficking in the secretory pathway. In this report we used Δm138-MCMV, a recombinant virus with a deleted viral Fc receptor, to demonstrate that MCMV also perturbs endosomal trafficking in the early phase of infection. This perturbation had a striking impact on cell surface-resident major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecules due to the complementary effect of MCMV immunoevasins, which block their egress from the secretory pathway. In infected cells, constitutively endocytosed cell surface-resident MHC-I molecules were arrested and retained in early endosomal antigen 1 (EEA1)-positive and lysobisphosphatidic acid (LBPA)-negative perinuclear endosomes together with clathrin-dependent cargo (transferrin receptor, Lamp1, and epidermal growth factor receptor). Their progression from these endosomes into recycling and degradative routes was inhibited. This arrest was associated with a reduction of the intracellular content of Rab7 and Rab11, small GTPases that are essential for the maturation of recycling and endolysosomal domains of early endosomes. The reduced recycling of MHC-I in Δm138-MCMV-infected cells was accompanied by their accelerated loss from the cell surface. The MCMV function that affects cell surface-resident MHC-I was activated in later stages of the early phase of viral replication, after the expression of known immunoevasins. MCMV without the three immunoevasins (the m04, m06, and m152 proteins) encoded a function that affects endosomal trafficking. This function, however, was not sufficient to reduce the cell surface expression of MHC-I in the absence of the transport block in the secretory pathway.
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26
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Miller-Kittrell M, Sparer TE. Feeling manipulated: cytomegalovirus immune manipulation. Virol J 2009; 6:4. [PMID: 19134204 PMCID: PMC2636769 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-6-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2008] [Accepted: 01/09/2009] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
No one likes to feel like they have been manipulated, but in the case of cytomegalovirus (CMV) immune manipulation, we do not really have much choice. Whether you call it CMV immune modulation, manipulation, or evasion, the bottom line is that CMV alters the immune response in such a way to allow the establishment of latency with lifelong shedding. With millions of years of coevolution within their hosts, CMVs, like other herpesviruses, encode numerous proteins that can broadly influence the magnitude and quality of both innate and adaptive immune responses. These viral proteins include both homologues of host proteins, such as MHC class I or chemokine homologues, and proteins with little similarity to any other known proteins, such as the chemokine binding protein. Although a strong immune response is launched against CMV, these virally encoded proteins can interfere with the host's ability to efficiently recognize and clear virus, while others induce or alter specific immune responses to benefit viral replication or spread within the host. Modulation of host immunity allows survival of both the virus and the host. One way of describing it would be a kind of "mutually assured survival" (as opposed to MAD, Mutually Assured Destruction). Evaluation of this relationship provides important insights into the life cycle of CMV as well as a greater understanding of the complexity of the immune response to pathogens in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mindy Miller-Kittrell
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, 1414 Cumberland Ave, Knoxville, TN, USA.
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27
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Jonjic S, Krmpotic A, Arapovic J, Koszinowski UH. Dissection of the antiviral NK cell response by MCMV mutants. METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (CLIFTON, N.J.) 2008; 415:127-49. [PMID: 18370152 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-59745-570-1_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/14/2023]
Abstract
Our understanding of virus control by natural killer (NK) cells relies mainly on in vitro observations. The significance of these findings for virus control in vivo is not yet fully understood. Complexity is added by the fact that many viruses, particularly herpesviruses, are equipped with sets of genes that, dependent on the genetic background of the host, modify the NK cell response. The advent of recombinant DNA technology and mutagenesis procedures for BAC-cloned viral genomes has made it possible not only to screen for viral proteins with such functions but also to assess their biological relevance. Mutant viruses with gene defects reveal the efficacy and complexity of NK cell control. Here, we describe procedures to assess the NK cell response to mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV), a prominent virus model for studying NK cell functions in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stipan Jonjic
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
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28
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Brune W, Hengel H, Koszinowski UH. A mouse model for cytomegalovirus infection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; Chapter 19:Unit 19.7. [PMID: 18432758 DOI: 10.1002/0471142735.im1907s43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
