Reconstitution of herpes simplex virus microtubule-dependent trafficking in vitro

Intracellular trafficking of HIV-1 Gag via Syntaxin 6-positive compartments/vesicles: Involvement in tumor necrosis factor secretion

HIV-1 Gag protein is synthesized in the cytosol and is transported to the plasma membrane, where viral particle assembly and budding occur. Endosomes are alternative sites of Gag accumulation. However, the intracellular transport pathways and carriers for Gag have not been clarified. We show here that Syntaxin6 (Syx6), a soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) involved in membrane fusion in post-Golgi networks, is a molecule responsible for Gag trafficking and also for tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) secretion and that Gag and TNFα are cotransported via Syx6-positive compartments/vesicles. Confocal and live-cell imaging revealed that Gag colocalized and cotrafficked with Syx6, a fraction of which localizes in early and recycling endosomes. Syx6 knockdown reduced HIV-1 particle production, with Gag distributed diffusely throughout the cytoplasm. Coimmunoprecipitation and pulldown show that Gag binds to Syx6, but not its SNARE partners or their assembly complexes, suggesting that Gag preferentially binds free Syx6. The Gag matrix domain and the Syx6 SNARE domain are responsible for the interaction and cotrafficking. In immune cells, Syx6 knockdown/knockout similarly impaired HIV-1 production. Interestingly, HIV-1 infection facilitated TNFα secretion, and this enhancement did not occur in Syx6-depleted cells. Confocal and live-cell imaging revealed that TNFα and Gag partially colocalized and were cotransported via Syx6-positive compartments/vesicles. Biochemical analyses indicate that TNFα directly binds the C-terminal domain of Syx6. Altogether, our data provide evidence that both Gag and TNFα make use of Syx6-mediated trafficking machinery and suggest that Gag expression does not inhibit but rather facilitates TNFα secretion in HIV-1 infection.

Individual herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) particles exit by exocytosis and accumulate at preferential egress sites

The human pathogen herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) produces a lifelong infection in the majority of the world's population. While the generalities of alpha herpesvirus assembly and egress pathways are known, the precise molecular and spatiotemporal details remain unclear. In order to study this aspect of HSV-1 infection, we engineered a recombinant HSV-1 strain expressing a pH-sensitive reporter, gM-pHluorin. Using a variety of fluorescent microscopy modalities, we can detect individual virus particles undergoing intracellular transport and exocytosis at the plasma membrane. We show that particles exit from epithelial cells individually, not bulk release of many particles at once, as has been reported for other viruses. In multiple cell types, HSV-1 particles accumulate over time at the cell periphery and cell-cell contacts. We show that this accumulation effect is the result of individual particles undergoing exocytosis at preferential sites and that these egress sites can contribute to cell-cell spread. We also show that the viral membrane proteins gE, gI, and US9, which have important functions in intracellular transport in neurons, are not required for preferential egress and clustering in non-neuronal cells. Importantly, by comparing HSV-1 to a related alpha herpesvirus, pseudorabies virus, we show that this preferential exocytosis and clustering effect are cell type dependent, not virus dependent. This preferential egress and clustering appear to be the result of the arrangement of the microtubule cytoskeleton, as virus particles co-accumulate at the same cell protrusions as an exogenous plus end-directed kinesin motor.IMPORTANCEAlpha herpesviruses produce lifelong infections in their human and animal hosts. The majority of people in the world are infected with herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), which typically causes recurrent oral or genital lesions. However, HSV-1 can also spread to the central nervous system, causing severe encephalitis, and might also contribute to the development of neurodegenerative diseases. Many of the steps of how these viruses infect and replicate inside host cells are known in depth, but the final step, exiting from the infected cell, is not fully understood. In this study, we engineered a novel variant of HSV-1 that allows us to visualize how individual virus particles exit from infected cells. With this imaging assay, we investigated preferential egress site formation in certain cell types and their contribution to the cell-cell spread of HSV-1.

Cellular Processes Induced by HSV-1 Infections in Vestibular Neuritis

Herpesvirus is a prevalent pathogen that primarily infects human epithelial cells and has the ability to reside in neurons. In the field of otolaryngology, herpesvirus infection primarily leads to hearing loss and vestibular neuritis and is considered the primary hypothesis regarding the pathogenesis of vestibular neuritis. In this review, we provide a summary of the effects of the herpes virus on cellular processes in both host cells and immune cells, with a focus on HSV-1 as illustrative examples.

