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Li M, Guo L, Feng L. Interplay between swine enteric coronaviruses and host innate immune. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:1083605. [PMID: 36619958 PMCID: PMC9814124 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1083605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Swine enteric coronavirus (SeCoV) causes acute diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration, and high mortality in neonatal piglets, causing severe losses worldwide. SeCoV includes the following four members: transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), porcine delta coronavirus (PDCoV), and swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV). Clinically, mixed infections with several SeCoVs, which are more common in global farms, cause widespread infections. It is worth noting that PDCoV has a broader host range, suggesting the risk of PDCoV transmission across species, posing a serious threat to public health and global security. Studies have begun to focus on investigating the interaction between SeCoV and its host. Here, we summarize the effects of viral proteins on apoptosis, autophagy, and innate immunity induced by SeCoV, providing a theoretical basis for an in-depth understanding of the pathogenic mechanism of coronavirus.
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2
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Chen YM, Burrough E. The Effects of Swine Coronaviruses on ER Stress, Autophagy, Apoptosis, and Alterations in Cell Morphology. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11080940. [PMID: 36015060 PMCID: PMC9416022 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11080940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Swine coronaviruses include the following six members, namely porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), porcine delta coronavirus (PDCoV), swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV), porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (PHEV), and porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV). Clinically, PEDV, TGEV, PDCoV, and SADS-CoV cause enteritis, whereas PHEV induces encephalomyelitis, and PRCV causes respiratory disease. Years of studies reveal that swine coronaviruses replicate in the cellular cytoplasm exerting a wide variety of effects on cells. Some of these effects are particularly pertinent to cell pathology, including endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, unfolded protein response (UPR), autophagy, and apoptosis. In addition, swine coronaviruses are able to induce cellular changes, such as cytoskeletal rearrangement, alterations of junctional complexes, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), that render enterocytes unable to absorb nutrients normally, resulting in the loss of water, ions, and protein into the intestinal lumen. This review aims to describe the cellular changes in swine coronavirus-infected cells and to aid in understanding the pathogenesis of swine coronavirus infections. This review also explores how the virus exerted subcellular and molecular changes culminating in the clinical and pathological findings observed in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Mei Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Neipu, Pingtung County 912301, Taiwan
- Correspondence:
| | - Eric Burrough
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
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3
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Yan Q, Liu X, Sun Y, Zeng W, Li Y, Zhao F, Wu K, Fan S, Zhao M, Chen J, Yi L. Swine Enteric Coronavirus: Diverse Pathogen–Host Interactions. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23073953. [PMID: 35409315 PMCID: PMC8999375 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23073953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Swine enteric coronavirus (SeCoV) causes acute gastroenteritis and high mortality in newborn piglets. Since the last century, porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) and porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) have swept farms all over the world and caused substantial economic losses. In recent years, porcine delta coronavirus (PDCoV) and swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV) have been emerging SeCoVs. Some of them even spread across species, which made the epidemic situation of SeCoV more complex and changeable. Recent studies have begun to reveal the complex SeCoV–host interaction mechanism in detail. This review summarizes the current advances in autophagy, apoptosis, and innate immunity induced by SeCoV infection. These complex interactions may be directly involved in viral replication or the alteration of some signal pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quanhui Yan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.Y.); (X.L.); (Y.S.); (W.Z.); (Y.L.); (F.Z.); (K.W.); (S.F.); (M.Z.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Xiaodi Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.Y.); (X.L.); (Y.S.); (W.Z.); (Y.L.); (F.Z.); (K.W.); (S.F.); (M.Z.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yawei Sun
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.Y.); (X.L.); (Y.S.); (W.Z.); (Y.L.); (F.Z.); (K.W.); (S.F.); (M.Z.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Weijun Zeng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.Y.); (X.L.); (Y.S.); (W.Z.); (Y.L.); (F.Z.); (K.W.); (S.F.); (M.Z.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yuwan Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.Y.); (X.L.); (Y.S.); (W.Z.); (Y.L.); (F.Z.); (K.W.); (S.F.); (M.Z.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Feifan Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.Y.); (X.L.); (Y.S.); (W.Z.); (Y.L.); (F.Z.); (K.W.); (S.F.); (M.Z.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Keke Wu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.Y.); (X.L.); (Y.S.); (W.Z.); (Y.L.); (F.Z.); (K.W.); (S.F.); (M.Z.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Shuangqi Fan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.Y.); (X.L.); (Y.S.); (W.Z.); (Y.L.); (F.Z.); (K.W.); (S.F.); (M.Z.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Mingqiu Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.Y.); (X.L.); (Y.S.); (W.Z.); (Y.L.); (F.Z.); (K.W.); (S.F.); (M.Z.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Jinding Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.Y.); (X.L.); (Y.S.); (W.Z.); (Y.L.); (F.Z.); (K.W.); (S.F.); (M.Z.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Correspondence: (J.C.); (L.Y.); Tel.: +86-20-8528-8017 (J.C. & L.Y.)
| | - Lin Yi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.Y.); (X.L.); (Y.S.); (W.Z.); (Y.L.); (F.Z.); (K.W.); (S.F.); (M.Z.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Correspondence: (J.C.); (L.Y.); Tel.: +86-20-8528-8017 (J.C. & L.Y.)
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All-Trans Retinoic Acid Attenuates Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus-Induced Apoptosis in IPEC-J2 Cells via Inhibiting ROS-Mediated P38MAPK Signaling Pathway. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11020345. [PMID: 35204227 PMCID: PMC8868330 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11020345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) can cause diarrhea, dehydration, and high mortality in piglets, which is closely related to intestinal epithelial cell apoptosis caused by TGEV infection. All-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) is the active metabolite of vitamin A, which has antioxidant and anti-apoptotic properties. However, it is unknown whether ATRA can attenuate TGEV-induced IPEC-J2 cells apoptosis. Therefore, we investigated the protective effects of ATRA on TGEV-induced apoptosis of IPEC-J2 cells and explored the potential molecular mechanism. Our results indicated that TGEV infection caused IPEC-J2 cells damage and apoptosis. However, ATRA treatment attenuated TGEV-induced IPEC-J2 cells damage by upregulating the mRNA expressions of ZO-1, Occludin, and Mucin-1. ATRA treatment also attenuated TGEV-induced apoptosis in IPEC-J2 cells by downregulating the expression of Caspase-3, which is related to the inhibition of death receptor (Fas and Caspase-8) and mitochondrial (Bax, Bcl-2, and Caspase-9) pathways. Moreover, ATRA treatment prevented TGEV-induced ROS and MDA production and the upregulation of P38MAPK phosphorylation level, which is related to the increase in the activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, and T-AOC) and the mRNA abundance of antioxidant-related genes (GPX1, GPX2, SOD1, CAT, GCLC, and GCLM). In addition, treatment of TGEV-infected IPEC-J2 cells with the ROS inhibitors (NAC) significantly reduced the protein levels of p-P38MAPK, Fas, Bax, and Cleaved-caspase-3 and the percentage of apoptotic cells. Our results indicated that ATRA attenuated TGEV-induced apoptosis in IPEC-J2 cells via improving the antioxidant capacity, thereby inhibiting the cell damage. the mechanism of which is associated with the inhibition of ROS-mediated P38MAPK signaling pathway.
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5
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Wu J, Shi X, Wu L, Wu Z, Wu S, Bao W. Genome-Wide DNA Methylome and Transcriptome Analysis of Porcine Testicular Cells Infected With Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus. Front Vet Sci 2022; 8:779323. [PMID: 35097042 PMCID: PMC8794705 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.779323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) is a porcine pathogen causing highly communicable gastrointestinal infection that are lethal for suckling piglets. In an attempt to delineate the pathogenic mechanism of TGEV-infected porcine testicular cells (ST cells), we conducted a whole genome analysis of DNA methylation and expression in ST cells through reduced bisulfate-seq and RNA-seq. We examined alterations in the methylation patterns and recognized 1764 distinct methylation sites. 385 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were enriched in the viral defense and ribosome biogenesis pathways. Integrative analysis identified two crucial genes (EMILIN2, RIPOR3), these two genes expression were negatively correlated to promoter methylation. In conclusion, alterations in DNA methylation and differential expression of genes reveal that their potential functional interactions in TGEV infection. Our data highlights the epigenetic and transcriptomic landscapes in TGEV-infected ST cells and provides a reliable dataset for screening TGEV resistance genes and genetic markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayun Wu
- Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic, Breeding, Reproduction and Molecular Design of Jiangsu Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoru Shi
- Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic, Breeding, Reproduction and Molecular Design of Jiangsu Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Lisi Wu
- Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic, Breeding, Reproduction and Molecular Design of Jiangsu Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Zhengchang Wu
- Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic, Breeding, Reproduction and Molecular Design of Jiangsu Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Shenglong Wu
- Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic, Breeding, Reproduction and Molecular Design of Jiangsu Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Wenbin Bao
- Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic, Breeding, Reproduction and Molecular Design of Jiangsu Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Wenbin Bao
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Liang X, Wang P, Lian K, Han F, Tang Y, Zhang S, Zhang W. APB-13 improves the adverse outcomes caused by TGEV infection by correcting the intestinal microbial disorders in piglets. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2021; 106:69-77. [PMID: 34075636 DOI: 10.1111/jpn.13555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) is an enteric coronavirus that has caused high morbidity and mortality of piglets worldwide. Previous studies have shown that the TGEV can lead to severe diarrhoea, vomiting and dehydration in 2-week-old piglets and weaned piglets, resulting in a large number of piglet deaths. Antimicrobial peptides have broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and a strong killing effect on bacteria, especially on the drug-resistant pathogenic bacteria, and it has attracted broad concern. However, there are very few reports on the effect of APB-13 (an antimicrobial peptide) on the intestinal microbes of piglets infected with TGEV. In this study, 16S rRNA gene sequencing was used to compare the microbial phylum and the genus of piglet's enteric microorganism in different experimental groups, and to predict the metabolic function of the microbial flora. At the same time, the apparent digestibility of nutrients, digestive enzyme activity, daily weight gain and survival rate were also measured. TGEV infection could cause the imbalance of intestinal microbes in piglets, and increase of the relative abundance of Proteobacteria, and decrease of the relative abundance of Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteri. With the addition of APB-13, this problem can be alleviated, which can reduce the relative abundance of Proteobacteria and improve the balance of intestinal microorganisms. At the microbial genus level, after adding APB-13, the relative abundance of Catenibacterium, Enterobacter and Streptococcus in the intestinal tract of piglets infected with TGEV showed significant decrease, while the relative abundance of Lactobacillus and Ruminococcus increased. Finally, we found that APB-13 can significantly increase the activity of digestive enzyme in the intestinal tract of piglet, thereby improving the apparent digestibility of nutrients and the growth performance of piglets. This study demonstrates that APB-13 can alleviate the adverse outcomes caused by TGEV infection by correcting the intestinal microbial disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuli Liang
- Henan Joint International Research Laboratory of Veterinary Biologics Research and Application, Anyang Institute of Technology, Anyang, China.,College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
| | - Pengtao Wang
- College of Animal Husbandry, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Kaiqi Lian
- Henan Joint International Research Laboratory of Veterinary Biologics Research and Application, Anyang Institute of Technology, Anyang, China
| | - Fangfang Han
- College of Animal Husbandry, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yajie Tang
- Henan Joint International Research Laboratory of Veterinary Biologics Research and Application, Anyang Institute of Technology, Anyang, China
| | - Shouming Zhang
- Anyang City Animal Product Quality Safety Monitoring and Inspection Center, Anyang, China
| | - Wenju Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
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Gioti K, Kottaridi C, Voyiatzaki C, Chaniotis D, Rampias T, Beloukas A. Animal Coronaviruses Induced Apoptosis. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:185. [PMID: 33652685 PMCID: PMC7996831 DOI: 10.3390/life11030185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Apoptosis is a form of programmed death that has also been observed in cells infected by several viruses. It is considered one of the most critical innate immune mechanisms that limits pathogen proliferation and propagation before the initiation of the adaptive immune response. Recent studies investigating the cellular responses to SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 infection have revealed that coronaviruses can alter cellular homeostasis and promote cell death, providing evidence that the modulation of apoptotic pathways is important for viral replication and propagation. Despite the genetic diversity among different coronavirus clades and the infection of different cell types and several hosts, research studies in animal coronaviruses indicate that apoptosis in host cells is induced by common molecular mechanisms and apoptotic pathways. We summarize and critically review current knowledge on the molecular aspects of cell-death regulation during animal coronaviruses infection and the viral-host interactions to this process. Future research is expected to lead to a better understanding of the regulation of cell death during coronavirus infection. Moreover, investigating the role of viral proteins in this process will help us to identify novel antiviral targets related to apoptotic signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Gioti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece; (K.G.); (C.K.); (C.V.); (D.C.)
| | - Christine Kottaridi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece; (K.G.); (C.K.); (C.V.); (D.C.)
