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Qin P, Munang'andu HM, Xu C, Xie J. Megalocytivirus and Other Members of the Family Iridoviridae in Finfish: A Review of the Etiology, Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Prevention and Control. Viruses 2023; 15:1359. [PMID: 37376659 DOI: 10.3390/v15061359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Aquaculture has expanded to become the fastest growing food-producing sector in the world. However, its expansion has come under threat due to an increase in diseases caused by pathogens such as iridoviruses commonly found in aquatic environments used for fish farming. Of the seven members belonging to the family Iridoviridae, the three genera causing diseases in fish comprise ranaviruses, lymphocystiviruses and megalocytiviruses. These three genera are serious impediments to the expansion of global aquaculture because of their tropism for a wide range of farmed-fish species in which they cause high mortality. As economic losses caused by these iridoviruses in aquaculture continue to rise, the urgent need for effective control strategies increases. As a consequence, these viruses have attracted a lot of research interest in recent years. The functional role of some of the genes that form the structure of iridoviruses has not been elucidated. There is a lack of information on the predisposing factors leading to iridovirus infections in fish, an absence of information on the risk factors leading to disease outbreaks, and a lack of data on the chemical and physical properties of iridoviruses needed for the implementation of biosecurity control measures. Thus, the synopsis put forth herein provides an update of knowledge gathered from studies carried out so far aimed at addressing the aforesaid informational gaps. In summary, this review provides an update on the etiology of different iridoviruses infecting finfish and epidemiological factors leading to the occurrence of disease outbreaks. In addition, the review provides an update on the cell lines developed for virus isolation and culture, the diagnostic tools used for virus detection and characterization, the current advances in vaccine development and the use of biosecurity in the control of iridoviruses in aquaculture. Overall, we envision that the information put forth in this review will contribute to developing effective control strategies against iridovirus infections in aquaculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Qin
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, College of Marine Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | | | - Cheng Xu
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 1433 Ås, Norway
| | - Jianjun Xie
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture and Enhancement of Zhejiang Province, Marine Fisheries Research Institute of Zhejiang, Zhoushan 316100, China
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Girdhar K, Powis A, Raisingani A, Chrudinová M, Huang R, Tran T, Sevgi K, Dogus Dogru Y, Altindis E. Viruses and Metabolism: The Effects of Viral Infections and Viral Insulins on Host Metabolism. Annu Rev Virol 2021; 8:373-391. [PMID: 34586876 PMCID: PMC9175272 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-virology-091919-102416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decades, there have been tremendous efforts to understand the cross-talk between viruses and host metabolism. Several studies have elucidated the mechanisms through which viral infections manipulate metabolic pathways including glucose, fatty acid, protein, and nucleotide metabolism. These pathways are evolutionarily conserved across the tree of life and extremely important for the host's nutrient utilization and energy production. In this review, we focus on host glucose, glutamine, and fatty acid metabolism and highlight the pathways manipulated by the different classes of viruses to increase their replication. We also explore a new system of viral hormones in which viruses mimic host hormones to manipulate the host endocrine system. We discuss viral insulin/IGF-1-like peptides and their potential effects on host metabolism. Together, these pathogenesis mechanisms targeting cellular signaling pathways create a multidimensional network of interactions between host and viral proteins. Defining and better understanding these mechanisms will help us to develop new therapeutic tools to prevent and treat viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khyati Girdhar
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, USA;
| | - Amaya Powis
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, USA;
| | - Amol Raisingani
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, USA;
| | - Martina Chrudinová
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, USA;
| | - Ruixu Huang
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, USA;
| | - Tu Tran
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, USA;
| | - Kaan Sevgi
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, USA;
| | - Yusuf Dogus Dogru
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, USA;
| | - Emrah Altindis
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, USA;
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FATAL RANAVIRUS INFECTION IN A GROUP OF ZOO-HOUSED MELLER'S CHAMELEONS ( TRIOCEROS MELLERI). J Zoo Wildl Med 2021; 50:696-705. [PMID: 33517641 DOI: 10.1638/2018-0044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A group of five juvenile Meller's chameleons (Trioceros melleri) experienced 100% mortality over a period of 1 mo due to ranavirus infection. The index case was found dead without premonitory signs. The three subsequent cases presented with nonspecific clinical signs (lethargy, decreased appetite, ocular discharge) and were ultimately euthanatized. The final case died after initially presenting with skin lesions. Postmortem examination revealed thin body condition in all five animals and mild coelomic effusion and petechiae affecting the tongue and kidneys of one animal. Microscopically, all animals had multifocal necrosis of the spleen, liver, and kidney; four of five animals had necrosis of the nasal cavity; and two of five had necrosis of adrenal tissue, bone marrow, and skin. Numerous basophilic intracytoplasmic inclusions were present in the liver of all animals and nasal mucosa of three of the five animals. Consensus polymerase chain reaction for herpesvirus and adenovirus were negative, whereas ranavirus quantitative polymerase chain reaction was positive. Virus isolation followed by whole genome sequencing and Bayesian phylogenetic analysis classified the isolates as a strain of frog virus 3 (FV3) most closely related to an FV3 isolate responsible for a previous outbreak in the zoo's eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina) group. This case series documents the first known occurrence of ranavirus-associated disease in chameleons and demonstrates the potential for interspecies transmission between chelonian and squamate reptiles.
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Characterization of viral insulins reveals white adipose tissue-specific effects in mice. Mol Metab 2020; 44:101121. [PMID: 33220491 PMCID: PMC7770979 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2020.101121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Members of the insulin/insulin-like growth factor (IGF) superfamily are well conserved across the evolutionary tree. We recently showed that four viruses in the Iridoviridae family possess genes that encode proteins highly homologous to human insulin/IGF-1. Using chemically synthesized single-chain (sc), i.e., IGF-1-like, forms of the viral insulin/IGF-1-like peptides (VILPs), we previously showed that they can stimulate human receptors. Because these peptides possess potential cleavage sites to form double chain (dc), i.e., more insulin-like, VILPs, in this study, we have characterized dc forms of VILPs for Grouper iridovirus (GIV), Singapore grouper iridovirus (SGIV) and Lymphocystis disease virus-1 (LCDV-1) for the first time. Methods The dcVILPs were chemically synthesized. Using murine fibroblast cell lines overexpressing insulin receptor (IR-A or IR-B) or IGF1R, we first determined the binding affinity of dcVILPs to the receptors and characterized post-receptor signaling. Further, we used C57BL/6J mice to study the effect of dcVILPs on lowering blood glucose. We designed a 3-h dcVILP in vivo infusion experiment to determine the glucose uptake in different tissues. Results GIV and SGIV dcVILPs bind to both isoforms of human insulin receptor (IR-A and IR-B) and to the IGF1R, and for the latter, show higher affinity than human insulin. These dcVILPs stimulate IR and IGF1R phosphorylation and post-receptor signaling in vitro and in vivo. Both GIV and SGIV dcVILPs stimulate glucose uptake in mice. In vivo infusion experiments revealed that while insulin (0.015 nmol/kg/min) and GIV dcVILP (0.75 nmol/kg/min) stimulated a comparable glucose uptake in heart and skeletal muscle and brown adipose tissue, GIV dcVILP stimulated 2-fold higher glucose uptake in white adipose tissue (WAT) compared to insulin. This was associated with increased Akt phosphorylation and glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4) gene expression compared to insulin in WAT. Conclusions Our results show that GIV and SGIV dcVILPs are active members of the insulin superfamily with unique characteristics. Elucidating the mechanism of tissue specificity for GIV dcVILP will help us to better understand insulin action, design new analogs that specifically target the tissues and provide new insights into their potential role in disease. Viral insulin/IGF1-like peptides (VILPs) are microbial members of the insulin superfamily. VILPs bind to human IR and IGF1R and stimulate post-receptor signaling. Grouper iridovirus (GIV) VILP has white adipose tissue (WAT)-specific characteristics. GIV VILP stimulates increased glucose uptake in WAT via increased GLUT4 expression.