LIVE-CELL FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPY OF HSV-1 CELLULAR EGRESS BY EXOCYTOSIS

The human pathogen Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) produces a lifelong infection in the majority of the world's population. While the generalities of alpha herpesvirus assembly and egress pathways are known, the precise molecular and spatiotemporal details remain unclear. In order to study this aspect of HSV-1 infection, we engineered a recombinant HSV-1 strain expressing a pH-sensitive reporter, gM-pHluorin. Using a variety of fluorescent microscopy modalities, we can detect individual virus particles undergoing intracellular transport and exocytosis at the plasma membrane. We show that particles exit from epithelial cells individually, not bulk release of many particles at once, as has been reported for other viruses. In multiple cell types, HSV-1 particles accumulate over time at the cell periphery and cell-cell contacts. We show that this accumulation effect is the result of individual particles undergoing exocytosis at preferential sites and that these egress sites can contribute to cell-cell spread. We also show that the viral membrane proteins gE, gI, and US9, which have important functions in intracellular transport in neurons, are not required for preferential egress and clustering in non-neuronal cells. Importantly, by comparing HSV-1 to a related alpha herpesvirus, pseudorabies virus, we show that this preferential exocytosis and clustering effect is cell type-dependent, not virus dependent. This preferential egress and clustering appears to be the result of the arrangement of the microtubule cytoskeleton, as virus particles co-accumulate at the same cell protrusions as an exogenous plus end-directed kinesin motor.

Kinesin-1 transports morphologically distinct intracellular virions during vaccinia infection

Intracellular mature viruses (IMVs) are the first and most abundant infectious form of vaccinia virus to assemble during its replication cycle. IMVs can undergo microtubule-based motility, but their directionality and the motor involved in their transport remain unknown. Here, we demonstrate that IMVs, like intracellular enveloped viruses (IEVs), the second form of vaccinia that are wrapped in Golgi-derived membranes, recruit kinesin-1 and undergo anterograde transport. In vitro reconstitution of virion transport in infected cell extracts revealed that IMVs and IEVs move toward microtubule plus ends with respective velocities of 0.66 and 0.56 µm/s. Quantitative imaging established that IMVs and IEVs recruit an average of 139 and 320 kinesin-1 motor complexes, respectively. In the absence of kinesin-1, there was a near-complete loss of in vitro motility and reduction in the intracellular spread of both types of virions. Our observations demonstrate that kinesin-1 transports two morphologically distinct forms of vaccinia. Reconstitution of vaccinia-based microtubule motility in vitro provides a new model to elucidate how motor number and regulation impacts transport of a bona fide kinesin-1 cargo.

Getting on the right track: Interactions between viruses and the cytoskeletal motor proteins

The cytoskeleton is an essential component of the cell and it is involved in multiple physiological functions, including intracellular organization and transport. It is composed of three main families of proteinaceous filaments; microtubules, actin filaments and intermediate filaments and their accessory proteins. Motor proteins, which comprise the dynein, kinesin and myosin superfamilies, are a remarkable group of accessory proteins that mainly mediate the intracellular transport of cargoes along with the cytoskeleton. Like other cellular structures and pathways, viruses can exploit the cytoskeleton to promote different steps of their life cycle through associations with motor proteins. The complexity of the cytoskeleton and the differences among viruses, however, has led to a wide diversity of interactions, which in most cases remain poorly understood. Unveiling the details of these interactions is necessary not only for a better comprehension of specific infections, but may also reveal new potential drug targets to fight dreadful diseases such as rabies disease and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). In this review, we describe a few examples of the mechanisms that some human viruses, that is, rabies virus, adenovirus, herpes simplex virus, human immunodeficiency virus, influenza A virus and papillomavirus, have developed to hijack dyneins, kinesins and myosins.

Near-native state imaging by cryo-soft-X-ray tomography reveals remodelling of multiple cellular organelles during HSV-1 infection

Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) is a large, enveloped DNA virus and its assembly in the cell is a complex multi-step process during which viral particles interact with numerous cellular compartments such as the nucleus and organelles of the secretory pathway. Transmission electron microscopy and fluorescence microscopy are commonly used to study HSV-1 infection. However, 2D imaging limits our understanding of the 3D geometric changes to cellular compartments that accompany infection and sample processing can introduce morphological artefacts that complicate interpretation. In this study, we used soft X-ray tomography to observe differences in whole-cell architecture between HSV-1 infected and uninfected cells. To protect the near-native structure of cellular compartments we used a non-disruptive sample preparation technique involving rapid cryopreservation, and a fluorescent reporter virus was used to facilitate correlation of structural changes with the stage of infection in individual cells. We observed viral capsids and assembly intermediates interacting with nuclear and cytoplasmic membranes. Additionally, we observed differences in the morphology of specific organelles between uninfected and infected cells. The local concentration of cytoplasmic vesicles at the juxtanuclear compartment increased and their mean width decreased as infection proceeded, and lipid droplets transiently increased in size. Furthermore, mitochondria in infected cells were elongated and highly branched, suggesting that HSV-1 infection alters the dynamics of mitochondrial fission/fusion. Our results demonstrate that high-resolution 3D images of cellular compartments can be captured in a near-native state using soft X-ray tomography and have revealed that infection causes striking changes to the morphology of intracellular organelles.

Herpes simplex virus-1 utilizes the host actin cytoskeleton for its release from axonal growth cones

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) has evolved mechanisms to exploit the host cytoskeleton during entry, replication and exit from cells. In this study, we determined the role of actin and the molecular motor proteins, myosin II and myosin V, in the transport and release of HSV-1 from axon termini, or growth cones. Using compartmentalized neuronal devices, we showed that inhibition of actin polymerization, but not actin branching, significantly reduced the release of HSV-1 from axons. Furthermore, we showed that inhibition of myosin V, but not myosin II, also significantly reduced the release of HSV-1 from axons. Using confocal and electron microscopy, we determined that viral components are transported along axons to growth cones, despite actin or myosin inhibition. Overall, our study supports the role of actin in virus release from axonal growth cones and suggests myosin V as a likely candidate involved in this process.

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a ubiquitous human pathogen causing cold sores and genital herpes. HSV-1 infects sensory neurons of the peripheral nervous system where it establishes a lifelong infection and cannot be cured. Reactivation is common, with the virus transported back along sensory nerves, forming new lesions, or is shed asymptomatically. Antiviral resistance is emerging to current antivirals that target viral replication, indicating the need to identify new targets for future treatment. The host cell cytoskeleton plays an important role during transport of the virus. HSV-1 is transported along axons via microtubules; however, how the virus is released from axon termini, where actin predominates, is unknown. Here we show that an intact actin cytoskeleton is required for efficient virus release from axon termini. Furthermore, we show that myosin V, an actin based molecular motor that drives transport, is essential in virus release from axon termini. Together, this study defines the mechanisms behind HSV-1 release from axon termini which will guide future directions in identifying possible therapeutic targets for HSV-1.

An ESCRT/VPS4 envelopment trap to examine the mechanism of alphaherpesvirus assembly and transport in neurons

The assembly and egress of alphaherpesviruses, including Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and Pseudorabies virus (PRV), within neurons is poorly understood. A key unresolved question is the structure of the viral particle that moves by anterograde transport along the axon, and two alternative mechanisms have been described. In the "Married" model capsids acquire their envelopes in the cell body, then traffic along axons as enveloped virions within a bounding organelle. In the "Separate" model non-enveloped capsids travel from the cell body into and along the axon, eventually encountering their envelopment organelles at a distal site such as the nerve cell terminal. Here we describe an "envelopment trap" to test these models using the dominant negative terminal ESCRT component VPS4-EQ. GFP-tagged VPS4-EQ was used to arrest HSV-1 or PRV capsid envelopment, inhibit downstream trafficking and GFP-label envelopment intermediates. We found that GFP-VPS4-EQ inhibited trafficking of HSV-1 capsids into and along the neurites and axons of mouse CAD cells and rat embryonic primary cortical neurons, consistent with egress via the married pathway. In contrast, transport of HSV-1 capsids was unaffected in the neurites of human SK-N-SH neuroblastoma cells, consistent with the separate mechanism. Unexpectedly, PRV (generally thought to utilize the married pathway) also appeared to employ the separate mechanism in SK-N-SH cells. We propose that apparent differences in the methods of HSV-1 and PRV egress are more likely a reflection of the host neuron in which transport is studied, rather than true biological differences between the viruses themselves. IMPORTANCE Alphaherpesviruses, including Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and Pseudorabies virus (PRV), are pathogens of the nervous system. They replicate in the nerve cell body then travel great distances along axons to reach nerve termini and spread to adjacent epithelial cells, however key aspects of how these viruses travel along axons remain controversial. Here we test two alternative mechanisms for transport, the married and separate models, by blocking envelope assembly, a critical step in viral egress. When we arrest formation of the viral envelope using a mutated component of the cellular ESCRT apparatus we find that entry of viral particles into axons is blocked in some types of neuron, but not others. This approach allows us to determine whether envelope assembly occurs prior to entry of viruses into axons, or afterwards, and thus to distinguish between the alternative models for viral transport.