- Department of Genetics, Development and Molecular Biology, School of Biology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Chrysa Voyiatzaki
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece; (K.G.); (C.K.); (C.V.); (D.C.)
| | - Dimitrios Chaniotis
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece; (K.G.); (C.K.); (C.V.); (D.C.)
| | - Theodoros Rampias
- Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, Basic Research Center, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Apostolos Beloukas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece; (K.G.); (C.K.); (C.V.); (D.C.)
- Institute of Infection & Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7BE, UK
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Morris G, Athan E, Walder K, Bortolasci CC, O'Neil A, Marx W, Berk M, Carvalho AF, Maes M, Puri BK. Can endolysosomal deacidification and inhibition of autophagy prevent severe COVID-19? Life Sci 2020; 262:118541. [PMID: 33035581 PMCID: PMC7537668 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The possibility is examined that immunomodulatory pharmacotherapy may be clinically useful in managing the pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), known to result from infection by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus. The dominant route of cell entry of the coronavirus is via phagocytosis, with ensconcement in endosomes thereafter proceeding via the endosomal pathway, involving transfer from early (EEs) to late endosomes (LEs) and ultimately into lysosomes via endolysosomal fusion. EE to LE transportation is a rate-limiting step for coronaviruses. Hence inhibition or dysregulation of endosomal trafficking could potentially inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication. Furthermore, the acidic luminal pH of the endolysosomal system is critical for the activity of numerous pH-sensitive hydrolytic enzymes. Golgi sub-compartments and Golgi-derived secretory vesicles also depend on being mildly acidic for optimal function and structure. Activation of endosomal toll-like receptors by viral RNA can upregulate inflammatory mediators and contribute to a systemic inflammatory cytokine storm, associated with a worsened clinical outcome in COVID-19. Such endosomal toll-like receptors could be inhibited by the use of pharmacological agents which increase endosomal pH, thereby reducing the activity of acid-dependent endosomal proteases required for their activity and/or assembly, leading to suppression of antigen-presenting cell activity, decreased autoantibody secretion, decreased nuclear factor-kappa B activity and decreased pro-inflammatory cytokine production. It is also noteworthy that SARS-CoV-2 inhibits autophagy, predisposing infected cells to apoptosis. It is therefore also suggested that further pharmacological inhibition of autophagy might encourage the apoptotic clearance of SARS-CoV-2-infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerwyn Morris
- Deakin University, IMPACT, the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Barwon Health, School of Medicine, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Eugene Athan
- Deakin University, IMPACT, the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Barwon Health, School of Medicine, Geelong, Victoria, Australia,Department of Infectious Disease, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia
| | - Ken Walder
- Deakin University, IMPACT, the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Barwon Health, School of Medicine, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Chiara C. Bortolasci
- Deakin University, IMPACT, the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Barwon Health, School of Medicine, Geelong, Victoria, Australia,Deakin University, Centre for Molecular and Medical Research, School of Medicine, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Adrienne O'Neil
- Deakin University, IMPACT, the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Barwon Health, School of Medicine, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Wolf Marx
- Deakin University, IMPACT, the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Barwon Health, School of Medicine, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michael Berk
- Deakin University, IMPACT, the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Barwon Health, School of Medicine, Geelong, Victoria, Australia,Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, the Department of Psychiatry, the Florey Institute for Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - André F. Carvalho
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada,Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Michael Maes
- Deakin University, IMPACT, the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Barwon Health, School of Medicine, Geelong, Victoria, Australia,Department of Psychiatry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Basant K. Puri
- C.A.R., Cambridge, UK,Corresponding author at: Level 1, Block A, Hammersmith Hospital, Du Cane Road, London W12 0HS, UK
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Xu Z, Zhang Y, Cao Y. The Roles of Apoptosis in Swine Response to Viral Infection and Pathogenesis of Swine Enteropathogenic Coronaviruses. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:572425. [PMID: 33324698 PMCID: PMC7725767 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.572425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Apoptosis is a tightly regulated mechanism of cell death that plays important roles in various biological processes including biological evolution, multiple system development, anticancer, and viral infections. Swine enteropathogenic coronaviruses invade and damage villous epithelial cells of the small intestine causing severe diarrhea with high mortality rate in suckling piglets. Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), Porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV), and Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV) are on the top list of commonly-seen swine coronaviruses with a feature of diarrhea, resulting in significant economic losses to the swine industry worldwide. Apoptosis has been shown to be involved in the pathogenesis process of animal virus infectious diseases. Understanding the roles of apoptosis in host responses against swine enteropathogenic coronaviruses infection contribute to disease prevention and control. Here we summarize the recent findings that focus on the apoptosis during swine coronaviruses infection, in particular, TGEV, PEDV, PDCoV, and SADS-CoV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhichao Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Science, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Science, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yongchang Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Science, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Higher Education Mega Center, School of Life Science, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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10
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Fei Y, Han M, Chu X, Feng Z, Yu L, Luo Y, Lu L, Xu D. Transcriptomic and proteomic analyses reveal new insights into the regulation of immune pathways during cyprinid herpesvirus 2 infection in vitro. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 106:167-180. [PMID: 32717324 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2020.07.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Carassius auratus gibelio is susceptible to the herpesviral hematopoietic necrosis (HVHN) disease caused by cyprinid herpesvirus 2 (CyHV-2) infection during the breeding process. Nevertheless, the report on biological response of CyHV-2 with C. auratus gibelio was limited, especially in vitro. In this study, host gene expression profiling was mostly analyzed in caudal fin cells of Carassius auratus gibelio (GiCF) underlying CyHV-2 infection. Transcriptomics and proteomics were employed to study the differential expression gene and revealed the host genes involved in pathway during the CyHV-2 infection. Transcriptome analysis revealed that compared with the control group, there were 11 335 and 19 421 differentially expressed unigenes at 48 h and at 96 h, respectively. Furthermore, proteome analysis showed that there were a total of 9008 proteins, among which 169 proteins were differential expression in the 48 h group and 502 proteins in the 96 h group. Notably, 10 and 158 differentially co-expressed genes at mRNA and protein levels (cDEGs) were reliably quantified at 48 h and 96 h, respectively. Interestingly, significantly different expressed genes both in the transcriptome and the proteome were identified, including GNG7, Hsp90a, THBS1 and RRM2. The result suggested that PI3k-AKT pathway was activated, but the p53 signaling pathway was suppressed. The above result will lay the foundation for understanding the mechanisms of host defense virus invasion during CyHV-2 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yueyue Fei
- National Pathogen Collection Center for Aquatic Animals, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China; Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Ministry for Freshwater Aquatic Genetic Resources, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Minzhen Han
- National Pathogen Collection Center for Aquatic Animals, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China; Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Ministry for Freshwater Aquatic Genetic Resources, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Xin Chu
- National Pathogen Collection Center for Aquatic Animals, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China; Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Ministry for Freshwater Aquatic Genetic Resources, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Zizhao Feng
- National Pathogen Collection Center for Aquatic Animals, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China; Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Ministry for Freshwater Aquatic Genetic Resources, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Lu Yu
- National Pathogen Collection Center for Aquatic Animals, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China; Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Ministry for Freshwater Aquatic Genetic Resources, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Yang Luo
- National Pathogen Collection Center for Aquatic Animals, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China; Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Ministry for Freshwater Aquatic Genetic Resources, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Liqun Lu
- National Pathogen Collection Center for Aquatic Animals, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China; Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Ministry for Freshwater Aquatic Genetic Resources, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China; National Experimental Teaching Demonstration Center for Fishery Sciences, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Dan Xu
- National Pathogen Collection Center for Aquatic Animals, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China; Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Ministry for Freshwater Aquatic Genetic Resources, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China; National Experimental Teaching Demonstration Center for Fishery Sciences, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, PR China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Marine Natural Products and Combinatorial Biosynthesis Chemistry, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, PR China.