This unit describes procedures for infecting newborn and adult mice with murine cytomegalovirus (mCMV). Methods are included for propagating mCMV in cell cultures and for preparing a more virulent form of mCMV from salivary glands of infected mice. A plaque-forming cell (PFC) assay is provided for measuring mCMV titers of infected tissues or virus stocks. In addition, a method is described for preparing the murine embryonic fibroblasts used for propagating mCMV and for the PFC assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Brune
- University of Munich, Max von Pettenkofer Institute, Munich, Germany
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29
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Jonjić S, Babić M, Polić B, Krmpotić A. Immune evasion of natural killer cells by viruses. Curr Opin Immunol 2008; 20:30-8. [PMID: 18206359 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2007.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2007] [Revised: 11/07/2007] [Accepted: 11/09/2007] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are important in the host resistance to viral infections. They are among the first cells to sense the release of proinflammatory cytokines, as well as the downregulation of surface MHC class I molecules and molecules induced by viral invasion of cells. Various viral functions have evolved to counter NK cell responses illustrating the evolutionary struggles between viruses and NK cells. Ligands for NK cell receptors are primary targets for viral immunoevasion. In order to counteract NK cell activation via the 'missing self'-axis, viruses encode proteins which serve as ligands for inhibitory NK cell receptors. Viruses also downmodulate the ligands for the activating NK cell receptors and encode soluble ligands which block these receptors. In addition to viral immunoregulatory proteins, regulatory RNAs can also inhibit the expression of ligands for NK cell receptors. Improving our understanding of viral regulation of NK cell function could be essential for designing more efficient measures in the prophylaxis and treatment of virus-induced pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stipan Jonjić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Brace Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia.
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30
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Lenac T, Arapović J, Traven L, Krmpotić A, Jonjić S. Murine cytomegalovirus regulation of NKG2D ligands. Med Microbiol Immunol 2008; 197:159-66. [PMID: 18259774 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-008-0080-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a ubiquitous pathogen that causes morbidity risk in immunologically suppressed and immunodeficient patients including congenital infections. Approaches to curb the consequences of HCMV infections are restricted by a lack of complete understanding of viral pathogenesis. The infection of mice with murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) as a model of HCMV infection has been particularly useful in elucidating the role of innate and adaptive immune response mechanisms. A large number of cytomegalovirus genes modulate the innate and the adaptive host immune response. The products of several MCMV genes are involved in subverting the natural killer (NK) cell response by down-modulating cellular ligands for the NKG2D receptor expressed on NK cells and CD8(+) T cells. Mutant viruses lacking these immunoevasion genes are attenuated with respect to virus growth in vivo. Given the importance of the NKG2D receptor in controlling both NK- and T cell-mediated immunity, it is of tremendous importance to understand the molecular mechanisms and consequences of viral regulation of the NKG2D ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tihana Lenac
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, B. Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
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31
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The human cytomegalovirus Fc receptor gp68 binds the Fc CH2-CH3 interface of immunoglobulin G. J Virol 2008; 82:3490-9. [PMID: 18216124 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01476-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Recognition of immunoglobulin G (IgG) by surface receptors for the Fc domain of immunoglobulin G (Fcgamma), FcgammaRs, can trigger both humoral and cellular immune responses. Two human cytomegalovirus (HCMV)-encoded type I transmembrane receptors with Fcgamma-binding properties (vFcgammaRs), gp34 and gp68, have been identified on the surface of HCMV-infected cells and are assumed to confer protection against IgG-mediated immunity. Here we show that Fcgamma recognition by both vFcgammaRs occurs independently of N-linked glycosylation of Fcgamma, in contrast with the properties of host FcgammaRs. To gain further insight into the interaction with Fcgamma, truncation mutants of the vFcgammaR gp68 ectodomain were probed for Fcgamma binding, resulting in localization of the Fcgamma binding site on gp68 to residues 71 to 289, a region including an immunoglobulin-like domain. Gel filtration and biosensor binding experiments revealed that, unlike host FcgammaRs but similar to the herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) Fc receptor gE-gI, gp68 binds to the C(H)2-C(H)3 interdomain interface of the Fcgamma dimer with a nanomolar affinity and a 2:1 stoichiometry. Unlike gE-gI, which binds Fcgamma at the slightly basic pH of the extracellular milieu but not at the acidic pH of endosomes, the gp68/Fcgamma complex is stable at pH values from 5.6 to pH 8.1. These data indicate that the mechanistic details of Fc binding by HCMV gp68 differ from those of host FcgammaRs and from that of HSV-1 gE-gI, suggesting distinct functional and recognition properties.