Herpesviruses assimilate kinesin to produce motorized viral particles

Neurotropic alphaherpesviruses initiate infection in exposed mucosal tissues and, unlike most viruses, spread rapidly to sensory and autonomic nerves where life-long latency is established¹. Recurrent infections arise sporadically from the peripheral nervous system throughout the life of the host, and invasion of the central nervous system may occur, with severe outcomes². These viruses directly recruit cellular motors for transport along microtubules in nerve axons, but how the motors are manipulated to deliver the virus to neuronal nuclei is not understood. Here, using herpes simplex virus type I and pseudorabies virus as model alphaherpesviruses, we show that a cellular kinesin motor is captured by virions in epithelial cells, carried between cells, and subsequently used in neurons to traffic to nuclei. Viruses assembled in the absence of kinesin are not neuroinvasive. The findings explain a critical component of the alphaherpesvirus neuroinvasive mechanism and demonstrate that these viruses assimilate a cellular protein as an essential proviral structural component. This principle of viral assimilation may prove relevant to other virus families and offers new strategies to combat infection.

Pathogenesis and virulence of herpes simplex virus

Two of the most prevalent human viruses worldwide, herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively), cause a variety of diseases, including cold sores, genital herpes, herpes stromal keratitis, meningitis and encephalitis. The intrinsic, innate and adaptive immune responses are key to control HSV, and the virus has developed mechanisms to evade them. The immune response can also contribute to pathogenesis, as observed in stromal keratitis and encephalitis. The fact that certain individuals are more prone than others to suffer severe disease upon HSV infection can be partially explained by the existence of genetic polymorphisms in humans. Like all herpesviruses, HSV has two replication cycles: lytic and latent. During lytic replication HSV produces infectious viral particles to infect other cells and organisms, while during latency there is limited gene expression and lack of infectious virus particles. HSV establishes latency in neurons and can cause disease both during primary infection and upon reactivation. The mechanisms leading to latency and reactivation and which are the viral and host factors controlling these processes are not completely understood. Here we review the HSV life cycle, the interaction of HSV with the immune system and three of the best-studied pathologies: Herpes stromal keratitis, herpes simplex encephalitis and genital herpes. We also discuss the potential association between HSV-1 infection and Alzheimer's disease.

Aptamers in Virology-A Consolidated Review of the Most Recent Advancements in Diagnosis and Therapy

The use of short oligonucleotide or peptide molecules as target-specific aptamers has recently garnered substantial attention in the field of the detection and treatment of viral infections. Based on their high affinity and high specificity to desired targets, their use is on the rise to replace antibodies for the detection of viruses and viral antigens. Furthermore, aptamers inhibit intracellular viral transcription and translation, in addition to restricting viral entry into host cells. This has opened up a plethora of new targets for the research and development of novel vaccines against viruses. Here, we discuss the advances made in aptamer technology for viral diagnosis and therapy in the past decade.

Motor Skills: Recruitment of Kinesins, Myosins and Dynein during Assembly and Egress of Alphaherpesviruses

The alphaherpesviruses are pathogens of the mammalian nervous system. Initial infection is commonly at mucosal epithelia, followed by spread to, and establishment of latency in, the peripheral nervous system. During productive infection, viral gene expression, replication of the dsDNA genome, capsid assembly and genome packaging take place in the infected cell nucleus, after which mature nucleocapsids emerge into the cytoplasm. Capsids must then travel to their site of envelopment at cytoplasmic organelles, and enveloped virions need to reach the cell surface for release and spread. Transport at each of these steps requires movement of alphaherpesvirus particles through a crowded and viscous cytoplasm, and for distances ranging from several microns in epithelial cells, to millimeters or even meters during egress from neurons. To solve this challenging problem alphaherpesviruses, and their assembly intermediates, exploit microtubule- and actin-dependent cellular motors. This review focuses upon the mechanisms used by alphaherpesviruses to recruit kinesin, myosin and dynein motors during assembly and egress.