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11
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Zhang J, Han Y, Shi H, Chen J, Zhang X, Wang X, Zhou L, Liu J, Zhang J, Ji Z, Jing Z, Ma J, Shi D, Feng L. Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus-induced apoptosis is caspase- and cyclophilin D- dependent. Emerg Microbes Infect 2020; 9:439-456. [PMID: 32090691 PMCID: PMC7054944 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2020.1722758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV), a newly discovered enteric coronavirus, is the aetiological agent that causes severe clinical diarrhea and intestinal pathological damage in piglets. To understand the effect of SADS-CoV on host cells, we characterized the apoptotic pathways and elucidated mechanisms underlying the process of apoptotic cell death after SADS-CoV infection. SADS-CoV-infected cells showed evidence of apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. The use of a pan-caspase inhibitor resulted in the inhibition of SADS-CoV-induced apoptosis and reduction in SADS-CoV replication, suggestive of the association of a caspase-dependent pathway. Furthermore, SADS-CoV infection activated the initiators caspase-8 and -9 and upregulated FasL and Bid cleavage, demonstrating a crosstalk between the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. However, the proapoptotic proteins Bax and Cytochrome c (Cyt c) relocalized to the mitochondria and cytoplasm, respectively, after infection by SADS-CoV. Moreover, Vero E6 and IPI-2I cells treated with cyclosporin A (CsA), an inhibitor of mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP) opening, were completely protected from SADS-CoV-induced apoptosis and viral replication, suggesting the involvement of cyclophilin D (CypD) in these processes. Altogether, our results indicate that caspase-dependent FasL (extrinsic)- and mitochondria (intrinsic)- mediated apoptotic pathways play a central role in SADS-CoV-induced apoptosis that facilitates viral replication. In summary, these findings demonstrate mechanisms by which SADS-CoV induces apoptosis and improve our understanding of SADS-CoV pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Yuru Han
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Hongyan Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Jianfei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Xiaobo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Ling Zhou
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jianbo Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Jialin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Zhaoyang Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Zhaoyang Jing
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Jingyun Ma
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Da Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Li Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
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12
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Nurtay A, Hennessy MG, Sardanyés J, Alsedà L, Elena SF. Theoretical conditions for the coexistence of viral strains with differences in phenotypic traits: a bifurcation analysis. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2019; 6:181179. [PMID: 30800366 PMCID: PMC6366233 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.181179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We investigate the dynamics of a wild-type viral strain which generates mutant strains differing in phenotypic properties for infectivity, virulence and mutation rates. We study, by means of a mathematical model and bifurcation analysis, conditions under which the wild-type and mutant viruses, which compete for the same host cells, can coexist. The coexistence conditions are formulated in terms of the basic reproductive numbers of the strains, a maximum value of the mutation rate and the virulence of the pathogens. The analysis reveals that parameter space can be divided into five regions, each with distinct dynamics, that are organized around degenerate Bogdanov-Takens and zero-Hopf bifurcations, the latter of which gives rise to a curve of transcritical bifurcations of periodic orbits. These results provide new insights into the conditions by which viral populations may contain multiple coexisting strains in a stable manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anel Nurtay
- Centre de Recerca Matemàtica, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de Bellaterra, Edifici C, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Barcelona Graduate School of Mathematics (BGSMath), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de Bellaterra, Edifici C, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Departament de Matemàtiques, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de Bellaterra, Edifici C, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Instituto de Biología Integrativa de Sistemas, CSIC-Universitat de València, Parc Científic UV, Paterna, València 46980, Spain
| | - Matthew G. Hennessy
- Centre de Recerca Matemàtica, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de Bellaterra, Edifici C, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Barcelona Graduate School of Mathematics (BGSMath), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de Bellaterra, Edifici C, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Josep Sardanyés
- Centre de Recerca Matemàtica, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de Bellaterra, Edifici C, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Barcelona Graduate School of Mathematics (BGSMath), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de Bellaterra, Edifici C, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Lluís Alsedà
- Centre de Recerca Matemàtica, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de Bellaterra, Edifici C, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Barcelona Graduate School of Mathematics (BGSMath), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de Bellaterra, Edifici C, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Departament de Matemàtiques, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de Bellaterra, Edifici C, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Santiago F. Elena
- Instituto de Biología Integrativa de Sistemas, CSIC-Universitat de València, Parc Científic UV, Paterna, València 46980, Spain
- Santa Fe Institute, 1399 Hyde Park Road, Santa Fe, NM 87501, USA
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13
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DING L, LI J, LI W, FANG Z, LI N, WU S, LI J, HONG M. p53- and ROS-mediated AIF pathway involved in TGEV-induced apoptosis. J Vet Med Sci 2018; 80:1775-1781. [PMID: 30249935 PMCID: PMC6261820 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.18-0104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) could induce apoptosis through caspase signaling. However, apoptosis was not completely prevented by caspases inhibitors, suggesting that there may be a caspase-independent pathway involved in TGEV-induced cell apoptosis. In this study, we investigated the regulation of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) on TGEV-induced apoptotic pathway. Results indicated that AIF translocated from the mitochondria to nucleus during TGEV infection, and the AIF inhibitor, N-phenylmaleimide (NP), significantly attenuated the apoptosis. In addition, the translocation of AIF was inhibited by Veliparib (ABT-888), an inhibitor of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). And the reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger, pyrrolidinedithiocarbamic (PDTC), redistributed AIF in the mitochondria and nucleus in TGEV-infected cells. Moreover, the protein levels in nucleus and the mRNA levels of AIF were inhibited in the presence of the p53 inhibitor, pifithrin-α (PFT-α) or in TGEV-infected p53-/-cells. Furthermore, TGEV-induced apoptosis was blocked by combination of three or more inhibitors, such as pan caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK, NP, ABT-888, PDTC, PFT-α, to treat PK-15 cells. Taken together, these results suggest that the p53- and ROS-mediated AIF pathway and caspase-dependent pathway were involved in TGEV-induced apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li DING
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Ecology of Tropical Islands, College of Life Sciences, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Jiawei LI
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Ecology of Tropical Islands, College of Life Sciences, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Weihao LI
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Ecology of Tropical Islands, College of Life Sciences, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Zhenhua FANG
- School of Tropical Agricultural Technology, Hainan College of Vocation and Technique, Haikou, Hainan 570216, China
| | - Na LI
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Ecology of Tropical Islands, College of Life Sciences, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Shannan WU
- Hainan Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Haikou, Hainan 570311, China
| | - Jiangyue LI
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Ecology of Tropical Islands, College of Life Sciences, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Meiling HONG
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Ecology of Tropical Islands, College of Life Sciences, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
- Correspondence to: Hong, M.:
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14
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Lee YJ, Lee C. Porcine deltacoronavirus induces caspase-dependent apoptosis through activation of the cytochrome c-mediated intrinsic mitochondrial pathway. Virus Res 2018; 253:112-123. [PMID: 29940190 PMCID: PMC7114866 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2018.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Revised: 06/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV), a newly discovered enteric coronavirus, is a causative agent of severe clinical diarrhea and intestinal pathological damage in piglets. As a first step toward understanding the effect of PDCoV on host cells, we elucidated mechanisms underlying the process of apoptotic cell death after PDCoV infection. The use of a pan-caspase inhibitor resulted in the inhibition of PDCoV-induced apoptosis and reduction of PDCoV replication, suggestive of the association of a caspase-dependent pathway. Furthermore, PDCoV infection necessitated the activation of the initiator caspase-9 responsible for the intrinsic mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. Experimental data indicated that PDCoV infection led to Bax-mediated mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP), resulting in specific relocation of the mitochondrial cytochrome c (cyt c) into the cytoplasm. Treatment with cyclosporin A (CsA), an inhibitor of mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP) opening, significantly suppressed PDCoV-triggered apoptosis and viral replication. Moreover, cyt c release was completely abrogated in PDCoV-infected cells in the presence of CsA, suggesting the critical role of MPTP in intrinsic apoptosis in response to PDCoV infection. Altogether, our results indicate that PDCoV infection stimulates MOMP either via Bax recruitment or MPTP opening to permit the release of apoptogenic cyt c into the cytoplasm, thereby leading to execution of the caspase-dependent intrinsic apoptosis pathway to facilitate viral replication in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoo Jin Lee
- Animal Virology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, BK21 Plus KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Changhee Lee
- Animal Virology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, BK21 Plus KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea.
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15
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Fung TS, Liu DX. Post-translational modifications of coronavirus proteins: roles and function. Future Virol 2018; 13:405-430. [PMID: 32201497 PMCID: PMC7080180 DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2018-0008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) refer to the covalent modifications of polypeptides after they are synthesized, adding temporal and spatial regulation to modulate protein functions. Being obligate intracellular parasites, viruses rely on the protein synthesis machinery of host cells to support replication, and not surprisingly, many viral proteins are subjected to PTMs. Coronavirus (CoV) is a group of enveloped RNA viruses causing diseases in both human and animals. Many CoV proteins are modified by PTMs, including glycosylation and palmitoylation of the spike and envelope protein, N- or O-linked glycosylation of the membrane protein, phosphorylation and ADP-ribosylation of the nucleocapsid protein, and other PTMs on nonstructural and accessory proteins. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on PTMs of CoV proteins, with an emphasis on their impact on viral replication and pathogenesis. The ability of some CoV proteins to interfere with PTMs of host proteins will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- To Sing Fung
- South China Agricultural University, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory Microbial Signals & Disease Co, & Integrative Microbiology Research Center, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China.,South China Agricultural University, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory Microbial Signals & Disease Co, & Integrative Microbiology Research Center, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China
| | - Ding Xiang Liu
- South China Agricultural University, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory Microbial Signals & Disease Co, & Integrative Microbiology Research Center, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637551.,South China Agricultural University, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory Microbial Signals & Disease Co, & Integrative Microbiology Research Center, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637551
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16
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Targeting Coronaviral Replication and Cellular JAK2 Mediated Dominant NF-κB Activation for Comprehensive and Ultimate Inhibition of Coronaviral Activity. Sci Rep 2017. [PMID: 28642467 PMCID: PMC5481340 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-04203-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Tylophorine-based compounds exert broad spectral, potent inhibition of coronaviruses. NF-κB activation is a common pro-inflammatory response of host cells to viral infection. The aims of this study were to (i) find an effective combination treatment for coronaviral infections through targeting of the virus per se and cellular NF-κB activity; and (ii) to study the underling mechanisms. We found that tylophorine-based compounds target the TGEV viral RNA and effectively inhibit TGEV replication. NF-κB inhibition also leads to anti-TGEV replication. NF-κB activation induced by TGEV infection was found to be associated with two convergent pathways, IKK-2_IκBα/p65 and JAK2 mediated p65 phosphorylation, in swine testicular cells. JAK2 inhibition either by CYT387 (a JAK family inhibitor) or by silencing JAK2-expression revealed a dominant JAK2 mediated p65 phosphorylation pathway for NF-κB activation and resulted in NF-κB inhibition, which overrode the IκBα regulation via the IKK-2. Finally, tylophorine-based compounds work cooperatively with CYT387 to impart comprehensive anti-TGEV activities. The combination treatment, wherein a tylophorine compound targets TGEV and a JAK2 inhibitor blocks the alternative dominant NF-κB activation mediated by JAK2, is more effective and comprehensive than either one alone and constitutes a feasible approach for the treatment of SARS-CoV or MERS-CoV.
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17
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Virulence factors in porcine coronaviruses and vaccine design. Virus Res 2016; 226:142-151. [PMID: 27397100 PMCID: PMC5159199 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Revised: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Engineered live attenuated vaccines may improve the control porcine CoVs infection. Porcine CoVs affect many host-cell pathways modulating pathogenesis. CoV genes acting as virulence factors should be modified for virus attenuation. To use attenuated CoVs as vaccine candidates several safety guards should be included.
Porcine enteric coronaviruses (CoVs) cause severe disease in the porcine herds worldwide, leading to important economic losses. Despite the knowledge of these viruses since the 1970s, vaccination strategies have not been implemented, leading to continuous re-emergence of novel virulent strains. Live attenuated vaccines historically have been the most efficient. We consider that the new trend is the development of recombinant vaccines by using reverse genetics systems to engineer attenuated viruses, which could be used as effective and safe modified live vaccine candidates. To this end, host cell signaling pathways influencing porcine CoV virulence should be identified. Similarly, the identity of viral proteins involved in the modulation of host cell pathways influencing CoV pathogenesis should be analyzed. With this information, and using reverse genetics systems, it is possible to design viruses with modifications in the viral proteins acting as virulence factors, which may lead to attenuated viruses and, therefore, vaccine candidates. In addition, novel antiviral drugs may be developed once the host cell pathways and the molecular mechanism affecting porcine CoV replication and virulence are known. This review is focused in the host cell responses to enteric porcine CoV infection and the viral proteins involved in pathogenesis.