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32
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Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) has become a paradigm for viral immune evasion due to its unique multitude of immune-modulatory strategies. HCMV modulates the innate as well as adaptive immune response at every step of its life cycle. It dampens the induction of antiviral interferon-induced genes by several mechanisms. Further striking is the multitude of genes and strategies devoted to modulating and escaping the cellular immune response. Several genes are independently capable of inhibiting antigen presentation to cytolytic T cells by downregulating MHC class I. Recent data revealed an astounding variety of methods in triggering or inhibiting activatory and inhibitory receptors found on NK cells, NKT cells, T cells as well as auxiliary cells of the immune system. The multitude and complexity of these mechanisms is fascinating and continues to reveal novel insights into the host-pathogen interaction and novel cell biological and immunological concepts.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Powers
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97201, USA
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33
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Bickerstaff AA, Zimmerman PD, Wing BA, Taylor F, Trgovcich J, Cook CH. A flow cytometry-based method for detecting antibody responses to murine cytomegalovirus infection. J Virol Methods 2007; 142:50-8. [PMID: 17303259 PMCID: PMC1899410 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2007.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2006] [Revised: 12/22/2006] [Accepted: 01/11/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
An assay based on target cells infected with green fluorescent protein labeled murine cytomegalovirus (GFP-MCMV) and dual color flow cytometry for detecting antibody to MCMV is described. After optimizing conditions for this technique, kinetics of anti-MCMV IgG antibody response was tested in susceptible (BALB/c) and resistant (C57BL/6) mouse strains following primary MCMV infection. Previously published antibody kinssetics were confirmed in susceptible mice, with peak IgG response seen approximately 8 weeks after primary infection, decreasing by 20 weeks after infection. In contrast, MCMV resistant C57BL/6 mice showed significantly lower IgG antibody responses than susceptible mice. Although several techniques have been previously described to detect murine antibody responses to MCMV, including nuclear anti-complement immunofluorescence, viral immunoblotting, complement fixation, indirect immunofluorescence, indirect hemagglutination, and enzyme-liked immunosorbent assay techniques, these techniques are all time consuming and laborious. The technique presented is a simple time efficient alternative to detect previous MCMV antibody responses in experimentally infected mice.
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34
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Mintern JD, Klemm EJ, Wagner M, Paquet ME, Napier MD, Kim YM, Koszinowski UH, Ploegh HL. Viral interference with B7-1 costimulation: a new role for murine cytomegalovirus fc receptor-1. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 177:8422-31. [PMID: 17142739 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.12.8422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Murine CMV (MCMV), a beta-herpesvirus, infects dendritic cells (DC) and impairs their function. The underlying events are poorly described. In this study, we identify MCMV m138 as the viral gene responsible for promoting the rapid disappearance of the costimulatory molecule B7-1 (CD80) from the cell surface of DC. This was unexpected, as m138 was previously identified as fcr-1, a putative virus-encoded FcR. m138 impaired the ability of DC to activate CD8+ T cells. Biochemical analysis and immunocytochemistry showed that m138 targets B7-1 in the secretory pathway and reroutes it to lysosomal associated membrane glycoprotein-1+ compartments. These results show a novel function for m138 in MCMV infection and identify the first viral protein to target B7-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justine D Mintern
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115. USA
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35