HSV-1 Cytoplasmic Envelopment and Egress

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a structurally complex enveloped dsDNA virus that has evolved to replicate in human neurons and epithelia. Viral gene expression, DNA replication, capsid assembly, and genome packaging take place in the infected cell nucleus, which mature nucleocapsids exit by envelopment at the inner nuclear membrane then de-envelopment into the cytoplasm. Once in the cytoplasm, capsids travel along microtubules to reach, dock, and envelope at cytoplasmic organelles. This generates mature infectious HSV-1 particles that must then be sorted to the termini of sensory neurons, or to epithelial cell junctions, for spread to uninfected cells. The focus of this review is upon our current understanding of the viral and cellular molecular machinery that enables HSV-1 to travel within infected cells during egress and to manipulate cellular organelles to construct its envelope.

Deletion of the Pseudorabies Virus gE/gI-US9p complex disrupts kinesin KIF1A and KIF5C recruitment during egress, and alters the properties of microtubule-dependent transport in vitro

During infection of neurons by alphaherpesviruses including Pseudorabies virus (PRV) and Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) viral nucleocapsids assemble in the cell nucleus, become enveloped in the cell body then traffic into and down axons to nerve termini for spread to adjacent epithelia. The viral membrane protein US9p and the membrane glycoprotein heterodimer gE/gI play critical roles in anterograde spread of both HSV-1 and PRV, and several models exist to explain their function. Biochemical studies suggest that PRV US9p associates with the kinesin-3 motor KIF1A in a gE/gI-stimulated manner, and the gE/gI-US9p complex has been proposed to recruit KIF1A to PRV for microtubule-mediated anterograde trafficking into or along the axon. However, as loss of gE/gI-US9p essentially abolishes delivery of alphaherpesviruses to the axon it is difficult to determine the microtubule-dependent trafficking properties and motor-composition of Δ(gE/gI-US9p) particles. Alternatively, studies in HSV-1 have suggested that gE/gI and US9p are required for the appearance of virions in the axon because they act upstream, to help assemble enveloped virions in the cell body. We prepared Δ(gE/gI-US9p) mutant, and control parental PRV particles from differentiated cultured neuronal or porcine kidney epithelial cells and quantitated the efficiency of virion assembly, the properties of microtubule-dependent transport and the ability of viral particles to recruit kinesin motors. We find that loss of gE/gI-US9p has no significant effect upon PRV particle assembly but leads to greatly diminished plus end-directed traffic, and enhanced minus end-directed and bidirectional movement along microtubules. PRV particles prepared from infected differentiated mouse CAD neurons were found to be associated with either kinesin KIF1A or kinesin KIF5C, but not both. Loss of gE/gI-US9p resulted in failure to recruit KIF1A and KF5C, but did not affect dynein binding. Unexpectedly, while KIF5C was expressed in undifferentiated and differentiated CAD neurons it was only found associated with PRV particles prepared from differentiated cells.

Herpes Simplex Virus: The Hostile Guest That Takes Over Your Home

Alpha (α)-herpesviruses (HSV-1 and HSV-2), like other viruses, are obligate intracellular parasites. They hijack the cellular machinery to survive and replicate through evading the defensive responses by the host. The viral genome of herpes simplex viruses (HSVs) contains viral genes, the products of which are destined to exploit the host apparatus for their own existence. Cellular modulations begin from the entry point itself. The two main gateways that the virus has to penetrate are the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane. Changes in the cell membrane are triggered when the glycoproteins of HSV interact with the surface receptors of the host cell, and from here, the components of the cytoskeleton take over. The rearrangement in the cytoskeleton components help the virus to enter as well as transport to the nucleus and back to the cell membrane to spread out to the other cells. The entire carriage process is also mediated by the motor proteins of the kinesin and dynein superfamily and is directed by the viral tegument proteins. Also, the virus captures the cell’s most efficient cargo carrying system, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)–Golgi vesicular transport machinery for egress to the cell membrane. For these reasons, the host cell has its own checkpoints where the normal functions are halted once a danger is sensed. However, a cell may be prepared for the adversities from an invading virus, and it is simply commendable that the virus has the antidote to these cellular strategies as well. The HSV viral proteins are capable of limiting the use of the transcriptional and translational tools for the cell itself, so that its own transcription and translation pathways remain unhindered. HSV prefers to constrain any self-destruction process of the cell—be it autophagy in the lysosome or apoptosis by the mitochondria, so that it can continue to parasitize the cell for its own survival. This review gives a detailed account of the significance of compartmentalization during HSV pathogenesis. It also highlights the undiscovered areas in the HSV cell biology research which demand attention for devising improved therapeutics against the infection.