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18
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Cao J, Ou X, Zhu D, Ma G, Cheng A, Wang M, Chen S, Jia R, Liu M, Sun K, Yang Q, Wu Y, Chen X. The 2A2 protein of Duck hepatitis A virus type 1 induces apoptosis in primary cell culture. Virus Genes 2016; 52:780-788. [PMID: 27314270 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-016-1364-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Duck hepatitis A virus type 1, (DHAV-1) 2A2pro, is one of the most highly conserved viral proteins within the DHAV serotypes. However, its effect on host cells is unclear. We predicted that DHAV-1 2A2pro was a GTPase-like protein based on the results of multiple sequence alignment and homologous modeling analysis. Upon transfection of a recombinant plasmid expressing DHAV-1 2A2, cells displayed fragmented nuclei, chromatin condensation, oligonucleosome-sized DNA ladder, and positive terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling staining; hence, cell death has the characteristics of apoptosis. By staining cells with fluorescein Annexin V-FITC and PI, it is possible to distinguish and quantitatively analyze nonapoptotic cells, early apoptotic cells, late apoptotic/necrotic cells, and dead cells through flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy. The percentage of apoptotic cells gradually increased and reached a maximum after 48 h of transfection. In conclusion, apoptosis induced by this GTPase-like protein may contribute to DHAV-1 pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyu Cao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Xumin Ou
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Dekang Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangpeng Ma
- China Rural Technology Development Center, Beijing, 100045, China
| | - Anchun Cheng
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China. .,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China. .,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.
| | - Mingshu Wang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China. .,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China. .,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.
| | - Shun Chen
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Renyong Jia
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Mafeng Liu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Kunfeng Sun
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiao Yang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Wu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoyue Chen
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
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19
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Mutagenesis of Coronavirus nsp14 Reveals Its Potential Role in Modulation of the Innate Immune Response. J Virol 2016; 90:5399-5414. [PMID: 27009949 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03259-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2015] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Coronavirus (CoV) nonstructural protein 14 (nsp14) is a 60-kDa protein encoded by the replicase gene that is part of the replication-transcription complex. It is a bifunctional enzyme bearing 3'-to-5' exoribonuclease (ExoN) and guanine-N7-methyltransferase (N7-MTase) activities. ExoN hydrolyzes single-stranded RNAs and double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) and is part of a proofreading system responsible for the high fidelity of CoV replication. nsp14 N7-MTase activity is required for viral mRNA cap synthesis and prevents the recognition of viral mRNAs as "non-self" by the host cell. In this work, a set of point mutants affecting different motifs within the ExoN domain of nsp14 was generated, using transmissible gastroenteritis virus as a model of Alphacoronavirus Mutants lacking ExoN activity were nonviable despite being competent in both viral RNA and protein synthesis. A specific mutation within zinc finger 1 (ZF-C) led to production of a viable virus with growth and viral RNA synthesis kinetics similar to that of the parental virus. Mutant recombinant transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) ZF-C (rTGEV-ZF-C) caused decreased cytopathic effect and apoptosis compared with the wild-type virus and reduced levels of dsRNA accumulation at late times postinfection. Consequently, the mutant triggered a reduced antiviral response, which was confirmed by evaluating different stages of the dsRNA-induced antiviral pathway. The expression of beta interferon (IFN-β), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and interferon-stimulated genes in cells infected with mutant rTGEV-ZF-C was reduced compared to the levels seen with the parental virus. Overall, our data revealed a potential role for CoV nsp14 in modulation of the innate immune response. IMPORTANCE The innate immune response is the first line of antiviral defense that culminates in the synthesis of interferon and proinflammatory cytokines to control viral replication. CoVs have evolved several mechanisms to counteract the innate immune response at different levels, but the role of CoV-encoded ribonucleases in preventing activation of the dsRNA-induced antiviral response has not been described to date. The introduction of a mutation in zinc finger 1 of the ExoN domain of nsp14 led to production of a virus that induced a weak antiviral response, most likely due to the accumulation of lower levels of dsRNA in the late phases of infection. These observations allowed us to propose a novel role for CoV nsp14 ExoN activity in counteracting the antiviral response, which could serve as a novel target for the design of antiviral strategies.
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20
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Wolff S, Groseth A, Meyer B, Jackson D, Strecker T, Kaufmann A, Becker S. The New World arenavirus Tacaribe virus induces caspase-dependent apoptosis in infected cells. J Gen Virol 2016; 97:855-866. [PMID: 26769540 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The Arenaviridae is a diverse and growing family of viruses that already includes more than 25 distinct species. While some of these viruses have a significant impact on public health, others appear to be non-pathogenic. At present little is known about the host cell responses to infection with different arenaviruses, particularly those found in the New World; however, apoptosis is known to play an important role in controlling infection of many viruses. Here we show that infection with Tacaribe virus (TCRV), which is widely considered the prototype for non-pathogenic arenaviruses, leads to stronger induction of apoptosis than does infection with its human-pathogenic relative Junín virus. TCRV-induced apoptosis occurred in several cell types during late stages of infection and was shown to be caspase-dependent, involving the activation of caspases 3, 7, 8 and 9. Further, UV-inactivated TCRV did not induce apoptosis, indicating that the activation of this process is dependent on active viral replication/transcription. Interestingly, when apoptosis was inhibited, growth of TCRV was not enhanced, indicating that apoptosis does not have a direct negative effect on TCRV infection in vitro. Taken together, our data identify and characterize an important virus-host cell interaction of the prototypic, non-pathogenic arenavirus TCRV, which provides important insight into the growing field of arenavirus research aimed at better understanding the diversity in responses to different arenavirus infections and their functional consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svenja Wolff
- Institut für Virologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein Str. 2, 35043, Marburg, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Gießen-Marburg-Langen, Hans-Meerwein Str. 2, 35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Allison Groseth
- Institut für Virologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein Str. 2, 35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Bjoern Meyer
- University of St Andrews, Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
| | - David Jackson
- University of St Andrews, Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Thomas Strecker
- Institut für Virologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein Str. 2, 35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Kaufmann
- Institut für Immunologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein Str. 2, 35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Stephan Becker
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Gießen-Marburg-Langen, Hans-Meerwein Str. 2, 35043, Marburg, Germany.,Institut für Virologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein Str. 2, 35043, Marburg, Germany
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21
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Jung K, Hu H, Saif LJ. Porcine deltacoronavirus induces apoptosis in swine testicular and LLC porcine kidney cell lines in vitro but not in infected intestinal enterocytes in vivo. Vet Microbiol 2015; 182:57-63. [PMID: 26711029 PMCID: PMC7117480 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Revised: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The mechanisms of PDCoV induced cell death in vivo and in vitro were unknown. No PDCoV-infected enterocytes in vivo showed positive TUNEL staining. TUNEL-positive signals (apoptotic nuclear fragmentation) were found in infected LLC-PK and ST cells that also showed cytopathic effects. PDCoV does not induce apoptosis in infected enterocytes in vivo, but in LLC-PK and ST cells in vitro.
We compared the mechanisms of porcine delatacoronavirus (PDCoV) induced death of infected enterocytes in vivo and infected LLC porcine kidney (LLC-PK) and swine testicular (ST) cells in vitro. We conducted histologic analysis and immunofluorescence (IF) staining for the detection of PDCoV antigens, and TUNEL assay in singly or serially cut tissue sections from the small and large intestines of four, 11- to 14-day-old gnotobiotic pigs, inoculated orally with 8.8–11.0 log10 genomic equivalents (GE) of US PDCoV strains OH-FD22 or OH-FD100 (n = 3), or mock (n = 1). Similar comparative assays were done on LLC-PK and ST cells inoculated with the cell-adapted PDCoV strain OH-FD22-P44 (passage 44) in cell culture medium with 2.5–10 μg/ml of trypsin and 1% pancreatin, respectively. At post-inoculation days 3–4, infected pigs showed severe watery diarrhea and/or vomiting and mainly, diffuse, severe atrophic enteritis, with mild to moderate cytoplasmic vacuolation of the enteroctyes lining the atrophied villous epithelium. By IF, PDCoV antigens were evident in villous or crypt epithelial cells. No PDCoV antigen-positive, small and large intestinal villous or crypt epithelial cells, of which cytoplasm was also either vacuolated or morphologically normal, showed positive TUNEL staining. In contrast, by double IF and TUNEL staining, most of the TUNEL-positive signals (apoptotic nuclear fragmentation) were found in PDCoV antigen-positive LLC-PK and ST cells that also showed cytopathic effects, such as cell rounding, detachment and clumping in clusters. Secondary annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) staining revealed increased numbers of annexin V- or PI-positive LLC-PK and ST cells at 21 h after inoculation, compared to the negative controls. Thus, PDCoV does not induce apoptosis in the infected intestinal enterocytes in vivo, but in two infected cell lines of swine origin, LLC-PK and ST cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwonil Jung
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio, USA.
| | - Hui Hu
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio, USA
| | - Linda J Saif
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio, USA.
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22
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Liang W, He L, Ning P, Lin J, Li H, Lin Z, Kang K, Zhang Y. (+)-Catechin inhibition of transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus in swine testicular cells is involved its antioxidation. Res Vet Sci 2015; 103:28-33. [PMID: 26679792 PMCID: PMC7111882 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2015.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2015] [Revised: 08/18/2015] [Accepted: 09/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) causes transmissible gastroenteritis (TGE), especially in newborn piglets, which severely threatens the worldwide pig industry. In this study, (+)-catechin was evaluated for its antiviral effect against TGEV in vitro. Viability assays revealed that (+)-catechin treatment exerted a dose-dependent rescue effect in TGEV-infected ST cells, and this result was only obtained with the post-treatment application of (+)-catechin. The viral yields in (+)-catechin-treated cultures were reduced by almost three log10 units. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis of the TGEV genome revealed that TGEV RNA replication was restricted after (+)-catechin treatment. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) detection showed that (+)-catechin alleviated ROS conditions induced by TGEV infection. Our results showed that (+)-catechin exerts an inhibitory effect on TGEV proliferation in vitro and is involved its antioxidation. (+)-Catechin has anti-TGEV effect. Anti-TGEV effect was working after TGEV infection. (+)-Catechin could relieve CPE caused by TGEV in ST cells. TGEV proliferation was decreased after (+)-catechin incubation. Antioxidation of (+)-catechin is related to its antiviral effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wulong Liang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China
| | - Lei He
- Animal Disease and Public Security Academician Workstation of Henan Province, The Key Lab of Animal Disease and Public Security, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471003, PR China
| | - Pengbo Ning
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China
| | - Jihui Lin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China
| | - Helin Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China
| | - Zhi Lin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China
| | - Kai Kang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China
| | - Yanming Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China.