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Liu GY, Wang EL, Qu XY, Yang KC, Zhang ZY, Liu JY, Zhang C, Zhu B, Wang GX. Single-walled carbon nanotubes enhance the immune protective effect of a bath subunit vaccine for pearl gentian grouper against Iridovirus of Taiwan. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 106:510-517. [PMID: 32777462 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2020.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Iridovirus of Taiwan (TGIV) has been threatening the grouper farming since 1997, effective prophylaxis method is urgently needed. Subunit vaccine was proved to be useful to against the virus. Bath is the simplest method of vaccination and easy to be administrated without any stress to fish. In this research, we constructed a prokaryotic expression vector of TGIV's major capsid protein (MCP) to acquire the vaccine. Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) were used as the carrier to enhance the protective effect of bath vaccination for juvenile pearl gentian grouper (bath with concentrations of 5, 10, 20 mg/L for 6 h). Virus challenge was done after 28 days. Survival rates were calculated after 14 days. The level of antibody, activities of related enzymes in serums and expression of immune-related genes in kidneys and spleens were test. The results showed that vaccine with SWCNTs as carrier induced a higher level of antibody than that without. In addition, the activities of related enzymes (acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, superoxide dismutase) and the expression of immune-related genes (Mx1, IgM, TNFαF, Lysozyme, CC chemokine 1, IL1-β, IL-8) had a significantly increase. What's more, higher survival rates (42.10%, 77.77%, 89.47%) were provided by vaccine with SWCNTs than vaccine without SWCNTs (29.41%, 38.09%, 43.75%). This study suggests that the protective effect of vaccine that against TGIV with the method of bath vaccination could be enhanced by SWCNTs and SWCNTs could be a potential carrier for other subunit vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gao-Yang Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Er-Long Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiang-Yu Qu
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Ke-Chen Yang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zhong-Yu Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jing-Yao Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Chen Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Bin Zhu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Gao-Xue Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
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Stilwell NK, Whittington RJ, Hick PM, Becker JA, Ariel E, van Beurden S, Vendramin N, Olesen NJ, Waltzek TB. Partial validation of a TaqMan real-time quantitative PCR for the detection of ranaviruses. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2018; 128:105-116. [PMID: 29733025 DOI: 10.3354/dao03214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Ranaviruses are globally emerging pathogens negatively impacting wild and cultured fish, amphibians, and reptiles. Although conventional and diagnostic real-time PCR (qPCR) assays have been developed to detect ranaviruses, these assays often have not been tested against the known diversity of ranaviruses. Here we report the development and partial validation of a TaqMan real-time qPCR assay. The primers and TaqMan probe targeted a conserved region of the major capsid protein (MCP) gene. A series of experiments using a 10-fold dilution series of Frog virus 3 (FV3) MCP plasmid DNA revealed linearity over a range of 7 orders of magnitude (107-101), a mean correlation coefficient (R2) of >0.99, and a mean efficiency of 96%. The coefficient of variation of intra- and inter-assay variability ranged from <0.1-3.5% and from 1.1-2.3%, respectively. The analytical sensitivity was determined to be 10 plasmid copies of FV3 DNA. The qPCR assay detected a panel of 33 different ranaviral isolates originating from fish, amphibian, and reptile hosts from all continents excluding Africa and Antarctica, thereby representing the global diversity of ranaviruses. The assay did not amplify highly divergent ranaviruses, members of other iridovirus genera, or members of the alloherpesvirus genus Cyprinivirus. DNA from fish tissue homogenates previously determined to be positive or negative for the ranavirus Epizootic hematopoietic necrosis virus by virus isolation demonstrated a diagnostic sensitivity of 95% and a diagnostic specificity of 100%. The reported qPCR assay provides an improved expedient diagnostic tool and can be used to elucidate important aspects of ranaviral pathogenesis and epidemiology in clinically and sublinically affected fish, amphibians, and reptiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie K Stilwell
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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Matsuyama T, Sano N, Takano T, Sakai T, Yasuike M, Fujiwara A, Kawato Y, Kurita J, Yoshida K, Shimada Y, Nakayasu C. Antibody profiling using a recombinant protein–based multiplex ELISA array accelerates recombinant vaccine development: Case study on red sea bream iridovirus as a reverse vaccinology model. Vaccine 2018; 36:2643-2649. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.03.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Invertebrate Iridoviruses: A Glance over the Last Decade. Viruses 2018; 10:v10040161. [PMID: 29601483 PMCID: PMC5923455 DOI: 10.3390/v10040161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Members of the family Iridoviridae (iridovirids) are large dsDNA viruses that infect both invertebrate and vertebrate ectotherms and whose symptoms range in severity from minor reductions in host fitness to systemic disease and large-scale mortality. Several characteristics have been useful for classifying iridoviruses; however, novel strains are continuously being discovered and, in many cases, reliable classification has been challenging. Further impeding classification, invertebrate iridoviruses (IIVs) can occasionally infect vertebrates; thus, host range is often not a useful criterion for classification. In this review, we discuss the current classification of iridovirids, focusing on genomic and structural features that distinguish vertebrate and invertebrate iridovirids and viral factors linked to host interactions in IIV6 (Invertebrate iridescent virus 6). In addition, we show for the first time how complete genome sequences of viral isolates can be leveraged to improve classification of new iridovirid isolates and resolve ambiguous relations. Improved classification of the iridoviruses may facilitate the identification of genus-specific virulence factors linked with diverse host phenotypes and host interactions.
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Banjara S, Mao J, Ryan TM, Caria S, Kvansakul M. Grouper iridovirus GIV66 is a Bcl-2 protein that inhibits apoptosis by exclusively sequestering Bim. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:5464-5477. [PMID: 29483196 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra117.000591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Revised: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Programmed cell death or apoptosis is a critical mechanism for the controlled removal of damaged or infected cells, and proteins of the Bcl-2 family are important arbiters of this process. Viruses have been shown to encode functional and structural homologs of Bcl-2 to counter premature host-cell apoptosis and ensure viral proliferation or survival. Grouper iridovirus (GIV) is a large DNA virus belonging to the Iridoviridae family and harbors GIV66, a putative Bcl-2-like protein and mitochondrially localized apoptosis inhibitor. However, the molecular and structural basis of GIV66-mediated apoptosis inhibition is currently not understood. To gain insight into GIV66's mechanism of action, we systematically evaluated its ability to bind peptides spanning the BH3 domain of pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members. Our results revealed that GIV66 harbors an unusually high level of specificity for pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 and displays affinity only for Bcl-2-like 11 (Bcl2L11 or Bim). Using crystal structures of both apo-GIV66 and GIV66 bound to the BH3 domain from Bim, we unexpectedly found that GIV66 forms dimers via an interface that results in occluded access to the canonical Bcl-2 ligand-binding groove, which breaks apart upon Bim binding. This observation suggests that GIV66 dimerization may affect GIV66's ability to bind host pro-death Bcl-2 proteins and enables highly targeted virus-directed suppression of host apoptosis signaling. Our findings provide a mechanistic understanding for the potent anti-apoptotic activity of GIV66 by identifying it as the first single-specificity, pro-survival Bcl-2 protein and identifying a pivotal role of Bim in GIV-mediated inhibition of apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suresh Banjara
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria 3086, Australia and
| | - Jiahao Mao
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria 3086, Australia and
| | - Timothy M Ryan
- SAXS/WAXS, Australian Synchrotron, 800 Blackburn Road, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
| | - Sofia Caria
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria 3086, Australia and
| | - Marc Kvansakul
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria 3086, Australia and
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Viral insulin-like peptides activate human insulin and IGF-1 receptor signaling: A paradigm shift for host-microbe interactions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:2461-2466. [PMID: 29467286 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1721117115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses are the most abundant biological entities and carry a wide variety of genetic material, including the ability to encode host-like proteins. Here we show that viruses carry sequences with significant homology to several human peptide hormones including insulin, insulin-like growth factors (IGF)-1 and -2, FGF-19 and -21, endothelin-1, inhibin, adiponectin, and resistin. Among the strongest homologies were those for four viral insulin/IGF-1-like peptides (VILPs), each encoded by a different member of the family Iridoviridae VILPs show up to 50% homology to human insulin/IGF-1, contain all critical cysteine residues, and are predicted to form similar 3D structures. Chemically synthesized VILPs can bind to human and murine IGF-1/insulin receptors and stimulate receptor autophosphorylation and downstream signaling. VILPs can also increase glucose uptake in adipocytes and stimulate the proliferation of fibroblasts, and injection of VILPs into mice significantly lowers blood glucose. Transfection of mouse hepatocytes with DNA encoding a VILP also stimulates insulin/IGF-1 signaling and DNA synthesis. Human microbiome studies reveal the presence of these Iridoviridae in blood and fecal samples. Thus, VILPs are members of the insulin/IGF superfamily with the ability to be active on human and rodent cells, raising the possibility for a potential role of VILPs in human disease. Furthermore, since only 2% of viruses have been sequenced, this study raises the potential for discovery of other viral hormones which, along with known virally encoded growth factors, may modify human health and disease.