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Smith LM, Shellam GR, Redwood AJ. Genes of murine cytomegalovirus exist as a number of distinct genotypes. Virology 2006; 352:450-65. [PMID: 16781754 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2006] [Revised: 04/18/2006] [Accepted: 04/26/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Murine cytomegaloviruses encode a number of genes which modulate polymorphic host immune responses. We suggest that these viral genes should themselves therefore exhibit sequence polymorphism. Additionally, clinical isolates of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) have been shown to vary extensively from the common laboratory strains. Almost all research conducted on murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) has used the laboratory strains Smith and K181, which have been extensively passaged in vitro and in vivo since isolation. Using the heteroduplex mobility assay (HMA) to determine levels of sequence variation 11 MCMV genes were examined from 26 isolates of MCMV from wild mice, as well as both laboratory strains. Both the HMA and sequencing of selected genes demonstrated that whilst certain genes (M33, mck-2, m147.5, m152) were highly conserved, others (m04, m06, M44, m138, m144, m145 and m155) contained significant sequence variation. Several of these genes (m06, m144 and m155) exist in wild MCMV strains as one of several distinct genotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee M Smith
- Discipline of Microbiology and Immunology, M502, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
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36
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Lenac T, Budt M, Arapovic J, Hasan M, Zimmermann A, Simic H, Krmpotic A, Messerle M, Ruzsics Z, Koszinowski UH, Hengel H, Jonjic S. The herpesviral Fc receptor fcr-1 down-regulates the NKG2D ligands MULT-1 and H60. J Exp Med 2006; 203:1843-50. [PMID: 16831899 PMCID: PMC2118374 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20060514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2006] [Accepted: 06/15/2006] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the alpha- and beta-subfamily of herpesviridae encode glycoproteins that specifically bind to the Fc part of immunoglobulin (Ig)G. Plasma membrane resident herpesviral Fc receptors seem to prevent virus-specific IgG from activating antibody-dependent effector functions. We show that the mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) molecule fcr-1 promotes a rapid down-regulation of NKG2D ligands murine UL16-binding protein like transcript (MULT)-1 and H60 from the cell surface. Deletion of the m138/fcr-1 gene from the MCMV genome attenuates viral replication to natural killer (NK) cell response in an NKG2D-dependent manner in vivo. A distinct N-terminal module within the fcr-1 ectodomain in conjunction with the fcr-1 transmembrane domain was required to dispose MULT-1 to degradation in lysosomes. In contrast, down-modulation of H60 required the complete fcr-1 ectodomain, implying independent modes of fcr-1 interaction with the NKG2D ligands. The results establish a novel viral strategy for down-modulating NK cell responses and highlight the impressive diversity of Fc receptor functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tihana Lenac
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
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37
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Budt M, Reinhard H, Bigl A, Hengel H. Herpesviral Fcgamma receptors: culprits attenuating antiviral IgG? Int Immunopharmacol 2005; 4:1135-48. [PMID: 15251110 PMCID: PMC7173100 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2004.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2004] [Revised: 05/17/2004] [Accepted: 05/28/2004] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Production of IgG in response to virus infection is central to antiviral immune effector functions and a hallmark of B cell memory. Antiviral antibodies (Abs) recognising viral glycoproteins or protein antigen displayed on the surface of virions or virus-infected cells are crucial in rendering the virus noninfectious and in eliminating viruses or infected cells, either acting alone or in conjunction with complement. In many instances, passive transfer of Abs is sufficient to protect from viral infection. Herpesviruses (HV) are equipped with a large array of immunomodulatory functions which increase the efficiency of infection by dampening the antiviral immunity. Members of the α- and β-subfamily of the Herpesviridae are distinct in encoding transmembrane glycoproteins which selectively bind IgG via its Fc domain. The Fc-binding proteins constitute viral Fcγ receptors (vFcγRs) which are expressed on the cell surface of infected cells. Moreover, vFcγRs are abundantly incorporated into the envelope of virions. Despite their molecular and structural heterogeneity, the vFcγRs generally interfere with IgG-mediated effector functions like antibody (Ab)-dependent cellular cytolysis, complement activation and neutralisation of infectivity of virions. vFcγRs may thus contribute to the limited therapeutic potency of antiherpesviral IgG in clinical settings. A detailed molecular understanding of vFcγRs opens up the possibility to design recombinant IgG molecules resisting vFcγRs. Engineering IgG with a better antiviral efficiency represents a new therapeutic option against herpesviral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Hartmut Hengel
- Corresponding author: Tel.: +49-1888-754-2502; fax: +49-1888-754-2328.