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Guo X, Hu H, Chen F, Li Z, Ye S, Cheng S, Zhang M, He Q. iTRAQ-based comparative proteomic analysis of Vero cells infected with virulent and CV777 vaccine strain-like strains of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus. J Proteomics 2015; 130:65-75. [PMID: 26361011 PMCID: PMC7102838 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2015.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2015] [Revised: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The re-emerging porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) variant related diarrhea has been documented in China since late 2010 and now with global distribution. Currently, a virulent PEDV CH/YNKM-8/2013 and a CV777 vaccine strain-like AH-M have been successfully isolated from the clinical samples. To dissect out the underlying pathogenic mechanism of virulent PEDV and clarify the differences between virulent and CV777 vaccine strain-like PEDV infections, we performed an iTRAQ-based comparative quantitative proteomic study of Vero cells infected with both PEDV strains. A total of 661 and 474 differentially expressed proteins were identified upon virulent and CV777 vaccine strain-like isolates infection, respectively. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis was employed to investigate the canonical pathways and functional networks involved in both PEDV infections. Comprehensive studies have revealed that the PEDV virulent strain suppressed protein synthesis of Vero cells through down-regulating mTOR as well as its downstream targets 4EBP1 and p70S6K activities, which were validated by immunoblotting. In addition, the virulent strain could activate NF-κB pathway more intensively than the CV777 vaccine strain-like isolate, and elicit stronger inflammatory cascades as well. These data might provide new insights for elucidating the specific pathogenesis of PEDV infection, and pave the way for the development of effective therapeutic strategies. Biological significance Porcine epidemic diarrhea is now worldwide distributed and causing huge economic losses to swine industry. The immunomodulation and pathogenesis between PEDV and host, as well as the difference between virulent and attenuated strains of PEDV infections are still largely unknown. In this study, we presented for the first application of proteomic analysis to compare whole cellular protein alterations induced by virulent and CV777 vaccine strain-like PEDV infections, which might contribute to understand the pathogenesis of PEDV and anti-viral strategy development. Vero cells proteome was individually analyzed upon virulent and attenuated PEDV infections. Many pathways and interactive networks were constructed based on differentially expressed proteins. Virulent PEDV strain suppressed mTOR as well as its downstream targets 4EBP1 and p70S6K activities. Virulent PEDV strain activated NF-κB pathway more intensively than the attenuated isolate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaozhen Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Han Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Fangzhou Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zhonghua Li
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Shiyi Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Shuang Cheng
- Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Mengjia Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Qigai He
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
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24
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Cao L, Ge X, Gao Y, Ren Y, Ren X, Li G. Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus infection induces NF-κB activation through the TLR2, TLR3 and TLR9 pathways in porcine intestinal epithelial cells. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:1757-67. [PMID: 25814121 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.000133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is a coronavirus that induces persistent diarrhoea in swine, resulting in severe economic losses in swine-producing countries. Insights into the interplay between PEDV infection and the innate immune system are necessary for understanding the associated mechanism of pathogenesis. The transcription factor NF-κB plays an important role in regulating host immune responses. Here, we elucidated for the first time to our knowledge the potential mechanism of PEDV-mediated NF-κB activation in porcine small intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). During PEDV infection, NF-κB p65 was found to translocate from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, and PEDV-dependent NF-κB activity was associated with viral dose and active replication. Using small interfering RNAs to screen different mRNA components of the Toll-like receptor (TLR) or RIG-I-like receptor signalling pathways, we demonstrated that TLR2, TLR3 and TLR9 contribute to NF-κB activation in response to PEDV infection, but not RIG-I. By screening PEDV structural proteins for their ability to induce NF-κB activities, we found that PEDV nucleocapsid protein (N) could activate NF-κB and that the central region of N was essential for NF-κB activation. Furthermore, TLR2 was involved in PEDV N-induced NF-κB activation in IECs. Collectively, these findings provide new avenues of investigation into the molecular mechanisms of NF-κB activation induced by PEDV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyan Cao
- 1College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Xuying Ge
- 1College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Yu Gao
- 1College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Yudong Ren
- 2College of Electrical and Information, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Xiaofeng Ren
- 1College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Guangxing Li
- 1College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin 150030, PR China
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25
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Zhang H, Pi J, Tang C, Yue H, Yang F. An experimental study of the pathogenicity of a duck hepatitis A virus genotype C isolate in specific pathogen free ducklings. Avian Pathol 2014; 41:613-20. [PMID: 23237375 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2012.745641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Duck hepatitis A virus genotype C (DHAV-C), recognized recently, is one of the pathogens causing fatal duck viral hepatitis in ducklings, especially in Asia. To demonstrate the pathogenesis of the DHAV-C isolate, 3-day-old specific pathogen free ducklings were inoculated subcutaneously with a DHAV-C isolate and the clinical signs were observed. Virus distribution, histological and apoptotic morphological changes of various tissues were examined at different times post inoculation. The serial, characteristic changes included haemorrhage and swelling of the liver. Apoptotic cells and virus antigen staining were found in all of the tissues examined. Where more virus antigen staining was detected, there were more severe histopathological and apoptotic changes. The amount of virus antigen and the histological and apoptotic morphological changes agreed with each other and became increasingly severe with length of time after infection. Apoptotic cells were ubiquitously distributed, especially among lymphocytes, macrophages and monocytes in immune organs such as the bursa of Fabricius, thymus and spleen, and in liver, kidney and cerebral cells. Necrosis was also observed within 72 h post inoculation in all organs examined, except the cerebrum, and was characterized by cell swelling and collapsed plasma membrane. These results suggest that the recent outbreak of disease caused by DHAV-C virus is pantropic, causing apoptosis and necrosis of different organs. The apoptosis and necrosis caused by the DHAV-C field strain in this study is associated with pathogenesis and DHAV-C-induced lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanrong Zhang
- College of Life Science and Technology, Southwest University for Nationalities, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.
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26
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Ma R, Zhang Y, Liu H, Ning P. Proteome profile of swine testicular cells infected with porcine transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus. PLoS One 2014; 9:e110647. [PMID: 25333634 PMCID: PMC4204940 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The interactions occurring between a virus and a host cell during a viral infection are complex. The purpose of this paper was to analyze altered cellular protein levels in porcine transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus (TGEV)-infected swine testicular (ST) cells in order to determine potential virus-host interactions. A proteomic approach using isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ)-coupled two-dimensional liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry identification was conducted on the TGEV-infected ST cells. The results showed that the 4-plex iTRAQ-based quantitative approach identified 4,112 proteins, 146 of which showed significant changes in expression 48 h after infection. At 64 h post infection, 219 of these proteins showed significant change, further indicating that a larger number of proteomic changes appear to occur during the later stages of infection. Gene ontology analysis of the altered proteins showed enrichment in multiple biological processes, including cell adhesion, response to stress, generation of precursor metabolites and energy, cell motility, protein complex assembly, growth, developmental maturation, immune system process, extracellular matrix organization, locomotion, cell-cell signaling, neurological system process, and cell junction organization. Changes in the expression levels of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), caspase-8, and heat shock protein 90 alpha (HSP90α) were also verified by western blot analysis. To our knowledge, this study is the first time the response profile of ST host cells following TGEV infection has been analyzed using iTRAQ technology, and our description of the late proteomic changes that are occurring after the time of vigorous viral production are novel. Therefore, this study provides a solid foundation for further investigation, and will likely help us to better understand the mechanisms of TGEV infection and pathogenesis.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Line
- Chromatography, Liquid
- Gastroenteritis, Transmissible, of Swine/genetics
- Gastroenteritis, Transmissible, of Swine/metabolism
- Gastroenteritis, Transmissible, of Swine/pathology
- Gastroenteritis, Transmissible, of Swine/virology
- Gene Expression Regulation, Viral
- Male
- Proteome/genetics
- Swine
- Testis/metabolism
- Testis/pathology
- Testis/virology
- Transmissible gastroenteritis virus/genetics
- Transmissible gastroenteritis virus/pathogenicity
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruili Ma
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yanming Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
- * E-mail:
| | - Haiquan Liu
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Xi’an Technological University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Pengbo Ning
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
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27
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The endoplasmic reticulum stress sensor IRE1α protects cells from apoptosis induced by the coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus. J Virol 2014; 88:12752-64. [PMID: 25142592 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02138-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The unfolded-protein response (UPR) is a signal transduction cascade triggered by perturbation of the homeostasis of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). UPR resolves ER stress by activating a cascade of cellular responses, including the induction of molecular chaperones, translational attenuation, ER-associated degradation, and other mechanisms. Under prolonged and irremediable ER stress, however, the UPR can also trigger apoptosis. Here, we report that in cells infected with the avian coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), ER stress was induced and the IRE1α-XBP1 pathway of UPR was activated. Knockdown and overexpression experiments demonstrated that IRE1α protects infected cells from IBV-induced apoptosis, which required both its kinase and RNase activities. Our data also suggest that splicing of XBP1 mRNA by IRE1α appears to convert XBP1 from a proapoptotic XBP1u protein to a prosurvival XBP1s protein. Moreover, IRE1α antagonized IBV-induced apoptosis by modulating the phosphorylation status of the proapoptotic c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and the prosurvival RAC-alpha serine/threonine-protein kinase (Akt). Taken together, the data indicate that the ER stress sensor IRE1α is activated in IBV-infected cells and serves as a survival factor during coronavirus infection. IMPORTANCE Animal coronaviruses are important veterinary viruses, which could cross the species barrier, becoming severe human pathogens. Molecular characterization of the interactions between coronaviruses and host cells is pivotal to understanding the pathogenicity and species specificity of coronavirus infection. It has been well established that the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is closely associated with coronavirus replication. Here, we report that inositol-requiring protein 1 alpha (IRE1α), a key sensor of ER stress, is activated in cells infected with the avian coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). Moreover, IRE1α is shown to protect the infected cells from apoptosis by modulating the unfolded-protein response (UPR) and two kinases related to cell survival. This study demonstrates that UPR activation constitutes a major aspect of coronavirus-host interactions. Manipulations of the coronavirus-induced UPR may provide novel therapeutic targets for the control of coronavirus infection and pathogenesis.
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28
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Kim Y, Lee C. Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus induces caspase-independent apoptosis through activation of mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor. Virology 2014; 460-461:180-93. [PMID: 25010284 PMCID: PMC7127720 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.04.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2014] [Revised: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/30/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The present study sought to investigate whether porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) induces apoptosis and to elucidate the mechanisms associated with apoptotic cell death after PEDV infection. PEDV-infected cells showed evidence of apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. However, experimental data indicated that the caspase cascade is not involved in PEDV-induced apoptotic cell death. Interestingly, mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) was found to translocate to the nucleus during PEDV infection, and AIF relocalization was completely abrogated by the presence of cyclosporin A (CsA), an inhibitor of cyclophilin D (CypD) that is an essential component of the mitochondrial permeabilization transition pore (mPTP) complex. CsA treatment resulted in significant inhibition of PEDV-triggered apoptosis and suppressed PEDV replication. Furthermore, direct inhibition of AIF strongly impaired PEDV infection and virus-induced apoptosis. Altogether, our results indicate that a caspase-independent mitochondrial AIF-mediated pathway plays a central role in PEDV-induced apoptosis to facilitate viral replication and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youngnam Kim
- Animal Virology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, BK21 Plus KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 702-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Changhee Lee
- Animal Virology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, BK21 Plus KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 702-701, Republic of Korea.
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29
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Lv X, Wang P, Bai R, Cong Y, Suo S, Ren X, Chen C. Inhibitory effect of silver nanomaterials on transmissible virus-induced host cell infections. Biomaterials 2014; 35:4195-203. [PMID: 24524838 PMCID: PMC7112386 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.01.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Coronaviruses belong to the family Coronaviridae, which primarily cause infection of the upper respiratory and gastrointestinal tract of hosts. Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) is an economically significant coronavirus that can cause severe diarrhea in pigs. Silver nanomaterials (Ag NMs) have attracted great interests in recent years due to their excellent anti-microorganism properties. Herein, four representative Ag NMs including spherical Ag nanoparticles (Ag NPs, NM-300), two kinds of silver nanowires (XFJ011) and silver colloids (XFJ04) were selected to study their inhibitory effect on TGEV-induced host cell infection in vitro. Ag NPs were uniformly distributed, with particle sizes less than 20 nm by characterization of environmental scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope. Two types of silver nanowires were 60 nm and 400 nm in diameter, respectively. The average diameter of the silver colloids was approximately 10 nm. TGEV infection induced the occurring of apoptosis in swine testicle (ST) cells, down-regulated the expression of Bcl-2, up-regulated the expression of Bax, altered mitochondrial membrane potential, activated p38 MAPK signal pathway, and increased expression of p53 as evidenced by immunofluorescence assays, real-time PCR, flow cytometry and Western blot. Under non-toxic concentrations, Ag NPs and silver nanowires significantly diminished the infectivity of TGEV in ST cells. Moreover, further results showed that Ag NPs and silver nanowires decreased the number of apoptotic cells induced by TGEV through regulating p38/mitochondria-caspase-3 signaling pathway. Our data indicate that Ag NMs are effective in prevention of TGEV-mediated cell infection as a virucidal agent or as an inhibitor of viral entry and the present findings may provide new insights into antiviral therapy of coronaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaonan Lv
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, No. 59, Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin 150030, PR China; National Center for Nanoscience and Technology of China, No. 11, Beiyitiao, Zhongguancun, Beijing 100190, PR China
| | - Peng Wang
- National Center for Nanoscience and Technology of China, No. 11, Beiyitiao, Zhongguancun, Beijing 100190, PR China
| | - Ru Bai
- National Center for Nanoscience and Technology of China, No. 11, Beiyitiao, Zhongguancun, Beijing 100190, PR China
| | - Yingying Cong
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, No. 59, Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Siqingaowa Suo
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, No. 59, Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Xiaofeng Ren
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, No. 59, Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin 150030, PR China.
| | - Chunying Chen
- National Center for Nanoscience and Technology of China, No. 11, Beiyitiao, Zhongguancun, Beijing 100190, PR China.