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Jung MH, Nikapitiya C, Jung SJ. DNA vaccine encoding myristoylated membrane protein (MMP) of rock bream iridovirus (RBIV) induces protective immunity in rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus). Vaccine 2018; 36:802-810. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.12.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Revised: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Chinchar V, Waltzek TB, Subramaniam K. Ranaviruses and other members of the family Iridoviridae: Their place in the virosphere. Virology 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2017.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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The Bcl-2 Family in Host-Virus Interactions. Viruses 2017; 9:v9100290. [PMID: 28984827 PMCID: PMC5691641 DOI: 10.3390/v9100290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 10/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the B cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) family are pivotal arbiters of mitochondrially mediated apoptosis, a process of fundamental importance during tissue development, homeostasis, and disease. At the structural and mechanistic level, the mammalian members of the Bcl-2 family are increasingly well understood, with their interplay ultimately deciding the fate of a cell. Dysregulation of Bcl-2-mediated apoptosis underlies a plethora of diseases, and numerous viruses have acquired homologs of Bcl-2 to subvert host cell apoptosis and autophagy to prevent premature death of an infected cell. Here we review the structural biology, interactions, and mechanisms of action of virus-encoded Bcl-2 proteins, and how they impact on host-virus interactions to ultimately enable successful establishment and propagation of viral infections.
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Li F, Xu L, Yang F. Genomic characterization of a novel iridovirus from redclaw crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus: evidence for a new genus within the family Iridoviridae. J Gen Virol 2017; 98:2589-2595. [DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Fang Li
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Marine Genetic Resources; Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Genetic Resources; Fujian Collaborative Innovation Center for Exploitation and Utilization of Marine Biological Resources; Key Laboratory of Marine Genetic Resources of State Oceanic Administration, Third Institute of Oceanography, SOA, Xiamen 361005, PR China
| | - Limei Xu
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Marine Genetic Resources; Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Genetic Resources; Fujian Collaborative Innovation Center for Exploitation and Utilization of Marine Biological Resources; Key Laboratory of Marine Genetic Resources of State Oceanic Administration, Third Institute of Oceanography, SOA, Xiamen 361005, PR China
| | - Feng Yang
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Marine Genetic Resources; Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Genetic Resources; Fujian Collaborative Innovation Center for Exploitation and Utilization of Marine Biological Resources; Key Laboratory of Marine Genetic Resources of State Oceanic Administration, Third Institute of Oceanography, SOA, Xiamen 361005, PR China
- Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, PR China
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Low CF, Rozaini MZH, Musa N, Syarul Nataqain B. Current knowledge of metabolomic approach in infectious fish disease studies. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2017; 40:1267-1277. [PMID: 28252175 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Revised: 12/17/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The approaches of transcriptomic and proteomic have been widely used to study host-pathogen interactions in fish diseases, and this is comparable to the recently emerging application of metabolomic in elucidating disease-resistant mechanisms in fish that gives new insight into potential therapeutic strategies to improve fish health. Metabolomic is defined as the large-scale study of all metabolites within an organism and represents the frontline in the 'omics' approaches, providing direct information on the metabolic responses and perturbations in metabolic pathways. In this review, the current research in infectious fish diseases using metabolomic approach will be summarized. The metabolomic approach in economically important fish infected with viruses, bacteria and nematodes will also be discussed. The potential of the metabolomic approach for management of these infectious diseases as well as the challenges and the limitations of metabolomic in fish disease studies will be explored. Current review highlights the impacts of metabolomic studies in infectious fish diseases, which proposed the potential of new therapeutic strategies to enhance disease resistance in fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- C-F Low
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - M Z H Rozaini
- Institute of Marine Biotechnology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - N Musa
- School of Fisheries and Aquaculture Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - B Syarul Nataqain
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
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Price SJ. Comparative Genomics of Amphibian-like Ranaviruses, Nucleocytoplasmic Large DNA Viruses of Poikilotherms. Evol Bioinform Online 2016; 11:71-82. [PMID: 27812275 PMCID: PMC5081246 DOI: 10.4137/ebo.s33490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent research on genome evolution of large DNA viruses has highlighted a number of incredibly dynamic processes that can facilitate rapid adaptation. The genomes of amphibian-like ranaviruses – double-stranded DNA viruses infecting amphibians, reptiles, and fish (family Iridoviridae) – were examined to assess variation in genome content and evolutionary processes. The viruses studied were closely related, but their genome content varied considerably, with 29 genes identified that were not present in all of the major clades. Twenty-one genes had evidence of recombination, while a virus isolated from a captive reptile appeared to be a mosaic of two divergent parents. Positive selection was also found to be acting on more than a quarter of Ranavirus genes and was found most frequently in the Spanish common midwife toad virus, which has had a severe impact on amphibian host communities. Efforts to resolve the root of this group by inclusion of an outgroup were inconclusive, but a set of core genes were identified, which recovered a well-supported species tree.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Price
- Genetics, Evolution and Environment department, UCL Genetics Institute, London, UK.; Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London (ZSL), London, UK
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Concurrence of Iridovirus, Polyomavirus, and a Unique Member of a New Group of Fish Papillomaviruses in Lymphocystis Disease-Affected Gilthead Sea Bream. J Virol 2016; 90:8768-79. [PMID: 27440877 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01369-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Lymphocystis disease is a geographically widespread disease affecting more than 150 different species of marine and freshwater fish. The disease, provoked by the iridovirus lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV), is characterized by the appearance of papillomalike lesions on the skin of affected animals that usually self-resolve over time. Development of the disease is usually associated with several environmental factors and, more frequently, with stress conditions provoked by the intensive culture conditions present in fish farms. In gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), an economically important cultured fish species in the Mediterranean area, a distinct LCDV has been identified but not yet completely characterized. We have used direct sequencing of the virome of lymphocystis lesions from affected S. aurata fish to obtain the complete genome of a new LCDV-Sa species that is the largest vertebrate iridovirus sequenced to date. Importantly, this approach allowed us to assemble the full-length circular genome sequence of two previously unknown viruses belonging to the papillomaviruses and polyomaviruses, termed Sparus aurata papillomavirus 1 (SaPV1) and Sparus aurata polyomavirus 1 (SaPyV1), respectively. Epidemiological surveys showed that lymphocystis disease was frequently associated with the concurrent appearance of one or both of the new viruses. SaPV1 has unique characteristics, such as an intron within the L1 gene, and as the first member of the Papillomaviridae family described in fish, provides evidence for a more ancient origin of this family than previously thought. IMPORTANCE Lymphocystis disease affects marine and freshwater fish species worldwide. It is characterized by the appearance of papillomalike lesions on the skin that contain heavily enlarged cells (lymphocysts). The causative agent is the lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV), a large icosahedral virus of the family Iridoviridae In the Mediterranean area, the gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), an important farmed fish, is frequently affected. Using next-generation sequencing, we have identified within S. aurata lymphocystis lesions the concurrent presence of an additional LCDV species (LCDV-Sa) as well as two novel viruses. These are members of polyomavirus and papillomavirus families, and here we report them to be frequently associated with the presence of lymphocysts in affected fish. Because papillomaviruses have not been described in fish before, these findings support a more ancient origin of this virus family than previously thought and evolutionary implications are discussed.