Microtubule-Dependent Trafficking of Alphaherpesviruses in the Nervous System: The Ins and Outs

The Alphaherpesvirinae include the neurotropic pathogens herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus of humans and pseudorabies virus of swine. These viruses establish lifelong latency in the nuclei of peripheral ganglia, but utilize the peripheral tissues those neurons innervate for productive replication, spread, and transmission. Delivery of virions from replicative pools to the sites of latency requires microtubule-directed retrograde axonal transport from the nerve terminus to the cell body of the sensory neuron. As a corollary, during reactivation newly assembled virions must travel along axonal microtubules in the anterograde direction to return to the nerve terminus and infect peripheral tissues, completing the cycle. Neurotropic alphaherpesviruses can therefore exploit neuronal microtubules and motors for long distance axonal transport, and alternate between periods of sustained plus end- and minus end-directed motion at different stages of their infectious cycle. This review summarizes our current understanding of the molecular details by which this is achieved.

Herpesvirus acts with the cytoskeleton and promotes cancer progression

The cytoskeleton is a complex fibrous reticular structure composed of microfilaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments. These components coordinate morphology support and intracellular transport that is involved in a variety of cell activities, such as cell proliferation, migration and differentiation. In addition, the cytoskeleton also plays an important role in viral infection. During an infection by a Herpesvirus, the virus utilizes microfilaments to enter cells and travel to the nucleus by microtubules; the viral DNA replicates with the help of host microfilaments; and the virus particles start assembling with a capsid in the cytoplasm before egress. The cytoskeleton changes in cells infected with Herpesvirus are made to either counteract or obey the virus, thereby promote cell transforming into cancerous ones. This article aims to clarify the interaction between the virus and cytoskeleton components in the process of Herpesvirus infection and the molecular motor, cytoskeleton-associated proteins and drugs that play an important role in the process of a Herpesvirus infection and carcinogenesis process.

Kinetics of Mimivirus Infection Stages Quantified Using Image Flow Cytometry

Due to the heterogeneity of viruses and their hosts, a comprehensive view of viral infection is best achieved by analyzing large populations of infected cells. However, information regarding variation in infected cell populations is lost in bulk measurements. Motivated by an interest in the temporal progression of events in virally infected cells, we used image flow cytometry (IFC) to monitor changes in Acanthamoeba polyphaga cells infected with Mimivirus. This first use of IFC to study viral infection required the development of methods to preserve morphological features of adherent amoeba cells prior to detachment and analysis in suspension. It also required the identification of IFC parameters that best report on key events in the Mimivirus infection cycle. The optimized IFC protocol enabled the simultaneous monitoring of diverse processes including generation of viral factories, transport, and fusion of replication centers within the cell, accumulation of viral progeny, and changes in cell morphology for tens of thousands of cells. After obtaining the time windows for these processes, we used IFC to evaluate the effects of perturbations such as oxidative stress and cytoskeletal disruptors on viral infection. Accurate dose‐response curves could be generated, and we found that mild oxidative stress delayed multiple stages of virus production, but eventually infection processes occurred with approximately the same amplitudes. We also found that functional actin cytoskeleton is required for fusion of viral replication centers and later for the production of viral progeny. Through this report, we demonstrate that IFC offers a quantitative, high‐throughput, and highly robust approach to study viral infection cycles and virus–host interactions. © The Authors. Cytometry Part A published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of International Society for Advancement of Cytometry.

Infection and Transport of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Neurons: Role of the Cytoskeleton

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a neuroinvasive human pathogen that has the ability to infect and replicate within epithelial cells and neurons and establish a life-long latent infection in sensory neurons. HSV-1 depends on the host cellular cytoskeleton for entry, replication, and exit. Therefore, HSV-1 has adapted mechanisms to promote its survival by exploiting the microtubule and actin cytoskeletons to direct its active transport, infection, and spread between neurons and epithelial cells during primary and recurrent infections. This review will focus on the currently known mechanisms utilized by HSV-1 to harness the neuronal cytoskeleton, molecular motors, and the secretory and exocytic pathways for efficient virus entry, axonal transport, replication, assembly, and exit from the distinct functional compartments (cell body and axon) of the highly polarized sensory neurons.