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30
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Ding L, Huang Y, Du Q, Dong F, Zhao X, Zhang W, Xu X, Tong D. TGEV nucleocapsid protein induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis through activation of p53 signaling. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2014; 445:497-503. [PMID: 24548406 PMCID: PMC7092941 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.02.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2014] [Accepted: 02/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
TGEV N protein reduces cell viability by inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. TGEV N protein induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis by regulating p53 signaling. TGEV N protein plays important roles in TGEV-induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis.
Our previous studies showed that TGEV infection could induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis via activation of p53 signaling in cultured host cells. However, it is unclear which viral gene causes these effects. In this study, we investigated the effects of TGEV nucleocapsid (N) protein on PK-15 cells. We found that TGEV N protein suppressed cell proliferation by causing cell cycle arrest at the S and G2/M phases and apoptosis. Characterization of various cellular proteins that are involved in regulating cell cycle progression demonstrated that the expression of N gene resulted in an accumulation of p53 and p21, which suppressed cyclin B1, cdc2 and cdk2 expression. Moreover, the expression of TGEV N gene promoted translocation of Bax to mitochondria, which in turn caused the release of cytochrome c, followed by activation of caspase-3, resulting in cell apoptosis in the transfected PK-15 cells following cell cycle arrest. Further studies showed that p53 inhibitor attenuated TGEV N protein induced cell cycle arrest at S and G2/M phases and apoptosis through reversing the expression changes of cdc2, cdk2 and cyclin B1 and the translocation changes of Bax and cytochrome c induced by TGEV N protein. Taken together, these results demonstrated that TGEV N protein might play an important role in TGEV infection-induced p53 activation and cell cycle arrest at the S and G2/M phases and apoptosis occurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Ding
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China; College of Life Sciences, Hainan Normal University, Haikou, Hainan 571158, PR China
| | - Yong Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China
| | - Qian Du
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China
| | - Feng Dong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China
| | - Xiaomin Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China
| | - Wenlong Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China
| | - Xingang Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China
| | - Dewen Tong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China.
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Regulation of ROS in transmissible gastroenteritis virus-activated apoptotic signaling. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013; 442:33-7. [PMID: 24225120 PMCID: PMC7092821 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.10.164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
TGEV infection induced ROS accumulation. ROS accumulation is involved in TGEV-induced mitochondrial integrity impairment. ROS is associated with p53 activation and apoptosis occurrence in TGEV-infected cells.
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), an enteropathogenic coronavirus, causes severe lethal watery diarrhea and dehydration in piglets. Previous studies indicate that TGEV infection induces cell apoptosis in host cells. In this study, we investigated the roles and regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in TGEV-activated apoptotic signaling. The results showed that TGEV infection induced ROS accumulation, whereas UV-irradiated TGEV did not promote ROS accumulation. In addition, TGEV infection lowered mitochondrial transmembrane potential in PK-15 cell line, which could be inhibited by ROS scavengers, pyrrolidinedithiocarbamic (PDTC) and N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC). Furthermore, the two scavengers significantly inhibited the activation of p38 MAPK and p53 and further blocked apoptosis occurrence through suppressing the TGEV-induced Bcl-2 reduction, Bax redistribution, cytochrome c release and caspase-3 activation. These results suggest that oxidative stress pathway might be a key element in TGEV-induced apoptosis and TGEV pathogenesis.
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Huang Y, Ding L, Li Z, Dai M, Zhao X, Li W, Du Q, Xu X, Tong D. Transmissible gastroenteritis virus infection induces cell apoptosis via activation of p53 signalling. J Gen Virol 2013; 94:1807-1817. [DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.051557-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) infection induced apoptosis in several cell lines in vitro. Our previous studies demonstrated that TGEV could activate FasL- and mitochondria-mediated pathways to induce apoptosis in PK-15 cells. In this study, we investigated the regulation of p53 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) signalling pathways in the interaction of TGEV with host cells. We observed that TGEV infection decreased p300/CBP, downregulated MDM2 and promoted p53 phosphorylation at serines 15, 20 and 46, resulting in accumulation and activation of p53 in PK-15 cells. TGEV infection induced the transient activation of p38 MAPK in the early phase of inoculation and constant activation in the later phase of infection. However, UV-irradiated TGEV did not promote the activation of p53 and p38 MAPK in the later phase, whereas it only triggered the transient activation of p38 MAPK in the early phase. Blocking of p53 activation significantly inhibited the occurrence of apoptosis through suppressing the TGEV-induced FasL expression, Bcl-2 reduction, Bax and cytochrome c redistribution, while inhibition of p38 activity moderately blocked apoptosis induction and partly attenuated the accumulation and activation of p53. However, inhibition of p38 and p53 activity had no significant effects on viral gene transcription at 12 and 24 h post-infection. Taken together, these results demonstrated that TGEV infection promoted the activation of p38 MAPK and p53 signalling, and p53 signalling might play a dominant role in the regulation of cell apoptosis. These findings provide new insights into the function of p53 and p38 MAPK in the interaction of TGEV with host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, P.R. China
| | - Li Ding
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, P.R. China
| | - Zhaocai Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, P.R. China
| | - Meiling Dai
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, P.R. China
| | - Xiaomin Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, P.R. China
| | - Wei Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, P.R. China
| | - Qian Du
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, P.R. China
| | - Xingang Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, P.R. China
| | - Dewen Tong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, P.R. China
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Lan D, Tang C, Yue H, Sun H, Cui L, Hua X, Li J. Microarray analysis of differentially expressed transcripts in porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) infected with porcine sapelovirus as a model to study innate immune responses to enteric viruses. Arch Virol 2013; 158:1467-75. [PMID: 23417395 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-013-1638-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2012] [Accepted: 01/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The local intestinal mucosa, the largest mucosal immune system in animals, plays an important role in resistance against intestinal pathogen infection. However, the molecular antiviral mechanisms of the intestinal mucosa remain poorly understood. In this study, we screened and identified differentially expressed transcripts in (PSV) porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) infected with porcine sapelovirus using microarray analysis. A total of 2298 differentially expressed genes were screened at four time points during PSV infection. These genes were involved in numerous physical systems and molecular pathways, and particularly, some innate immune-associated pathways were significant. The results showed that large amounts of type I interferon were induced, and the related interferon effect pathway was activated when IPEC-J2 cells were infected with PSV. Three pathways of innate immune receptors, including Toll-like, NOD-like, and RIG-I-like receptors, were also activated. The antigen was then processed and presented through the MHCI and MHCII pathways. Interestingly, we found that the secretion network of IgA was activated in the early stage of PSV infection. Two exogenous and endogenous apoptosis pathways were also activated during PSV infection. The results revealed changes in gene transcription, particularly those of innate immune pathway genes that were associated with PSV infection in IPEC-J2 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daoliang Lan
- Hi-tech Research and Development Base for Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Ecological Conservation and Stock Farming, Southwest University for Nationality, Chengdu, China
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Chen S, Cheng A, Wang M, Zhu D, Jia R, Luo Q, Cui H, Zhou Y, Wang Y, Xu Z, Chen Z, Chen X, Wang X. Apoptosis induced in vivo by new type gosling viral enteritis virus. J Vet Sci 2012; 12:333-9. [PMID: 22122899 PMCID: PMC3232392 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.2011.12.4.333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, apoptosis was induced by new type gosling viral enteritis virus (NGVEV) in experimentally infected goslings is reported in detail for the first time. After 3-day-old goslings were orally inoculated with a NGVEV-CN strain suspension, the time course of NGVEV effects on apoptotic morphological changes of the internal tissues was evaluated. These changes were observed by histological analysis with light microscopy and ultrastructural analysis with transmission electron microscopy. DNA fragmentation was assessed with a terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end-labeling (TUNEL) assay and DNA ladder analysis. A series of characteristic apoptotic morphological changes including chromatin condensation and margination, cytoplasmic shrinkage, plasma membrane blebbing, and formation of apoptotic bodies were noted. Apoptosis was readily observed in the lymphoid and gastrointestinal organs, and sporadically occurred in other organs after 3 days post-infection (PI). The presence and quantity of TUNEL-positive cells increased with infection time until 9 days PI. DNA extracted from the NGVEV-infected gosling cells displayed characteristic 180~200 bp ladders. Apoptotic cells were ubiquitously distributed, especially among lymphocytes, macrophages, monocytes, and epithelial and intestinal cells. Necrosis was subsequently detected during the late NGVEV-infection phase, which was characterized by cell swelling, plasma membrane collapse, and rapidly lysis. Our results suggested that apoptosis may play an important role in the pathogenesis of NGVE disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shun Chen
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Yaan 625014, China
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Abstract
Viral infection constitutes an unwanted intrusion that needs to be eradicated by host cells. On one hand, one of the first protective barriers set up to prevent viral replication, spread or persistence involves the induction of apoptotic cell death that aims to limit the availability of the cellular components for viral amplification. On the other hand, while they completely depend on the host molecular machinery, viruses also need to evade the cellular responses that are meant to destroy them. The existence of numerous antiapoptotic products within the viral kingdom proves that apoptosis constitutes a major threat that should better be bypassed. Among the different strategies developed to deal with apoptosis, one is based on what viruses do best: backfiring the cell on itself. Several unrelated viruses have been described to take advantage of apoptosis induction by expressing proteins targeted by caspases, the key effectors of apoptotic cell death. Caspase cleavage of these proteins results in various consequences, from logical apoptosis inhibition to more surprising enhancement or attenuation of viral replication. The present review aims at discussing the characterization and relevance of this post-translational modification that adds a new complexity in the already intricate host-apoptosis-virus triangle.
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Transmissible gastroenteritis virus infection induces apoptosis through FasL- and mitochondria-mediated pathways. Vet Microbiol 2012; 158:12-22. [PMID: 22341312 PMCID: PMC7117245 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2011] [Revised: 01/13/2012] [Accepted: 01/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) has been reported to induce apoptosis in swine testis (ST) cells. However, the mechanisms underlying TGEV-induced apoptosis are still unclear. In this study we observed that TGEV infection induced apoptosis in porcine kidney (PK-15) cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. TGEV infection up-regulated FasL, activated FasL-mediated apoptotic pathway, leading to activation of caspase-8 and cleavage of Bid. In addition, TGEV infection down-regulated Bcl-2, up-regulated Bax expression, promoted translocation of Bax to mitochondria, activated mitochondria-mediated apoptotic pathway, which in turn caused the release of cytochrome c and the activation of caspase-9. Both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways activated downstream effector caspase-3, followed by the cleavage of PARP, resulting in cell apoptosis. Moreover, TGEV infection did not induce significant DNA fragmentation in ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) pretreated PK-15 cells or cells infected with UV-inactivated TGEV. In turn, block of caspases activation also did not affect TGEV replication. Taken together, this study demonstrates that TGEV-induced apoptosis is dependent on viral replication in PK-15 cells and occurs through activation of FasL- and mitochondria-mediated apoptotic pathways.