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Mi S, Qin XW, Lin YF, He J, Chen NN, Liu C, Weng SP, He JG, Guo CJ. Budding of Tiger Frog Virus (an Iridovirus) from HepG2 Cells via Three Ways Recruits the ESCRT Pathway. Sci Rep 2016; 6:26581. [PMID: 27225426 PMCID: PMC4880917 DOI: 10.1038/srep26581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The cellular endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) pathway is a multifunctional pathway involved in cell physiological activities. While the majority of RNA viruses bearing L-domains are known to hijack the ESCRT pathway to complete the budding process, the budding of large and complex enveloped DNA viruses, especially iridoviruses, has been rarely investigated. In the present study, we use the tiger frog virus (TFV) as a model to investigate whether iridoviruses are released from host cells through the ESCRT pathway. Inhibition of class E proteins and auxiliary proteins (VPS4A, VPS4B, Tsg101, Alix, and Nedd4.1) reduces extracellular virion production, which preliminarily indicates that the ESCRT pathway is involved in TFV release. The respective interactions of TFV VP031L, VP065L, VP093L with Alix, Tsg101, Nedd4 suggest the underlying molecular mechanism by which TFV gets access to the ESCRT pathway. Co-depletion of Alix, Tsg101, and Nedd4.1 induces a significant reduction in extracellular virion production, which implies the functional redundancy of host factors in TFV budding. Those results are first observation that iridovirus gains access to ESCRT pathway through three ways of interactions between viral proteins and host proteins. Our study provides a better understanding of the budding mechanism of enveloped DNA viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu Mi
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering/South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, School of Marine, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Safety/State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Wei Qin
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering/South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, School of Marine, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Safety/State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
| | - Yi-Fan Lin
- Institute of Aquatic Economic Animals and Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
| | - Jian He
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Safety/State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
| | - Nan-Nan Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering/South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, School of Marine, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
| | - Chang Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering/South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, School of Marine, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
| | - Shao-Ping Weng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Safety/State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
| | - Jian-Guo He
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering/South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, School of Marine, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- Institute of Aquatic Economic Animals and Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
| | - Chang-Jun Guo
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering/South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, School of Marine, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Safety/State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- Institute of Aquatic Economic Animals and Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
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Chen ZY, Chiou PP, Liou CJ, Lai YS. Production and characterization of a monoclonal antibody against a late gene encoded by grouper iridovirus 64L. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2016; 39:129-141. [PMID: 25630349 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Revised: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/04/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Viral envelope proteins play important roles in viral infection and assembly. The grouper iridovirus ORF 64L (GIV-64L) was predicted to encode an envelope protein and was conserved in all sequenced Ranaviruses. In this study, the complete nucleotide sequence of the GIV-64L gene (1215 bp) was cloned into the isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) induction prokaryotic expression vector pET23a. The approximately 50.2 kDa recombinant GIV-64L-His protein was induced, purified and used as an immunogen to immunize BALB/c mice. Three monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), all IgG1 class antibodies against GIV-64L protein, were produced by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analyses revealed GIV-64L to be a late gene when expressed in grouper kidney cells during GIV infection with cycloheximide (an inhibitor of protein synthesis) or cytosine arabinoside (an inhibitor of DNA synthesis) present. Finally, one of the established mAbs, GIV-64L-mAb-17, was used in Western blotting and an immunofluorescence assay, which showed that GIV-64L protein was expressed at 24 h post-infection and localized only in the cytoplasm in GIV-infected cells, packed into a whole virus particle. The presently characterized GIV-64L mAbs should have widespread applications in GIV immunodiagnostics and other research, and these results should offer important insights into the pathogenesis of GIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z-Y Chen
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan, Taiwan
| | - P P Chiou
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan, Taiwan
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - C-J Liou
- Department of Nursing, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Research Center for Industry of Human Ecology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Y-S Lai
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan, Taiwan
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20
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Huang X, Fang J, Chen Z, Zhang Q. Rana grylio virus TK and DUT gene locus could be simultaneously used for foreign gene expression. Virus Res 2016; 214:33-8. [PMID: 26806670 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2015] [Revised: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/15/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Ranaviruses (family Iridoviridae, genus Ranavirus) have been recognized as emerging infectious pathogens and caused a great loss to the global biodiversity. Thymidine kinase (TK) and deoxyuridine triphosphatase (dUTPase, DUT, encoded by ORF 67R) are ubiquitous, existing in iridoviruses and other organisms. Previous studies showed that TK and DUT could be individually knocked out without impeding viral replication. In this study, we tried to insert two fluorescence genes into the above loci. We started with Δ67R-RGV, a recently generated recombinant Rana grylio virus (RGV) with the whole DUT replaced by enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP) gene. Then, a red fluorescence protein (RFP) gene initiated by RGV immediate-early (IE) ICP18 gene promoter was inserted into TK locus through homologous recombination. A novel recombinant virus, ΔDUT, TK-RGV, was generated by nine successive rounds of plaque isolation using RFP selection. All of the plaques produced by this recombinant virus could emit both green and red fluorescence. Furthermore, one-step and multiple-step growth curves of ΔDUT, TK-RGV were similar to those of wt-RGV and Δ67R-RGV. In conclusion, a novel dual-fluorescence labeled recombinant iridovirus in which DUT and TK gene locus were simultaneously used for foreign gene expression was constructed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Jin Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Zhongyuan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Qiya Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China.
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21
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Epstein B, Storfer A. Comparative Genomics of an Emerging Amphibian Virus. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2015; 6:15-27. [PMID: 26530419 PMCID: PMC4704714 DOI: 10.1534/g3.115.023762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2015] [Accepted: 10/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Ranaviruses, a genus of the Iridoviridae, are large double-stranded DNA viruses that infect cold-blooded vertebrates worldwide. Ranaviruses have caused severe epizootics in commercial frog and fish populations, and are currently classified as notifiable pathogens in international trade. Previous work shows that a ranavirus that infects tiger salamanders throughout Western North America (Ambystoma tigrinum virus, or ATV) is in high prevalence among salamanders in the fishing bait trade. Bait ATV strains have elevated virulence and are transported long distances by humans, providing widespread opportunities for pathogen pollution. We sequenced the genomes of 15 strains of ATV collected from tiger salamanders across western North America and performed phylogenetic and population genomic analyses and tests for recombination. We find that ATV forms a monophyletic clade within the rest of the Ranaviruses and that it likely emerged within the last several thousand years, before human activities influenced its spread. We also identify several genes under strong positive selection, some of which appear to be involved in viral virulence and/or host immune evasion. In addition, we provide support for the pathogen pollution hypothesis with evidence of recombination among ATV strains, and potential bait-endemic strain recombination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan Epstein
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164
| | - Andrew Storfer
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164
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22
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Lin HY, Cheng CF, Chiou PP, Liou CJ, Yiu JC, Lai YS. Identification and characterization of a late gene encoded by grouper iridovirus 2L (GIV-2L). JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2015; 38:881-890. [PMID: 25271832 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Revised: 06/29/2014] [Accepted: 07/21/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Grouper iridovirus (GIV) belongs to the Ranavirus genus and is one of the most important viral pathogens in grouper, particularly at the fry and fingerling stages. In this study, we identified and characterized the GIV-2L gene, which encodes a protein of unknown function. GIV-2L is 1242 bp in length, with a predicted protein mass of 46.2 kDa. It displayed significant identity only with members of the Ranavirus and Iridovirus genera. We produced mouse monoclonal antibodies against the GIV-2L protein by immunizing mice with GIV-2L-His-tag recombinant protein. By inhibiting de novo protein and DNA synthesis in GIV-infected cells, we showed that GIV-2L was a late gene during the viral replication. Finally, immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that GIV-2L protein accumulated in both the nucleus and cytoplasm of infected cells. These results offer important insights into the pathogenesis of GIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- H-Y Lin