Betaherpesvirus Virion Assembly and Egress

Virions are the vehicle for cell-to-cell and host-to-host transmission of viruses. Virions need to be assembled reliably and efficiently, be released from infected cells, survive in the extracellular environment during transmission, recognize and then trigger entry of appropriate target cells, and disassemble in an orderly manner during initiation of a new infection. The betaherpesvirus subfamily includes four human herpesviruses (human cytomegalovirus and human herpesviruses 6A, 6B, and 7), as well as viruses that are the basis of important animal models of infection and immunity. Similar to other herpesviruses, betaherpesvirus virions consist of four main parts (in order from the inside): the genome, capsid, tegument, and envelope. Betaherpesvirus genomes are dsDNA and range in length from ~145 to 240 kb. Virion capsids (or nucleocapsids) are geometrically well-defined vessels that contain one copy of the dsDNA viral genome. The tegument is a collection of several thousand protein and RNA molecules packed into the space between the envelope and the capsid for delivery and immediate activity upon cellular entry at the initiation of an infection. Betaherpesvirus envelopes consist of lipid bilayers studded with virus-encoded glycoproteins; they protect the virion during transmission and mediate virion entry during initiation of new infections. Here, we summarize the mechanisms of betaherpesvirus virion assembly, including how infection modifies, reprograms, hijacks, and otherwise manipulates cellular processes and pathways to produce virion components, assemble the parts into infectious virions, and then transport the nascent virions to the extracellular environment for transmission.

Pharmacological Induction of Heme Oxygenase-1 Impairs Nuclear Accumulation of Herpes Simplex Virus Capsids upon Infection

Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is an inducible enzyme that is expressed in response to physical and chemical stresses, such as ultraviolet radiation, hyperthermia, hypoxia, reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as cytokines, among others. Its activity can be positively modulated by cobalt protoporphyrin (CoPP) and negatively by tin protoporphirin (SnPP). Once induced, HO-1 degrades iron-containing heme into ferrous iron (Fe²⁺), carbon monoxide (CO) and biliverdin. Importantly, numerous products of HO-1 are cytoprotective with anti-apoptotic, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer effects. The products of HO-1 also display antiviral properties against several viruses, such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), influenza, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and Ebola virus. Here, we sought to assess the effect of modulating HO-1 activity over herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection in epithelial cells and neurons. There are no vaccines against HSV-2 and treatment options are scarce in the immunosuppressed, in which drug-resistant variants emerge. By using HSV strains that encode structural and non-structural forms of the green fluorescent protein (GFP), we found that pharmacological induction of HO-1 activity with CoPP significantly decreases virus plaque formation and the expression of virus-encoded genes in epithelial cells as determined by flow cytometry and western blot assays. CoPP treatment did not affect virus binding to the cell surface or entry into the cytoplasm, but rather downstream events in the virus infection cycle. Furthermore, we observed that treating cells with a CO-releasing molecule (CORM-2) recapitulated some of the anti-HSV effects elicited by CoPP. Taken together, these findings indicate that HO-1 activity interferes with the replication cycle of HSV and that its antiviral effects can be recapitulated by CO.

MiR-199a Inhibits Secondary Envelopment of Herpes Simplex Virus-1 Through the Downregulation of Cdc42-specific GTPase Activating Protein Localized in Golgi Apparatus

Because several studies have shown that exogenous miR-199a has antiviral effects against various viruses, including herpesviruses, we examined how miR-199a exerts its antiviral effects using epithelial tumour cell lines infected with herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1). We found that both miR-199a-5p and -3p impair the secondary envelopment of HSV-1 by suppressing their common target, ARHGAP21, a Golgi-localized GTPase-activating protein for Cdc42. We further found that the trans-cisternae of the Golgi apparatus are a potential membrane compartment for secondary envelopment. Exogenous expression of either pre-miR-199a or sh-ARHGAP21 exhibited shared phenotypes i.e. alteration of Golgi function in uninfected cells, inhibition of HSV-1 secondary envelopment, and reduction of trans-Golgi proteins upon HSV-1 infection. A constitutively active form of Cdc42 also inhibited HSV-1 secondary envelopment. Endogenous levels of miR-199a in epithelial tumour cell lines were negatively correlated with the efficiency of HSV-1 secondary envelopment within these cells. These results suggest that miR-199a is a crucial regulator of Cdc42 activity on Golgi membranes, which is important for the maintenance of Golgi function and for the secondary envelopment of HSV-1 upon its infection.