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38
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Voigt S, Sandford GR, Hayward GS, Burns WH. The English strain of rat cytomegalovirus (CMV) contains a novel captured CD200 (vOX2) gene and a spliced CC chemokine upstream from the major immediate-early region: further evidence for a separate evolutionary lineage from that of rat CMV Maastricht. J Gen Virol 2005; 86:263-274. [PMID: 15659745 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.80539-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sequence data for eight genes, together with time-course Northern blotting and 3′- and 5′-RACE (rapid amplification of cDNA ends) analysis for some mRNAs from a 12 kb region upstream from the major immediate-early (MIE) genes of the English isolate of rat cytomegalovirus (RCMV), are presented. The results identified important differences compared to both murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) and the Maastricht isolate of RCMV. A striking finding is the presence of a highly conserved, rightwards-oriented homologue of the rat cellular CD200 (OX2) gene immediately to the right of the MIE region, which replaces either the leftwards-oriented AAV REP gene of RCMV (Maastricht) or the upstream spliced portions of the immediate-early 2 gene (ie2) in MCMV. From the presence of other homologues of MCMV- and RCMV-specific genes, such as the β-chemokine MCK-2, SGG1 and an Fcγ receptor gene, as reported here, the basic architecture of the MIE region (reported previously) and the level of IE2 and DNA polymerase (POL) protein conservation in phylogenetic analyses, it is clear that the English strain of RCMV is also a member of the genus Muromegalovirus, but is a β-herpesvirus species that is very distinct from both MCMV and RCMV (Maastricht). Both the lack of a CD200 homologue in the other two rodent viruses and the depth of sequence divergence of the rodent CMV IE2 and POL proteins suggest that these three viruses have evolved as separate species in the genus Muromegalovirus since very early in the host rodent lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Voigt
- Bone Marrow Transplant Program, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Charité, 10098 Berlin, Germany
| | - Gordon R Sandford
- Viral Oncology Program, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA
- Bone Marrow Transplant Program, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Gary S Hayward
- Viral Oncology Program, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA
| | - William H Burns
- Bone Marrow Transplant Program, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
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39
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Viau M, Cholley B, Björck L, Zouali M. Down-modulation of the antigen receptor by a superantigen for human B cells. Immunol Lett 2004; 92:91-6. [PMID: 15081532 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2003.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2003] [Accepted: 10/24/2003] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
B cell superantigens (SAgs) have been implicated in human diseases by demonstrating non-clonotypic expansion of B cells bearing certain immunoglobulin variable region genes. One possibility is that, during infection with microorganisms secreting SAgs, these potent molecules might modulate BcR expression. To test this hypothesis, we investigated the potential effects of a SAg, protein L from Peptostreptococcus magnus, on antigen B cell receptor (BcR) surface expression in vitro. Using fluorescence microscopy, we found that this SAg induced down-regulation of BcR expression. This effect was time-, dose-, and temperature-dependent, and shedding of cell surface IgM molecules into the culture supernatant was not detected. These data demonstrate that SAg-mediated down-regulation of the BcR expression occurs primarily as a result of BcR internalization. In addition, two specific inhibitors of protein tyrosine kinases were found to retard the BcR modulation on the cell surface and inhibit SAg-induced receptor internalization, showing that tyrosine phosphorylation is required for subsequent internalization of mIg-ligand complexes. The down-modulation of BcR expression may have pathological consequences in patients infected with microorganisms secreting SAgs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muriel Viau
- Institut National de Santé et de Recherche Médicale, Immunopathologie Humaine, 15 rue de l'Ecole de Médecine, 75006 Paris, France
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40
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Abstract
Infection of mice with murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) is an established model for studying human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection. Similarly to HCMV infection, pathological changes and disease manifestations during MCMV infection are mainly dependent on the immune status of the mouse host. This review focuses mainly on the pathogenesis of MCMV infection in immunocompetent and immunodeficient and/or immature mice and discusses the principles of immunosurveillance of infection and the mechanisms by which this virus evades immune control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Krmpotic
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, B. Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia.
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41
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Favoreel HW, Van de Walle GR, Nauwynck HJ, Pensaert MB. Virus complement evasion strategies. J Gen Virol 2003; 84:1-15. [PMID: 12533696 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.18709-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune system has a variety of tools at its disposal to combat virus infections. These can be subdivided roughly into two categories: 'first line defence', consisting of the non-specific, innate immune system, and 'adaptive immune response', acquired over time following virus infection or vaccination. During evolution, viruses have developed numerous, and often very ingenious, strategies to counteract efficient recognition of virions or virus-infected cells by both innate and adaptive immunity. This review will focus on the different strategies that viruses use to avoid recognition by one of the components of the immune system: the complement system. Complement evasion is of particular importance for viruses, since complement activation is a crucial component of innate immunity (alternative and mannan-binding lectin activation pathway) as well as of adaptive immunity (classical, antibody-dependent complement activation).