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan, Taiwan
- Department of Horticulture, National Ilan University, Yilan, Taiwan
| | - C-F Cheng
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan, Taiwan
| | - P P Chiou
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - C-J Liou
- Department of Nursing, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Research Center for Industry of Human Ecology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - J-C Yiu
- Department of Horticulture, National Ilan University, Yilan, Taiwan
| | - Y-S Lai
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan, Taiwan
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23
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Xiang J. Recent Major Advances of Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture in China. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 4:296-310. [PMID: 28553577 PMCID: PMC5436491 DOI: 10.2174/2211550105666151105190012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Revised: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Background: Global aquaculture production has increased continuously over the last five decades, and particularly in China. Its aquaculture has become the fastest growing and most efficient agri-sector, with production accounting for more than 70% of the world’s aquaculture output. In the new century, with serious challenges regarding population, resources and the environment, China has been working to develop high-quality, effective, healthy, and sustainable blue agriculture through the application of modern biotechnology. Sound knowledge related to the biology and ecology of aquatic organisms has laid a solid foundation and provided the innovation and technology for rapid development of the aquaculture industry. Marine biotechnology, which is enabling solutions for ocean productivity and sustainability, has been promoted since the last decades of the 20th Century in China. Objective: In this article, priority areas of research, mainly genetic breeding, omics studies, novel production systems, biosecurity, bioprocesses and biorefinery, as well as the major progress of marine biotechnology R&D in China are reviewed. Conclusion: Current innovative achievements in China are not enough and the level and frequency of academic advancements must be improved. International cooperation and assistance remain crucial for the success of marine biotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianhai Xiang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
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24
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Chen ZY, Hsieh WY, Lai YS. Identification and characterization of a late gene of grouper iridovirus 61l and antibody production against the protein encoded by it. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2015; 87:386-399. [PMID: 26180031 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.12728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a late gene encoded by grouper iridovirus, giv-61L, was identified and classified, and mouse monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) were raised against this protein. Giv-61L homologues were found only in the genus Ranavirus. Three mAbs to Giv-61L protein were produced. In drug inhibition assays, giv-61L was identified as a late gene. Finally, GIV-61L-mAb-8 was used in western blotting and immunofluorescence assays to demonstrate that Giv-61L protein was included in the GIV particle, expressed at 18 h, and localized only in the cytoplasm of GIV-infected cells. The results of this study provide insight into GIV pathogenesis and GIV-61L-mAbs will have broad applications in GIV immunodiagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Y Chen
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University 1, Sec. 1, Shen-Lung Road, Yilan, 26047, Taiwan
| | - W Y Hsieh
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University 1, Sec. 1, Shen-Lung Road, Yilan, 26047, Taiwan
| | - Y S Lai
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University 1, Sec. 1, Shen-Lung Road, Yilan, 26047, Taiwan
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25
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Chen CW, Wu MS, Huang YJ, Lin PW, Shih CJ, Lin FP, Chang CY. Iridovirus CARD Protein Inhibits Apoptosis through Intrinsic and Extrinsic Pathways. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0129071. [PMID: 26047333 PMCID: PMC4457926 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Grouper iridovirus (GIV) belongs to the genus Ranavirus of the family Iridoviridae; the genomes of such viruses contain an anti-apoptotic caspase recruitment domain (CARD) gene. The GIV-CARD gene encodes a protein of 91 amino acids with a molecular mass of 10,505 Daltons, and shows high similarity to other viral CARD genes and human ICEBERG. In this study, we used Northern blot to demonstrate that GIV-CARD transcription begins at 4 h post-infection; furthermore, we report that its transcription is completely inhibited by cycloheximide but not by aphidicolin, indicating that GIV-CARD is an early gene. GIV-CARD-EGFP and GIV-CARD-FLAG recombinant proteins were observed to translocate from the cytoplasm into the nucleus, but no obvious nuclear localization sequence was observed within GIV-CARD. RNA interference-mediated knockdown of GIV-CARD in GK cells infected with GIV inhibited expression of GIV-CARD and five other viral genes during the early stages of infection, and also reduced GIV infection ability. Immunostaining was performed to show that apoptosis was effectively inhibited in cells expressing GIV-CARD. HeLa cells irradiated with UV or treated with anti-Fas antibody will undergo apoptosis through the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways, respectively. However, over-expression of recombinant GIV-CARD protein in HeLa cells inhibited apoptosis induced by mitochondrial and death receptor signaling. Finally, we report that expression of GIV-CARD in HeLa cells significantly reduced the activities of caspase-8 and -9 following apoptosis triggered by anti-Fas antibody. Taken together, these results demonstrate that GIV-CARD inhibits apoptosis through both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Wen Chen
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Fisheries Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Shan Wu
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Jen Huang
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Wen Lin
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan
| | - Chueh-Ju Shih
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Fisheries Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Fu-Pang Lin
- Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Yao Chang
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Fisheries Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan
- * E-mail:
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Chen ZY, Chiou PP, Liou CJ, Lai YS. Monoclonal antibody against a putative myristoylated membrane protein encoded by grouper iridovirus 59L gene. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2015; 113:215-226. [PMID: 25850399 DOI: 10.3354/dao02834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Groupers (Epinephelus spp.) are economically important fish species worldwide, and ranaviruses are major viral pathogens causing heavy economic losses in grouper aquaculture. In this study, the 59L gene of grouper iridovirus (GIV-59L) was cloned and characterized. This gene is 1521 bp and encodes a protein of 506 amino acids with a predicted molecular mass of 53.9 kDa. Interestingly, GIV-59L and its homologs are found in all genera of the family Iridoviridae. A mouse monoclonal antibody specific for the C-terminal domain (amino acid positions 254-506) of the GIV-59L protein, GIV-59L(760-1518)-MAb-21, was produced and proved to be well suited for use in a number of GIV immunoassays. RT-PCR, Western blotting, and cycloheximide and cytosine arabinoside drug inhibition analyses indicated that GIV-59L is a viral late gene in GIV-infected grouper kidney cells. Immunofluorescence analysis revealed that GIV-59L protein mainly accumulates in the cytoplasm of infected cells and is finally packed into a whole virus particle. The GIV-59L(760-1518)-MAb-21 characterized in this study could have widespread application in GIV immunodiagnostics and other research on GIV. In addition, the results presented here offer important insights into the pathogenesis of GIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Yu Chen
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan, Taiwan
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Hu SL, Liou CJ, Cheng YH, Yiu JC, Chiou PP, Lai YS. Development and characterization of two monoclonal antibodies against grouper iridovirus 55L and 97L proteins. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2015; 38:249-258. [PMID: 24476022 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2013] [Revised: 12/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Grouper iridovirus (GIV) is one of the most important viral pathogens in grouper, particularly at the fry and fingerling stages. The study of GIV pathogenicity has been hampered by the lack of proper immunological reagents to study the expression and function of viral proteins in the infected cells. In this study, two mouse monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against GIV 55L and 97L proteins were produced. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Western blotting were used to screen these hybridomas, resulting in the identification of two high-affinity mAbs named GIV55L-mAb-2 and GIV97L-mAb-3, respectively. Both mAbs belong to the IgG1 isotype and were effective in detecting their respective target viral protein. Reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot analyses of GIV-infected GK cells revealed that GIV 97L is an immediate early gene, whereas GIV 55L a late one. The localization of 55L and 97L in GIV-infected cells was further characterized by immunofluorescence microscopy with the mAbs. The 55L protein mainly aggregated in the cytoplasm while 97L distributed in both the nucleus and cytoplasm of the infected cells. These studies demonstrate the validity of the two mAbs as immunodiagnostic and research reagents.