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Yin J, Li G, Li J, Yang Q, Ren X. In vitro and in vivo effects of Houttuynia cordata on infectious bronchitis virus. Avian Pathol 2011; 40:491-8. [PMID: 21848486 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2011.605107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), a coronavirus, causes infectious bronchitis leading to enormous economic loss in the poultry industry worldwide. Houttuynia cordata (Saururaceae) (HC) is a traditional Chinese medicine used in China. In the present study, the effect of HC on cell infection by IBV was determined using plaque assay and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. The inhibitory effect of HC on IBV infection in ovo and in vivo was analysed using specific pathogen free (SPF) chicken embryos and chickens. Moreover, the effect of HC on cell apoptosis induced by IBV was investigated. Results showed that HC had more than 90% inhibition rate against IBV infection in Vero cells and chicken embryo kidney cells, and decreased more than 90% apoptotic cells caused by IBV. HC fully protected the SPF embryos, and had more than 50% protection rate in SPF chickens, against IBV challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiechao Yin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, 150030, Harbin, China
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Maestre AM, Garzón A, Rodríguez D. Equine torovirus (BEV) induces caspase-mediated apoptosis in infected cells. PLoS One 2011; 6:e20972. [PMID: 21698249 PMCID: PMC3115971 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2011] [Accepted: 05/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Toroviruses are gastroenteritis causing agents that infect different animal species and humans. To date, very little is known about how toroviruses cause disease. Here, we describe for the first time that the prototype member of this genus, the equine torovirus Berne virus (BEV), induces apoptosis in infected cells at late times postinfection. Observation of BEV infected cells by electron microscopy revealed that by 24 hours postinfection some cells exhibited morphological characteristics of apoptotic cells. Based on this finding, we analyzed several apoptotic markers, and observed protein synthesis inhibition, rRNA and DNA degradation, nuclear fragmentation, caspase-mediated cleavage of PARP and eIF4GI, and PKR and eIF2α phosphorylation, all these processes taking place after peak virus production. We also determined that both cell death receptor and mitochondrial pathways are involved in the apoptosis process induced by BEV. BEV-induced apoptosis at late times postinfection, once viral progeny are produced, could facilitate viral dissemination in vivo and contribute to viral pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana M. Maestre
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Garzón
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Dolores Rodríguez
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail:
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Cruz JLG, Sola I, Becares M, Alberca B, Plana J, Enjuanes L, Zuñiga S. Coronavirus gene 7 counteracts host defenses and modulates virus virulence. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002090. [PMID: 21695242 PMCID: PMC3111541 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2010] [Accepted: 04/12/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) genome contains three accessory genes: 3a, 3b and 7. Gene 7 is only present in members of coronavirus genus a1, and encodes a hydrophobic protein of 78 aa. To study gene 7 function, a recombinant TGEV virus lacking gene 7 was engineered (rTGEV-Δ7). Both the mutant and the parental (rTGEV-wt) viruses showed the same growth and viral RNA accumulation kinetics in tissue cultures. Nevertheless, cells infected with rTGEV-Δ7 virus showed an increased cytopathic effect caused by an enhanced apoptosis mediated by caspase activation. Macromolecular synthesis analysis showed that rTGEV-Δ7 virus infection led to host translational shut-off and increased cellular RNA degradation compared with rTGEV-wt infection. An increase of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 (eIF2α) phosphorylation and an enhanced nuclease, most likely RNase L, activity were observed in rTGEV-Δ7 virus infected cells. These results suggested that the removal of gene 7 promoted an intensified dsRNA-activated host antiviral response. In protein 7 a conserved sequence motif that potentially mediates binding to protein phosphatase 1 catalytic subunit (PP1c), a key regulator of the cell antiviral defenses, was identified. We postulated that TGEV protein 7 may counteract host antiviral response by its association with PP1c. In fact, pull-down assays demonstrated the interaction between TGEV protein 7, but not a protein 7 mutant lacking PP1c binding motif, with PP1. Moreover, the interaction between protein 7 and PP1 was required, during the infection, for eIF2α dephosphorylation and inhibition of cell RNA degradation. Inoculation of newborn piglets with rTGEV-Δ7 and rTGEV-wt viruses showed that rTGEV-Δ7 virus presented accelerated growth kinetics and pathology compared with the parental virus. Overall, the results indicated that gene 7 counteracted host cell defenses, and modified TGEV persistence increasing TGEV survival. Therefore, the acquisition of gene 7 by the TGEV genome most likely has provided a selective advantage to the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jazmina L. G. Cruz
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CNB, CSIC, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Darwin 3, Campus Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | - Isabel Sola
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CNB, CSIC, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Darwin 3, Campus Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | - Martina Becares
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CNB, CSIC, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Darwin 3, Campus Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Luis Enjuanes
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CNB, CSIC, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Darwin 3, Campus Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail:
| | - Sonia Zuñiga
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CNB, CSIC, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Darwin 3, Campus Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
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Abstract
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) genome contains three accessory genes: 3a, 3b and 7. Gene 7 is only present in members of coronavirus genus a1, and encodes a hydrophobic protein of 78 aa. To study gene 7 function, a recombinant TGEV virus lacking gene 7 was engineered (rTGEV-Δ7). Both the mutant and the parental (rTGEV-wt) viruses showed the same growth and viral RNA accumulation kinetics in tissue cultures. Nevertheless, cells infected with rTGEV-Δ7 virus showed an increased cytopathic effect caused by an enhanced apoptosis mediated by caspase activation. Macromolecular synthesis analysis showed that rTGEV-Δ7 virus infection led to host translational shut-off and increased cellular RNA degradation compared with rTGEV-wt infection. An increase of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 (eIF2α) phosphorylation and an enhanced nuclease, most likely RNase L, activity were observed in rTGEV-Δ7 virus infected cells. These results suggested that the removal of gene 7 promoted an intensified dsRNA-activated host antiviral response. In protein 7 a conserved sequence motif that potentially mediates binding to protein phosphatase 1 catalytic subunit (PP1c), a key regulator of the cell antiviral defenses, was identified. We postulated that TGEV protein 7 may counteract host antiviral response by its association with PP1c. In fact, pull-down assays demonstrated the interaction between TGEV protein 7, but not a protein 7 mutant lacking PP1c binding motif, with PP1. Moreover, the interaction between protein 7 and PP1 was required, during the infection, for eIF2α dephosphorylation and inhibition of cell RNA degradation. Inoculation of newborn piglets with rTGEV-Δ7 and rTGEV-wt viruses showed that rTGEV-Δ7 virus presented accelerated growth kinetics and pathology compared with the parental virus. Overall, the results indicated that gene 7 counteracted host cell defenses, and modified TGEV persistence increasing TGEV survival. Therefore, the acquisition of gene 7 by the TGEV genome most likely has provided a selective advantage to the virus.
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Ren X, Meng F, Yin J, Li G, Li X, Wang C, Herrler G. Action mechanisms of lithium chloride on cell infection by transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus. PLoS One 2011; 6:e18669. [PMID: 21573100 PMCID: PMC3089605 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2010] [Accepted: 03/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) is a porcine coronavirus. Lithium chloride (LiCl) has been found to be effective against several DNA viruses, such as Herpes simplex virus and vaccinia virus. Recently, we and others have reported the inhibitory effect of LiCl on avian infectious bronchitis coronavirus (IBV) infection, an RNA virus. In the current study, the action mechanism of LiCl on cell infection by TGEV was investigated. Plaque assays and 3-(4,5)-dimethylthiahiazo(-z-y1)-3,5-di-phenyl tetrazoliumbromide (MTT) assays showed that the cell infection by TGEV was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner, when LiCl was added to virus-infected cells; the cell infection was not affected when either cells or viruses were pretreated with the drug. The inhibition of TGEV infection in vitro by LiCl was observed at different virus doses and with different cell lines. The inhibitory effect of LiCl against TGEV infection and transcription was confirmed by RT-PCR and real-time PCR targeting viral S and 3CL-protease genes. The time-of-addition effect of the drug on TGEV infection indicated that LiCl acted on the initial and late stage of TGEV infection. The production of virus was not detected at 36 h post-infection due to the drug treatment. Moreover, immunofluorescence (IF) and flow cytometry analyses based on staining of Annexin V and propidium iodide staining of nuclei indicated that early and late cell apoptosis induced by TGEV was inhibited efficiently. The ability of LiCl to inhibit apoptosis was investigated by IF analysis of caspase-3 expression. Our data indicate that LiCl inhibits TGEV infection by exerting an anti-apoptotic effect. The inhibitory effect of LiCl was also observed with porcine epidemic diarrhea coronavirus. Together with other reports concerning the inhibitory effect of lithium salts on IBV in cell culture, our results indicate that LiCl may be a potent agent against porcine and avian coronaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China.