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Affiliation(s)
- Herman W Favoreel
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Gerlinde R Van de Walle
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Hans J Nauwynck
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Maurice B Pensaert
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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42
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Atalay R, Zimmermann A, Wagner M, Borst E, Benz C, Messerle M, Hengel H. Identification and expression of human cytomegalovirus transcription units coding for two distinct Fcgamma receptor homologs. J Virol 2002; 76:8596-608. [PMID: 12163579 PMCID: PMC136976 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.17.8596-8608.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellular receptors for the Fc domain of immunoglobulin G (IgG) (FcgammaRs) comprise a family of surface receptors on immune cells connecting humoral and cellular immune responses. Several herpesviruses induce FcgammaR activities in infected cells. Here we identify two distinct human cytomegalovirus (HCMV)-encoded vFcgammaR glycoproteins of 34 and 68 kDa. A panel of HCMV strains exhibited a slight molecular microheterogeneity between Fcgamma-binding proteins, suggesting their viral origin. To locate the responsible genes within the HCMV genome, a large set of targeted HCMV deletion mutants was constructed. The mutant analysis allowed the identification of a spliced UL119-UL118 mRNA to encode vFcgammaR gp68 and TRL11/IRL11 to encode vFcgammaR gp34. Both vFcgammaRs are surface resident type I transmembrane glycoproteins. Significant relatedness of sequences in the extracellular chain of gpUL119-118 and gpTRL11 with particular immunoglobulin supergene family domains present in FcgammaR I and FcgammaRs II/III, respectively, indicates a different ancestry and function of gpUL119-118 and gpTRL11. The HCMV-encoded vFcgammaRs highlight an impressive diversification and redundancy of FcgammaR structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramazan Atalay
- Robert Koch-Institut, Fachgebiet Virale Infektionen, 13353 Berlin, Germany
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43
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Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (CMV) remains the major infectious cause of birth defects as well as an important opportunistic pathogen. Individuals infected with CMV mount a strong immune response that suppresses persistent viral replication and maintains life-long latency. Loss of immune control opens the way to virus reactivation and disease. The large number of immunomodulatory functions encoded by CMV increases the efficiency of infection, dissemination, reactivation and persistent infection in hosts with intact immune systems and could contribute to virulence in immunocompromised hosts. These functions modulate both the innate and adaptive arms of the immune response and appear to target cellular rather than humoral responses preferentially. CMV encodes a diverse arsenal of proteins focused on altering and/or mimicking: (1) classical and non-classical major histocompatibility complex (MHC) protein function; (2) leukocyte migration, activation and cytokine responses; and (3) host cell susceptibility to apoptosis. Evidence that the host evolves mechanisms to counteract virus immune modulation is also accumulating. Although immune evasion is certainly one clear goal of the virus, the pro-inflammatory impact of certain viral functions suggests that increased inflammation benefits viral dissemination. The ability of such viral functions to successfully 'face off' against the host immune system ensures the success of this pathogen in the human population and could provide key insights into disease mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward S Mocarski
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, D347 Fairchild Science Building, 299 Campus Drive, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305-5124, USA.