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Affiliation(s)
- S-L Hu
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan, Taiwan
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28
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Stöhr AC, López-Bueno A, Blahak S, Caeiro MF, Rosa GM, Alves de Matos AP, Martel A, Alejo A, Marschang RE. Phylogeny and differentiation of reptilian and amphibian ranaviruses detected in Europe. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118633. [PMID: 25706285 PMCID: PMC4338083 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Ranaviruses in amphibians and fish are considered emerging pathogens and several isolates have been extensively characterized in different studies. Ranaviruses have also been detected in reptiles with increasing frequency, but the role of reptilian hosts is still unclear and only limited sequence data has been provided. In this study, we characterized a number of ranaviruses detected in wild and captive animals in Europe based on sequence data from six genomic regions (major capsid protein (MCP), DNA polymerase (DNApol), ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase alpha and beta subunit-like proteins (RNR-α and -β), viral homolog of the alpha subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2, eIF-2α (vIF-2α) genes and microsatellite region). A total of ten different isolates from reptiles (tortoises, lizards, and a snake) and four ranaviruses from amphibians (anurans, urodeles) were included in the study. Furthermore, the complete genome sequences of three reptilian isolates were determined and a new PCR for rapid classification of the different variants of the genomic arrangement was developed. All ranaviruses showed slight variations on the partial nucleotide sequences from the different genomic regions (92.6–100%). Some very similar isolates could be distinguished by the size of the band from the microsatellite region. Three of the lizard isolates had a truncated vIF-2α gene; the other ranaviruses had full-length genes. In the phylogenetic analyses of concatenated sequences from different genes (3223 nt/10287 aa), the reptilian ranaviruses were often more closely related to amphibian ranaviruses than to each other, and most clustered together with previously detected ranaviruses from the same geographic region of origin. Comparative analyses show that among the closely related amphibian-like ranaviruses (ALRVs) described to date, three recently split and independently evolving distinct genetic groups can be distinguished. These findings underline the wide host range of ranaviruses and the emergence of pathogen pollution via animal trade of ectothermic vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anke C. Stöhr
- Fachgebiet für Umwelt- und Tierhygiene, Universität Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Alberto López-Bueno
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), Madrid, Spain
| | - Silvia Blahak
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Ostwestfalen Lippe (CVUA-OWL), Detmold, Germany
| | - Maria F. Caeiro
- Centro de Estudos do Ambiente e do Mar (CESAM) Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Gonçalo M. Rosa
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London, United Kingdom
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes (CE3C), Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - António Pedro Alves de Matos
- Centro de Estudos do Ambiente e do Mar (CESAM) Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz (CiiEM), Monte de Caparica, Portugal
| | - An Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Alí Alejo
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, Valdeolmos, Spain
| | - Rachel E. Marschang
- Fachgebiet für Umwelt- und Tierhygiene, Universität Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
- Laboklin GmbH & Co. KG, Laboratory for Clinical Diagnostics, Bad Kissingen, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Virus genomes and virus-host interactions in aquaculture animals. SCIENCE CHINA-LIFE SCIENCES 2015; 58:156-69. [DOI: 10.1007/s11427-015-4802-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 10/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Waltzek TB, Miller DL, Gray MJ, Drecktrah B, Briggler JT, MacConnell B, Hudson C, Hopper L, Friary J, Yun SC, Malm KV, Weber ES, Hedrick RP. New disease records for hatchery-reared sturgeon. I. Expansion of frog virus 3 host range into Scaphirhynchus albus. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2014; 111:219-227. [PMID: 25320034 DOI: 10.3354/dao02761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In 2009, juvenile pallid sturgeon Scaphirhynchus albus, reared at the Blind Pony State Fish Hatchery (Missouri, USA) to replenish dwindling wild stocks, experienced mass mortality. Histological examination revealed extensive necrosis of the haematopoietic tissues, and a virus was isolated from affected organs in cell culture and then observed by electron microscopy. Experimental infection studies revealed that the virus is highly pathogenic to juvenile pallid sturgeon, one of several species of sturgeon currently listed as Endangered. The DNA sequence of the full length major capsid protein gene of the virus was identical to that of the species Frog virus 3 (FV3), the type species for the genus Ranavirus, originally isolated from northern leopard frog Lithobates pipiens. Although FV3 infections and epizootics in amphibians and reptiles are well documented, there is only 1 prior report of a natural infection of FV3 in fish. Our results illustrate the broad potential host range for FV3, with the known potential to cause significant mortality in poikilothermic vertebrates across 3 taxonomic classes including bony fishes, anuran and caudate amphibians, and squamate and testudine reptiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas B Waltzek
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
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Development and application of a monoclonal antibody against grouper iridovirus (GIV) major capsid protein. J Virol Methods 2014; 205:31-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2014.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2014] [Revised: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Virion-associated viral proteins of a Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus) iridovirus (genus Ranavirus) and functional study of the major capsid protein (MCP). Vet Microbiol 2014; 172:129-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2014.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2013] [Revised: 05/01/2014] [Accepted: 05/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Yan Y, Cui H, Guo C, Wei J, Huang Y, Li L, Qin Q. Singapore grouper iridovirus-encoded semaphorin homologue (SGIV-sema) contributes to viral replication, cytoskeleton reorganization and inhibition of cellular immune responses. J Gen Virol 2014; 95:1144-1155. [PMID: 24535211 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.060608-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Semaphorins are a large, phylogenetically conserved family of proteins that are involved in a wide range of biological processes including axonal steering, organogenesis, neoplastic transformation, as well as immune responses. In this study, a novel semaphorin homologue gene belonging to the Singapore grouper iridovirus (SGIV), ORF155R (termed SGIV-sema), was cloned and characterized. The coding region of SGIV-sema is 1728 bp in length, encoding a predicted protein with 575 aa. SGIV-sema contains a ~370 aa N-terminal Sema domain, a conserved plexin-semaphorin-integrin (PSI) domain, and an immunoglobulin (Ig)-like domain near the C terminus. SGIV-sema is an early gene product during viral infection and predominantly distributed in the cytoplasm with a speckled and clubbed pattern of appearance. Functionally, SGIV-sema could promote viral replication during SGIV infection in vitro, with no effect on the proliferation of host cells. Intriguingly, ectopically expressed SGIV-sema could alter the cytoskeletal structure of fish cells, characterized by a circumferential ring of microtubules near the nucleus and a disrupted microfilament organization. Furthermore, SGIV-sema was able to attenuate the cellular immune response, as demonstrated by decreased expression of inflammation/immune-related genes such as IL-8, IL-15, TNF-α and mediator of IRF3 activation (MITA), in SGIV-sema-expressing cells before and after SGIV infection. Ultimately, our study identified a novel, functional SGIV gene that could regulate cytoskeletal structure, immune responses and facilitate viral replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Yan
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou 510301, PR China
| | - Huachun Cui
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 19th Street South, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Chuanyu Guo
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, PR China
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou 510301, PR China
| | - Jingguang Wei
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou 510301, PR China
| | - Youhua Huang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou 510301, PR China
| | - Lili Li
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, PR China
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou 510301, PR China
| | - Qiwei Qin
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou 510301, PR China
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Huang X, Huang Y, Cai J, Wei S, Gao R, Qin Q. Identification and characterization of a tumor necrosis factor receptor like protein encoded by Singapore grouper iridovirus. Virus Res 2013; 178:340-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2013.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2013] [Revised: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 09/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Yan Y, Cui H, Guo C, Li J, Huang X, Wei J, Qin Q. An insulin-like growth factor homologue of Singapore grouper iridovirus modulates cell proliferation, apoptosis and enhances viral replication. J Gen Virol 2013; 94:2759-2770. [PMID: 24062533 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.056135-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) play crucial roles in regulating cell differentiation, proliferation and apoptosis. In this study, a novel IGF homologue gene (IGF-like) encoded by Singapore grouper iridovirus (SGIV) ORF062R (termed SGIV–IGF), was cloned and characterized. The coding region of SGIV–IGF is 771 bp in length, with a variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) locus at the 3′-end. We cloned one isoform of this novel gene, 582 bp in length, containing the predicted IGF domain and 3.6 copy numbers of the 27 bp repeat unit. SGIV–IGF was an early transcribed gene during viral infection, and SGIV–IGF was distributed predominantly in the cytoplasm with a diffused granular appearance. Intriguingly, overexpression of SGIV–IGF was able to promote the growth of grouper embryonic cells (GP cells) by promoting G1/S phase transition, which was at least partially dependent on its 3′-end VNTR locus. Furthermore, viral titre assay and real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) analysis proved that SGIV–IGF could promote SGIV replication in grouper cells. In addition, overexpression of SGIV–IGF mildly facilitated apoptosis in SGIV-infected non-host fathead minnow (FHM) cells. Together, our study demonstrated a novel functional gene of SGIV which may regulate viral replication and cellular processes through multiple mechanisms that appear to be cell type-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Yan
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou 510301, PR China
| | - Huachun Cui
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 19th Street South, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Chuanyu Guo
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, PR China
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou 510301, PR China
| | - Jun Li
- Institute of Human Virology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, 74 Zhongshan 2nd Road, Guangzhou 510080, PR China
| | - Xiaohong Huang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou 510301, PR China
| | - Jingguang Wei
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou 510301, PR China
| | - Qiwei Qin
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou 510301, PR China
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Abstract
Naturally occurring viral infections have the potential to introduce confounding variability that leads to invalid and misinterpreted data. Whereas the viral diseases of research rodents are well characterized and closely monitored, no naturally occurring viral infections have been characterized for the laboratory zebrafish (Danio rerio), an increasingly important biomedical research model. Despite the ignorance about naturally occurring zebrafish viruses, zebrafish models are rapidly expanding in areas of biomedical research where the confounding effects of unknown infectious agents present a serious concern. In addition, many zebrafish research colonies remain linked to the ornamental (pet) zebrafish trade, which can contribute to the introduction of new pathogens into research colonies, whereas mice used for research are purpose bred, with no introduction of new mice from the pet industry. Identification, characterization, and monitoring of naturally occurring viruses in zebrafish are crucial to the improvement of zebrafish health, the reduction of unwanted variability, and the continued development of the zebrafish as a model organism. This article addresses the importance of identifying and characterizing the viral diseases of zebrafish as the scope of zebrafish models expands into new research areas and also briefly addresses zebrafish susceptibility to experimental viral infection and the utility of the zebrafish as an infection and immunology model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus J Crim
- Comparative Medicine Program, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA.