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Ren X, Liu B, Yin J, Zhang H, Li G. Phage displayed peptides recognizing porcine aminopeptidase N inhibit transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus infection in vitro. Virology 2010; 410:299-306. [PMID: 21176936 PMCID: PMC7111919 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2010] [Revised: 06/22/2010] [Accepted: 11/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Porcine aminopeptidase N (pAPN) is a cellular receptor of transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), a porcine coronavirus. Interaction between the spike (S) protein of TGEV and pAPN initiates cell infection. Small molecules, especially peptides are an expanding area for therapy or diagnostic assays for viral diseases. Here, the peptides capable of binding the pAPN were, for the first time, identified by biopanning using a random 12-mer peptide library to the immobilized protein. Three chemically synthesized peptides recognizing the pAPN showed effective inhibition ability to TGEV infection in vitro. A putative TxxF motif was identified in the S protein of TGEV. Phages bearing the specific peptides interacted with the pAPN in ELISA. 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assays confirmed the protective effect of the peptides on cell infection by TGEV. Moreover, the excellent immune responses in mice induced by the identified phages provided the possibility to develop novel phage-based vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
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Emmott E, Rodgers MA, Macdonald A, McCrory S, Ajuh P, Hiscox JA. Quantitative proteomics using stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture reveals changes in the cytoplasmic, nuclear, and nucleolar proteomes in Vero cells infected with the coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus. Mol Cell Proteomics 2010; 9:1920-36. [PMID: 20467043 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m900345-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Virus-host interactions involve complex interplay between viral and host factors, rendering them an ideal target for proteomic analysis. Here we detail a high throughput quantitative proteomics analysis of Vero cells infected with the coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), a positive strand RNA virus that replicates in the cytoplasm. Stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) was used in conjunction with LC-MS/MS to identify and quantify 1830 cellular and two viral proteins from IBV-infected cells. Fractionation of cells into cytoplasmic, nuclear, and nucleolar extracts was used to reduce sample complexity and provide information on the trafficking of proteins between the different compartments. Each fraction showed a proportion of proteins exhibiting >or=2-fold changes in abundance. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis revealed that proteins that changed in response to infection could be grouped into different functional categories. These included proteins regulated by NF-kappaB- and AP-1-dependent pathways and proteins involved in the cytoskeleton and molecular motors. A luciferase-based reporter gene assay was used to validate the up-regulation of AP-1- and NF-kappaB-dependent transcription in IBV-infected cells and confirmed using immunofluorescence. Immunofluorescence was used to validate changes in the subcellular localization of vimentin and myosin VI in IBV-infected cells. The proteomics analysis also confirmed the presence of the viral nucleocapsid protein as localizing in the cytoplasm, nucleus, and nucleolus and the viral membrane protein in the cytoplasmic fraction. This research is the first application of SILAC to study total host cell proteome changes in response to positive sense RNA virus infection and illustrates the versatility of this technique as applied to infectious disease research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward Emmott
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
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De Martino L, Marfé G, Longo M, Fiorito F, Montagnaro S, Iovane V, Decaro N, Pagnini U. Bid cleavage, cytochrome c release and caspase activation in canine coronavirus-induced apoptosis. Vet Microbiol 2009; 141:36-45. [PMID: 19781871 PMCID: PMC7117139 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2009] [Revised: 08/06/2009] [Accepted: 09/04/2009] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
A previous study demonstrated that infection of a canine fibrosarcoma cell line (A-72 cells) by canine coronavirus (CCoV) resulted in apoptosis (Ruggieri et al., 2007). In this study, we investigated the cell death processes during infection and the underlying mechanisms. We found that CCoV-II triggers apoptosis in A-72 cells by activating initiator (caspase-8 and -9) and executioner (caspase-3 and -6) caspases. The proteolytic cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) confirmed the activation of executioner caspases. Furthermore, CCoV-II infection resulted in truncated bid (tbid) translocation from the cytosolic to the mitochondrial fraction, the cytochrome c release from mitochondria, and alterations in the pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins of bcl-2 family. Our data indicated that, in this experimental model, both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways are involved. In addition, we demonstrated that the inhibition of apoptosis by caspase inhibitors did not affect CCoV replication, suggesting that apoptosis does not play a role in facilitating viral release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa De Martino
- Department of Pathology and Animal Health, Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Naples Federico II, Via F. Delpino 1, 80137 Naples, Italy
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Zhang L, Wei L, Jiang D, Wang J, Cong X, Fei R. SARS-CoV Nucleocapsid Protein Induced Apoptosis of COS-1 Mediated by the Mitochondrial Pathway. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 35:237-53. [PMID: 17453707 DOI: 10.1080/10731190601188422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the apoptosis effect of SARS coronavirus nucleocapsid protein on cultured cell lines and to explore the possible pathway of apoptosis. pCDNA3.1(-)/his-myc vector containing the SARS coronavirus nucleocapsid gene (N), matric gene (M), spike gene (S) were transfected into COS-1, Huh-7 and HepG2 cells. Apoptosis induced by SARS coronavirus N protein under starvation of serum of COS-1 cells was monitored by Annexin V and electron microscopy assays. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial membrane potential (DeltaPsim) were determined by flow cytometric assay. Cytochrome C, cleaved caspase (cysteine aspartic acid protease)-3, 9, and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) were detected by Western blot. After removal of serum in COS-1 cells, we observed the loss of DeltaPsim, the increase of ROS and cytochrome C release into cytosol and subsequent activation of caspase-3 and PARP cleavage. The pan-caspase inhibitor z-VAD-fmk can block the activation of caspase 3, 9 and PARP cleavage. In conclusion, SARS coronavirus N protein can induce apoptosis of COS-1 cells by activating mitochondrial pathway. SARS coronavirus M, S protein can not induce apoptosis in COS-1, HepG2 and Huh-7 and SARS coronavirus N protein can not induce apoptosis in HepG2 and Huh-7 by methods used in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Zhang
- Hepatology Institute, Peking University, People's Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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Tan J, Vonrhein C, Smart OS, Bricogne G, Bollati M, Kusov Y, Hansen G, Mesters JR, Schmidt CL, Hilgenfeld R. The SARS-unique domain (SUD) of SARS coronavirus contains two macrodomains that bind G-quadruplexes. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5:e1000428. [PMID: 19436709 PMCID: PMC2674928 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2008] [Accepted: 04/13/2009] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003, the three-dimensional structures of several of the replicase/transcriptase components of SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV), the non-structural proteins (Nsps), have been determined. However, within the large Nsp3 (1922 amino-acid residues), the structure and function of the so-called SARS-unique domain (SUD) have remained elusive. SUD occurs only in SARS-CoV and the highly related viruses found in certain bats, but is absent from all other coronaviruses. Therefore, it has been speculated that it may be involved in the extreme pathogenicity of SARS-CoV, compared to other coronaviruses, most of which cause only mild infections in humans. In order to help elucidate the function of the SUD, we have determined crystal structures of fragment 389-652 ("SUD(core)") of Nsp3, which comprises 264 of the 338 residues of the domain. Both the monoclinic and triclinic crystal forms (2.2 and 2.8 A resolution, respectively) revealed that SUD(core) forms a homodimer. Each monomer consists of two subdomains, SUD-N and SUD-M, with a macrodomain fold similar to the SARS-CoV X-domain. However, in contrast to the latter, SUD fails to bind ADP-ribose, as determined by zone-interference gel electrophoresis. Instead, the entire SUD(core) as well as its individual subdomains interact with oligonucleotides known to form G-quadruplexes. This includes oligodeoxy- as well as oligoribonucleotides. Mutations of selected lysine residues on the surface of the SUD-N subdomain lead to reduction of G-quadruplex binding, whereas mutations in the SUD-M subdomain abolish it. As there is no evidence for Nsp3 entering the nucleus of the host cell, the SARS-CoV genomic RNA or host-cell mRNA containing long G-stretches may be targets of SUD. The SARS-CoV genome is devoid of G-stretches longer than 5-6 nucleotides, but more extended G-stretches are found in the 3'-nontranslated regions of mRNAs coding for certain host-cell proteins involved in apoptosis or signal transduction, and have been shown to bind to SUD in vitro. Therefore, SUD may be involved in controlling the host cell's response to the viral infection. Possible interference with poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-like domains is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinzhi Tan
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Structural and Cell Biology in Medicine, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Clemens Vonrhein
- Global Phasing Ltd., Sheraton House, Castle Park, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Oliver S. Smart
- Global Phasing Ltd., Sheraton House, Castle Park, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Gerard Bricogne
- Global Phasing Ltd., Sheraton House, Castle Park, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Michela Bollati
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Structural and Cell Biology in Medicine, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Yuri Kusov
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Structural and Cell Biology in Medicine, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Guido Hansen
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Structural and Cell Biology in Medicine, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Jeroen R. Mesters
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Structural and Cell Biology in Medicine, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Christian L. Schmidt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Structural and Cell Biology in Medicine, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Rolf Hilgenfeld
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Structural and Cell Biology in Medicine, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
- Laboratory for Structural Biology of Infection and Inflammation, c/o DESY, Hamburg, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Ponnusamy R, Moll R, Weimar T, Mesters JR, Hilgenfeld R. Variable oligomerization modes in coronavirus non-structural protein 9. J Mol Biol 2008; 383:1081-96. [PMID: 18694760 PMCID: PMC7094590 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2008.07.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2008] [Revised: 07/17/2008] [Accepted: 07/24/2008] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Non-structural protein 9 (Nsp9) of coronaviruses is believed to bind single-stranded RNA in the viral replication complex. The crystal structure of Nsp9 of human coronavirus (HCoV) 229E reveals a novel disulfide-linked homodimer, which is very different from the previously reported Nsp9 dimer of SARS coronavirus. In contrast, the structure of the Cys69Ala mutant of HCoV-229E Nsp9 shows the same dimer organization as the SARS-CoV protein. In the crystal, the wild-type HCoV-229E protein forms a trimer of dimers, whereas the mutant and SARS-CoV Nsp9 are organized in rod-like polymers. Chemical cross-linking suggests similar modes of aggregation in solution. In zone-interference gel electrophoresis assays and surface plasmon resonance experiments, the HCoV-229E wild-type protein is found to bind oligonucleotides with relatively high affinity, whereas binding by the Cys69Ala and Cys69Ser mutants is observed only for the longest oligonucleotides. The corresponding mutations in SARS-CoV Nsp9 do not hamper nucleic acid binding. From the crystal structures, a model for single-stranded RNA binding by Nsp9 is deduced. We propose that both forms of the Nsp9 dimer are biologically relevant; the occurrence of the disulfide-bonded form may be correlated with oxidative stress induced in the host cell by the viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajesh Ponnusamy
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Structural and Cell Biology in Medicine, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23538 Lübeck, Germany
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Chen S, Cheng AC, Wang MS, Peng X. Detection of apoptosis induced by new type gosling viral enteritis virus in vitro through fluorescein annexin V-FITC/PI double labeling. World J Gastroenterol 2008; 14:2174-8. [PMID: 18407590 PMCID: PMC2703841 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.14.2174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To achieve a better understanding of the pathogenesis of new type gosling viral enteritis virus (NGVEV) and the relationship between NGVEV and host cells.
METHODS: The apoptosis of duck embryo fibroblasts (DEF) induced by NGVEV was investigated by fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) and fluorescence microscope after the cells were stained with Annexin V-FITC and propidium iodide (PI).
RESULTS: By staining cells with a combination of fluorescein annexin V-FITC and PI, it is possible to distinguish and quantitatively analyze non-apoptotic cells (Annexin V-FITC negative/PI negative), early apoptotic cells (Annexin V-FITC positive/PI negative), late apoptotic/necrotic cells (Annexin V-FITC positive/PI positive) and dead cells (Annexin V-FITC negative/PI positive) through flow cytometry and fluorescence microscope. The percentage of apoptotic cells increased with the incubation time and reached a maximum at 120 h after infection, while the percentage of non-apoptotic cells decreased.
CONCLUSION: NGVEV can induce the infected DEF cells to undergo apoptosis and the apoptosis occurs prior to necrosis.
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Equine coronavirus induces apoptosis in cultured cells. Vet Microbiol 2007; 129:390-5. [PMID: 18243587 PMCID: PMC7117270 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.11.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2007] [Revised: 11/26/2007] [Accepted: 11/30/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Equine coronavirus (ECoV) was first isolated from a diarrheic foal and was found genetically similar to group II coronaviruses. However, its pathological characteristics were not adequately investigated. In our preliminary in vitro investigation, ECoV-induced cell death was observed in bovine kidney-derived MDBK cells. Based on this finding, we investigated whether the ECoV-induced CPE was apoptosis. Following ECoV infection, MDBK cells showed morphological changes such as cell rounding and detachment from the culture surface. Moreover, syncytium formation was observed as the other type of cytopathic effect in ECoV infection. Morphologic and biochemical features of apoptosis, such as nuclear fragmentation and DNA ladder formation, were also detected in ECoV-infected cells. Moreover, as is commonly observed in coronavirus infection in other animals, the activities of effecter caspases – caspase-3/7 – and initiator caspases – caspase-8 and caspase-9 – that are representative factors in the death receptor-mediated apoptotic pathway and mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, respectively, were increased in ECoV-infected MDBK cells. Therefore, it was suggested that ECoV can induce apoptosis in MDBK cells via a caspase-dependent pathway. Apoptotic death of infected cells is detrimental because it causes cell and tissue destruction and inflammatory responses. Although the pathological characteristics of ECoV are largely unknown, apoptosis may be the pathological basis of lesions of the digestive system in ECoV infection.
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Tan YJ, Lim SG, Hong W. Regulation of cell death during infection by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and other coronaviruses. Cell Microbiol 2007; 9:2552-61. [PMID: 17714515 PMCID: PMC7162196 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2007.01034.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2007] [Revised: 07/24/2007] [Accepted: 07/25/2007] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Both apoptosis and necrosis have been observed in cells infected by various coronaviruses, suggesting that the regulation of cell death is important for viral replication and/or pathogenesis. Expeditious research on the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus, one of the latest discovered coronaviruses that infect humans, has provided valuable insights into the molecular aspects of cell-death regulation during infection. Apoptosis was observed in vitro, while both apoptosis and necrosis were observed in tissues obtained from SARS patients. Viral proteins that can regulate apoptosis have been identified, and many of these also have the abilities to interfere with cellular functions. Occurrence of cell death in host cells during infection by other coronaviruses, such as the mouse hepatitis virus and transmissible porcine gastroenteritis virus, has also being extensively studied. The diverse cellular responses to infection revealed the complex manner by which coronaviruses affect cellular homeostasis and modulate cell death. As a result of the complex interplay between virus and host, infection of different cell types by the same virus does not necessarily activate the same cell-death pathway. Continuing research will lead to a better understanding of the regulation of cell death during viral infection and the identification of novel antiviral targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yee-Joo Tan
- Collaborative Anti-Viral Research Group, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 61 Biopolis Drive, Proteos, Singapore 138673.
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