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44
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Krmpotić A, Busch DH, Bubić I, Gebhardt F, Hengel H, Hasan M, Scalzo AA, Koszinowski UH, Jonjić S. MCMV glycoprotein gp40 confers virus resistance to CD8+ T cells and NK cells in vivo. Nat Immunol 2002; 3:529-35. [PMID: 12021778 DOI: 10.1038/ni799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The susceptibility of certain inbred mouse strains to murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) is related to their inability to generate a strong natural killer (NK) cell response. We addressed here whether the MCMV susceptibility of the BALB/c strain is due to viral functions that control NK cell activation in a strain-specific manner. MCMV expresses two proteins, gp48 and gp40, that are encoded by the genes m06 and m152, respectively; they down-regulate major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I expression at the plasma membrane. Using MCMV deletion mutants and revertants, we found that gp40 but not gp48 controls NK cell activation. Absence of gp40 improved antiviral NK cell control in BALB/c, but not C57BL/6, mice. Down-regulation of H-60, the high-affinity ligand for the NKG2D receptor, was the mechanism by which gp40 modulates NK cell activation. Thus, a single herpesvirus protein has a dual function in inhibiting both the adaptive as well as the innate immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Krmpotić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
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45
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Lilley BN, Ploegh HL, Tirabassi RS. Human cytomegalovirus open reading frame TRL11/IRL11 encodes an immunoglobulin G Fc-binding protein. J Virol 2001; 75:11218-21. [PMID: 11602761 PMCID: PMC114701 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.75.22.11218-11221.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2001] [Accepted: 08/20/2001] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Several herpesviruses encode Fc receptors that may play a role in preventing antibody-mediated clearance of the virus in vivo. Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) induces an Fc-binding activity in cells upon infection, but the gene that encodes this Fc-binding protein has not been identified. Here, we demonstrate that the HCMV AD169 open reading frame TRL11 and its identical copy, IRL11, encode a type I membrane glycoprotein that possesses IgG Fc-binding capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- B N Lilley
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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46
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Kavanagh DG, Koszinowski UH, Hill AB. The murine cytomegalovirus immune evasion protein m4/gp34 forms biochemically distinct complexes with class I MHC at the cell surface and in a pre-Golgi compartment. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 167:3894-902. [PMID: 11564807 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.167.7.3894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We have recently demonstrated that the murine CMV (MCMV) gene m4 is an immune evasion gene that protects MCMV-infected targets from some virus-specific CTL clones. m4 encodes m4/gp34, a 34-kDa glycoprotein that binds to major histocompatibility complex class I in the endoplasmic reticulum and forms a detergent-stable complex that is exported to the surface of the cell. To investigate how m4/gp34 promotes CTL evasion, we analyzed the assembly and export of m4/gp34-K(b) complexes. We found that 50-70% of K(b) exported over the course of MCMV infection was m4/gp34 associated. Because these complexes are present at the cell surface, it is possible that m4 mediates CTL evasion by interfering with contact between class I and receptors on the T cell. In addition, we found that K(b) retained by the MCMV immune evasion gene m152 formed a novel type of complex with Endo H-sensitive m4/gp34; these complexes are distinguished from the exported complexes by being stable in 1% digitonin and unstable in 1% Nonidet P-40. Because this association occurs in a pre-Golgi compartment, m4/gp34 might also interfere with Ag presentation by affecting some aspect of class I assembly, such as peptide loading. Although m4/gp34 requires beta(2)-microglobulin to bind class I, there was no significant binding of m4/gp34 to beta(2)-microglobulin in the absence of class I H chain, demonstrating that m4/gp34 forms Nonidet P-40-stable complexes specifically with folded conformations of class I. We conclude that m4/gp34 promotes immune evasion by a novel mechanism involving altered assembly and/or T cell recognition of class I molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- D G Kavanagh
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health Sciences University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR 97201, USA
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47
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Kavanagh DG, Gold MC, Wagner M, Koszinowski UH, Hill AB. The multiple immune-evasion genes of murine cytomegalovirus are not redundant: m4 and m152 inhibit antigen presentation in a complementary and cooperative fashion. J Exp Med 2001; 194:967-78. [PMID: 11581318 PMCID: PMC2193484 DOI: 10.1084/jem.194.7.967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Both human cytomegaloviruses (HCMVs) and murine cytomegaloviruses (MCMVs) encode multiple genes that interfere with antigen presentation by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I, and thus protect infected targets from lysis by virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). HCMV has been shown to encode four such genes and MCMV to encode two. MCMV m152 blocks the export of class I from a pre-Golgi compartment, and MCMV m6 directs class I to the lysosome for degradation. A third MCMV gene, m4, encodes a glycoprotein which is expressed at the cell surface in association with class I. Here we here show that m4 is a CTL-evasion gene which, unlike previously described immune-evasion genes, inhibited CTLs without blocking class I surface expression. m152 was necessary to block antigen presentation to both K(b)- and D(b)-restricted CTL clones, while m4 was necessary to block presentation only to K(b)-restricted clones. m152 caused complete retention of D(b), but only partial retention of K(b), in a pre-Golgi compartment. Thus, while m152 effectively inhibited D(b)-restricted CTLs, m4 was required to completely inhibit K(b)-restricted CTLs. We propose that cytomegaloviruses encode multiple immune-evasion genes in order to cope with the diversity of class I molecules in outbred host populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel G. Kavanagh