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Abrams AJ, Cannatella DC, Hillis DM, Sawyer SL. Recent host-shifts in ranaviruses: signatures of positive selection in the viral genome. J Gen Virol 2013; 94:2082-2093. [PMID: 23784445 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.052837-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ranaviruses have been implicated in recent declines in global amphibian populations. Compared with the family Iridoviridae, to which the genus Ranavirus belongs, ranaviruses have a wide host range in that species/strains are known to infect fish, amphibians and reptiles, presumably due to recent host-switching events. We used eight sequenced ranavirus genomes and two selection-detection methods (site based and branch based) to identify genes that exhibited signatures of positive selection, potentially due to the selective pressures at play during host switching. We found evidence of positive selection acting on four genes via the site-based method, three of which were newly acquired genes unique to ranavirus genomes. Using the branch-based method, we identified eight additional candidate genes that exhibited signatures of dN/dS (non-synonymous/synonymous substitution rate) >1 in the clade where intense host switching had occurred. We found that these branch-specific patterns of elevated dN/dS were enriched in a small group of viral genes that have been acquired most recently in the ranavirus genome, compared with core genes that are shared among all members of the family Iridoviridae. Our results suggest that the group of newly acquired genes in the ranavirus genome may have undergone recent adaptive changes that have facilitated interspecies and interclass host switching.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Jeanine Abrams
- Section of Integrative Biology, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - David C Cannatella
- Section of Integrative Biology and Texas Memorial Museum, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - David M Hillis
- Section of Integrative Biology and Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Sara L Sawyer
- Section of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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Zhang BC, Zhang M, Sun BG, Fang Y, Xiao ZZ, Sun L. Complete genome sequence and transcription profiles of the rock bream iridovirus RBIV-C1. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2013; 104:203-214. [PMID: 23759558 DOI: 10.3354/dao02587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The family Iridoviridae consists of 5 genera of double-stranded DNA viruses, including the genus Megalocytivirus, which contains species that are important fish pathogens. In a previous study, we isolated the first rock bream iridovirus from China (RBIV-C1) and identified it as a member of the genus Megalocytivirus. In this report, we determined the complete genomic sequence of RBIV-C1 and examined its in vivo expression profiles. The genome of RBIV-C1 is 112333 bp in length, with a GC content of 55% and a coding density of 92%. RBIV-C1 contains 4584 simple sequence repeats, 89.8% of which are distributed among coding regions. A total of 119 potential open reading frames (ORFs) were identified in RBIV-C1, including the 26 core iridovirus genes; 41 ORFs encode proteins that are predicted to be associated with essential biological functions. RBIV-C1 exhibits the highest degree of sequence conservation and colinear arrangement of genes with orange-spotted grouper iridovirus (OSGIV) and rock bream iridovirus (RBIV). The pairwise nucleotide identities are 99.49% between RBIV-C1 and OSGIV and 98.69% between RBIV-C1 and RBIV. Compared to OSGIV, RBIV-C1 contains 11 insertions, 13 deletions, and 103 single nucleotide mutations. Whole-genome transcription analysis showed that following experimental infection of rock bream with RBIV-C1, all but 1 of the 119 ORFs were expressed at different time points and clustered into 3 hierarchical groups based on their expression patterns. These results provide new insights into the genetic nature and gene expression features of megalocytiviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bao-Cun Zhang
- Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, People's Republic of China
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39
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Wang L, Chong QY, Wu J. A DNA-binding protein encoded by ORF008L of Singapore grouper iridovirus. Virus Res 2013; 176:37-44. [PMID: 23669218 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2013.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2013] [Revised: 04/29/2013] [Accepted: 04/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Singapore grouper iridovirus (SGIV) is a major viral pathogen that can cause substantial economic losses in aquaculture, but its genome replication, organization and package are largely unknown. We isolated SGIV protein-DNA core by freeze-thaw lysis of viral particles and gradient centrifugation. Twelve proteins were identified from the core by mass spectrometry. ORF008L, one of the core proteins, was identified as a collagen-like protein and its DNA binding ability was demonstrated by electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). Binding of ORF008L to DNA was neither sequence specific nor pH dependent, and it protected DNA from degradation by DNase I in vitro. These results suggest that ORF008L may play a role in protection or stabilization of the viral genome during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Wang
- Mechanobiology Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore
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Jia KT, Liu ZY, Guo CJ, Xia Q, Mi S, Li XD, Weng SP, He JG. The potential role of microfilaments in host cells for infection with infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus infection. Virol J 2013; 10:77. [PMID: 23497248 PMCID: PMC3599308 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-10-77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus (ISKNV) belongs to the genus Megalocytivirus from the family Iridoviridae. Megalocytivirus causes severe economic losses to tropical freshwater and marine culture industry in Asian countries and is devastating to the mandarin fish farm industry in China particularly. Methods We investigated the involvement of microfilaments in the early and late stages of ISKNV infection in MFF-1 cells by selectively perturbing their architecture using well-characterized inhibitors of actin dynamics. The effect of disruption of actin cytoskeleton on ISKNV infection was evaluated by indirect immunofluorescence analysis or real-time quantitative PCR. Results The depolymerization of the actin filaments with cytochalasin D, cytochalasin B, or latrunculin A reduced ISKNV infection. Furthermore, depolymerization of filamentous actin by inhibitors did not inhibit binding of the virus but affected virus internalization in the early stages of infection. In addition, the depolymerization of actin filaments reduced total ISKNV production in the late stages of ISKNV. Conclusions This study demonstrated that ISKNV required an intact actin network during infection. The findings will help us to better understand how iridoviruses exploit the cytoskeleton to facilitate their infection and subsequent disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun-tong Jia
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Safety/State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou, PR China
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Differential viral propagation and induction of apoptosis by grouper iridovirus (GIV) in cell lines from three non-host species. Virus Res 2012; 167:16-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2012.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2011] [Revised: 03/20/2012] [Accepted: 03/21/2012] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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ALLENDER MC, MITCHELL MA, YARBOROUGH J, COX S. Pharmacokinetics of a single oral dose of acyclovir and valacyclovir in North American box turtles (Terrapenesp.). J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2012; 36:205-8. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2885.2012.01418.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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43
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Wu MS, Chen CW, Liu YC, Huang HH, Lin CH, Tzeng CS, Chang CY. Transcriptional analysis of orange-spotted grouper reacting to experimental grouper iridovirus infection. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 37:233-242. [PMID: 22504162 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2012.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Revised: 03/23/2012] [Accepted: 04/07/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Disease caused by grouper iridovirus (GIV) has resulted in economic losses due to high mortality in grouper culture. Thirty-eight up- and 48 down-regulated known entities have been identified using a GIV-infected grouper kidney cDNA microarray chip. Further quantitative validation was executed in the head-kidney and spleen for 24 candidate genes and 7 immune factors following GIV inoculation. Significant induction with various patterns could be seen in 30 tested genes in the spleen. However, only 23 genes had induction in the head-kidney and meanwhile 5 genes showed reduction. Transcriptional expression profiles of selected genes in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (PIC) were also established to compare with the GIV-stimulated expression. The results indicated that the responses of most genes facing GIV invasion have more similarities to PIC treatment than LPS. Seven genes are thought to be interferon-related factors: RNA helicase DHX58, ISG15, viperin, HECT E3 ligase (HECT), CD9, urokinase plasminogen activator surface receptor (PLAUR) and Mx-1. Following immunization with inactivated GIV, significant induction could be seen in DHX58, viperin, IL-1β, IL-8, COX-2, HECT, PLAUR, IgM, Mx-1, very large inducible GTPase-1 (VLIG1) and TNF-α in the head-kidney or spleen, and the latter 6 genes also had a gradual increasing pattern by a boosting immunization. These factors might play important roles in adaptive antiviral protection. Thus, we have characterized the temporal response patterns of virus responsive genes and have also identified several potential immune markers to further investigate host antiviral defense mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Shan Wu
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, ROC
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Lei XY, Ou T, Zhu RL, Zhang QY. Sequencing and analysis of the complete genome of Rana grylio virus (RGV). Arch Virol 2012; 157:1559-64. [DOI: 10.1007/s00705-012-1316-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2012] [Accepted: 03/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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45