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland, Oregon 97201
| | - Marielle C. Gold
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland, Oregon 97201
| | - Markus Wagner
- Max von Pettenkofer Institut, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | | | - Ann B. Hill
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland, Oregon 97201
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48
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Raftery M, Müller A, Schönrich G. Herpesvirus homologues of cellular genes. Virus Genes 2001; 21:65-75. [PMID: 11022790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
For millions of years viruses have adapted strategies to interfere with the immune defense of the host, which in turn has to deal with this challenge. In general the antiviral defense remains one step behind the pathogen. To achieve this strategic advantage large DNA-containing Viruses encode cellular homologues that mimic or counteract key molecules of the host immune system. Understanding how these cellular homologues enable the viruses to evade the antiviral defense and persist in the host for the lifetime will ultimatively lead also to a better understanding of the principle functions of the immune system. In this review we focused on cellular homologues encoded by human herpesviruses and discuss the functional consequences of their expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Raftery
- Department of Medical Virology, University of Heidelberg, Germany
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49
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Abstract
During the co-evolution of viruses with their vertebrate hosts, the DNA viruses have acquired an impressive array of immunomodulatory genes to combat host immune responses and their hosts have developed a sophisticated immune system to contain virus infections. In order to replicate, the viruses have evolved mechanisms to inhibit key host anti-virus responses that include apoptosis, interferon production, chemokine production, inflammatory cytokine production, and the activity of cytotoxic T-cells, natural killer cells and antibody. In addition, some of the viruses encode cytokine or chemokine homologues that recruit or expand cell numbers for infection or that subvert the host cellular response from a protective response to a benign one. The specificity of the viral immunomodulatory molecules reflects the life cycle and the pathogenesis of the viruses. Herpesviruses achieve latency in host cells by inducing cell survival and protecting infected cells from immune recognition. This involves interference with cell signal transduction pathways. Many of the viral immunomodulatory proteins are homologues of host proteins that appear to have been pirated from the host and reassorted in the virus genomes. Some of these have unique functions and indicate novel or important aspects of both viral pathogenesis and host immunity to viruses. The specific example of orf virus infection of sheep is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Haig
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Penicuik, Scotland, UK.
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50
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Wagner M, Michel D, Schaarschmidt P, Vaida B, Jonjic S, Messerle M, Mertens T, Koszinowski U. Comparison between human cytomegalovirus pUL97 and murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) pM97 expressed by MCMV and vaccinia virus: pM97 does not confer ganciclovir sensitivity. J Virol 2000; 74:10729-36. [PMID: 11044117 PMCID: PMC110947 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.74.22.10729-10736.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The UL97 protein (pUL97) of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a protein kinase that also phosphorylates ganciclovir (GCV), but its biological function is not yet clear. The M97 protein (pM97) of mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) is the homolog of pUL97. First, we studied the consequences of genetic replacement of M97 by UL97. Using the infectious bacterial plasmid clone of the full-length MCMV genome (M. Wagner, S. Jonjic, U. H. Koszinowski, and M. Messerle, J. Virol. 73:7056-7060, 1999), we replaced the M97 gene with the UL97 gene and constructed an MCMV M97 deletion mutant and a revertant virus. In addition, pUL97 and pM97 were expressed by recombinant vaccinia virus to compare both for known functions. Remarkably, pM97 proved not to be the reason for the GCV sensitivity of MCMV. When expressed by the recombinant MCMV, however, pUL97 was phosphorylated and endowed MCMV with the capacity to phosphorylate GCV, thereby rendering MCMV more susceptible to GCV. We found that deletion of pM97, although it is not essential for MCMV replication, severely affected virus growth. This growth deficit was only partially amended by pUL97 expression. When expressed by recombinant vaccinia viruses, both proteins were phosphorylated and supported phosphorylation of GCV, but pUL97 was about 10 times more effective than pM97. One hint of the functional differences between the proteins was provided by the finding that pUL97 accumulates in the nucleus, whereas pM97 is predominantly located in the cytoplasm of infected cells. In vivo testing revealed that the UL97-MCMV recombinant should allow evaluation of novel antiviral drugs targeted to the UL97 protein of HCMV in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Wagner
- Max von Pettenkofer Institut für Hygiene und Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
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