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Kuo HC, Wang TY, Hsu HH, Chen PP, Lee SH, Chen YM, Tsai TJ, Wang CK, Ku HT, Lee GB, Chen TY. Nervous necrosis virus replicates following the embryo development and dual infection with iridovirus at juvenile stage in grouper. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36183. [PMID: 22563447 PMCID: PMC3338570 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2012] [Accepted: 04/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection of virus (such as nodavirus and iridovirus) and bacteria (such as Vibrio anguillarum) in farmed grouper has been widely reported and caused large economic losses to Taiwanese fish aquaculture industry since 1979. The multiplex assay was used to detect dual viral infection and showed that only nervous necrosis virus (NNV) can be detected till the end of experiments (100% mortality) once it appeared. In addition, iridovirus can be detected in a certain period of rearing. The results of real-time PCR and in situ PCR indicated that NNV, in fact, was not on the surface of the eggs but present in the embryo, which can continue to replicate during the embryo development. The virus may be vertically transmitted by packing into eggs during egg development (formation) or delivering into eggs by sperm during fertilization. The ozone treatment of eggs may fail to remove the virus, so a new strategy to prevent NNV is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiao-Che Kuo
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Research Center of Ocean Environment and Technology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Agriculture Biotechnology Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Yu Wang
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Hao-Hsuan Hsu
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Agriculture Biotechnology Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Peng-Peng Chen
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Szu-Hsien Lee
- Institute of Nanotechnology and Microsystems Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Department of Engineering Science, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Young-Mao Chen
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Research Center of Ocean Environment and Technology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Agriculture Biotechnology Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Tieh-Jung Tsai
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Kai Wang
- Division of Environmental Health and Occupational Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli, Taiwan
| | - Hsiao-Tung Ku
- Research Division I, Taiwan Institute of Economic Research, Taipei, Taiwan
- Office for Energy Strategy Development, National Science Council, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Gwo-Bin Lee
- Institute of Nanotechnology and Microsystems Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Department of Engineering Science, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Department of Power Mechanical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (TYC); (GBL)
| | - Tzong-Yueh Chen
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Research Center of Ocean Environment and Technology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Agriculture Biotechnology Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (TYC); (GBL)
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Waltzek TB, Marty GD, Alfaro ME, Bennett WR, Garver KA, Haulena M, Weber ES, Hedrick RP. Systemic iridovirus from threespine stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus represents a new megalocytivirus species (family Iridoviridae). DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2012; 98:41-56. [PMID: 22422128 DOI: 10.3354/dao02415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Megalocytiviruses have been associated with epizootics resulting in significant economic losses in public aquaria and food-fish and ornamental fish industries, as well as threatening wild fish stocks. The present report describes characteristics of the first megalocytivirus from a wild temperate North American fish, the threespine stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus. Moribund and dead fish sampled after transfer to quarantine for an aquarium exhibit had amphophilic to basophilic intracytoplasmic inclusions (histopathology) and icosahedral virions (transmission electron microscopy) consistent with an iridovirus infection. Phylogenetic analyses of the major capsid, ATPase, and DNA polymerase genes confirmed the virus as the first known member of the genus Megalocytivirus (family Iridoviridae) from a gasterosteid fish. The unique biologic and genetic properties of this virus are sufficient to establish a new Megalocytivirus species to be formally known as the threespine stickleback iridovirus (TSIV). The threespine stickleback is widely distributed throughout the northern hemisphere in both freshwater and estuarine environments. The presence of megalocytiviruses with broad host specificity and detrimental economic and ecologic impacts among such a widely dispersed fish species indicates the need for sampling of other stickleback populations as well as other North American sympatric marine and freshwater ichthyofauna.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas B Waltzek
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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47
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The genome sequence of the emerging common midwife toad virus identifies an evolutionary intermediate within ranaviruses. J Virol 2012; 86:3617-25. [PMID: 22301140 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.07108-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Worldwide amphibian population declines have been ascribed to global warming, increasing pollution levels, and other factors directly related to human activities. These factors may additionally be favoring the emergence of novel pathogens. In this report, we have determined the complete genome sequence of the emerging common midwife toad ranavirus (CMTV), which has caused fatal disease in several amphibian species across Europe. Phylogenetic and gene content analyses of the first complete genomic sequence from a ranavirus isolated in Europe show that CMTV is an amphibian-like ranavirus (ALRV). However, the CMTV genome structure is novel and represents an intermediate evolutionary stage between the two previously described ALRV groups. We find that CMTV clusters with several other ranaviruses isolated from different hosts and locations which might also be included in this novel ranavirus group. This work sheds light on the phylogenetic relationships within this complex group of emerging, disease-causing viruses.
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48
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Ohlemeyer S, Holopainen R, Tapiovaara H, Bergmann SM, Schütze H. Major capsid protein gene sequence analysis of the Santee-Cooper ranaviruses DFV, GV6, and LMBV. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2011; 96:195-207. [PMID: 22132498 DOI: 10.3354/dao02370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The Santee-Cooper ranaviruses doctor fish virus (DFV), guppy virus 6 (GV6), and largemouth bass virus (LMBV) are members of the genus Ranavirus within the family Iridoviridae. The major capsid protein (MCP) is a main structural protein of iridoviruses and supports the differentiation and classification of ranaviruses. Presently the complete sequence of the MCP gene is known for most ranaviruses with the exception of the Santee-Cooper ranaviruses. In the present study, the complete nucleotide sequence of the MCP gene of DFV, GV6, and LMBV was determined. DFV and GV6 are identical within the MCP gene sequence. The identity compared to the corresponding sequence in LMBV amounts to 99.21%. The MCP gene of DFV, GV6, and LMBV exhibits only approximately 78% identity compared to the respective gene of other ranaviruses. Based on the sequence data obtained in the present study, a Rana MCP polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and subsequent restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis were developed to identify and differentiate ranaviruses, including DFV, GV6, and LMBV.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ohlemeyer
- Institute of Infectology, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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49
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Whitley DS, Sample RC, Sinning AR, Henegar J, Chinchar VG. Antisense approaches for elucidating ranavirus gene function in an infected fish cell line. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 35:937-948. [PMID: 21147160 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2010.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2010] [Accepted: 12/04/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Viral virulence/immune evasion strategies and host anti-viral responses represent different sides of the continuing struggle between virus and host survival. To identify virus-encoding molecules whose function is to subvert or blunt host immune responses, we have adapted anti-sense approaches to knock down the expression of specific viral gene products. Our intention is to correlate knock down with loss of function and thus infer the role of a given viral gene. As a starting point in this process we have targeted several structural and catalytic genes using antisense morpholino oligonucleotides (asMO) and small, interfering RNAs (siRNA). In proof of concept experiments we show the feasibility of this approach and describe recent work targeting five frog virus 3 genes. Our results indicate that both 46K and 32R, two immediate-early viral proteins, are essential for replication in vitro, and confirm earlier findings that the major capsid protein, the largest subunit of the viral homolog of RNA polymerase II, and the viral DNA methyltransferase are also essential for replication in cell culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- D S Whitley
- Department of Microbiology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 39216, United States
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50
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Yan XY, Wu ZH, Jian JC, Lu YS, Sun XQ. Analysis of the genetic diversity of the lymphocystis virus and its evolutionary relationship with its hosts. Virus Genes 2011; 43:358-66. [DOI: 10.1007/s11262-011-0646-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2011] [Accepted: 07/12/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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