Assembly and Egress of an Alphaherpesvirus Clockwork

All viruses produce infectious particles that possess some degree of stability in the extracellular environment yet disassemble upon cell contact and entry. For the alphaherpesviruses, which include many neuroinvasive viruses of mammals, these metastable virions consist of an icosahedral capsid surrounded by a protein matrix (referred to as the tegument) and a lipid envelope studded with glycoproteins. Whereas the capsid of these viruses is a rigid structure encasing the DNA genome, the tegument and envelope are dynamic assemblies that orchestrate a sequential series of events that ends with the delivery of the genome into the nucleus. These particles are adapted to infect two different polarized cell types in their hosts: epithelial cells and neurons of the peripheral nervous system. This review considers how the virion is assembled into a primed state and is targeted to infect these cell types such that the incoming particles can subsequently negotiate the diverse environments they encounter on their way from plasma membrane to nucleus and thereby achieve their remarkably robust neuroinvasive infectious cycle.

Herpes simplex encephalitis is linked with selective mitochondrial damage; a post-mortem and in vitro study

Herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) encephalitis (HSE) is the most commonly diagnosed cause of viral encephalitis in western countries. Despite antiviral treatment, HSE remains a devastating disease with high morbidity and mortality. Improved understanding of pathogenesis may lead to more effective therapies. Mitochondrial damage has been reported during HSV infection in vitro. However, whether it occurs in the human brain and whether this contributes to the pathogenesis has not been fully explored. Minocycline, an antibiotic, has been reported to protect mitochondria and limit brain damage. Minocycline has not been studied in HSV infection. In the first genome-wide transcriptomic study of post-mortem human HSE brain tissue, we demonstrated a highly preferential reduction in mitochondrial genome (MtDNA) encoded transcripts in HSE cases (n = 3) compared to controls (n = 5). Brain tissue exhibited a significant inverse correlation for immunostaining between cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (CO1), a MtDNA encoded enzyme subunit, and HSV-1; with lower abundance for mitochondrial protein in regions where HSV-1 was abundant. Preferential loss of mitochondrial function, among MtDNA encoded components, was confirmed using an in vitro primary human astrocyte HSV-1 infection model. Dysfunction of cytochrome c oxidase (CO), a mitochondrial enzyme composed predominantly of MtDNA encoded subunits, preceded that of succinate dehydrogenase (composed entirely of nuclear encoded subunits). Minocycline treated astrocytes exhibited higher CO1 transcript abundance, sustained CO activity and cell viability compared to non-treated astrocytes. Based on observations from HSE patient tissue, this study highlights mitochondrial damage as a critical and early event during HSV-1 infection. We demonstrate minocycline preserves mitochondrial function and cell viability during HSV-1 infection. Minocycline, and mitochondrial protection, offers a novel adjunctive therapeutic approach for limiting brain cell damage and potentially improving outcome among HSE patients.

Microtubule plus end-associated CLIP-170 initiates HSV-1 retrograde transport in primary human cells

Herpes simplex virus particles that enter the cell do not randomly associate with microtubule filaments, but require plus end–binding proteins EB1, CLIP-170, and dynactin to initiate retrograde transport to the nucleus.

Dynamic microtubules (MTs) continuously explore the intracellular environment and, through specialized plus end–tracking proteins (+TIPs), engage a variety of targets. However, the nature of cargoes that require +TIP-mediated capture for their movement on MTs remains poorly understood. Using RNA interference and dominant-negative approaches, combined with live cell imaging, we show that herpes simplex virus particles that have entered primary human cells exploit a +TIP complex comprising end-binding protein 1 (EB1), cytoplasmic linker protein 170 (CLIP-170), and dynactin-1 (DCTN1) to initiate retrograde transport. Depletion of these +TIPs completely blocked post-entry long-range transport of virus particles and suppressed infection ∼5,000-fold, whereas transferrin uptake, early endosome organization, and dynein-dependent movement of lysosomes and mitochondria remained unaffected. These findings provide the first insights into the earliest stages of viral engagement of MTs through specific +TIPs, akin to receptors, with therapeutic implications, and identify herpesvirus particles as one of a very limited number of cargoes absolutely dependent on CLIP-170–mediated capture to initiate transport in primary human cells.

Herpes Simplex Virus Capsid-Organelle Association in the Absence of the Large Tegument Protein UL36p

UL36p (VP1/2) is the largest protein encoded by herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and resides in the innermost layer of the viral tegument, lying between the capsid and the envelope. UL36p performs multiple functions in the HSV life cycle, including an essential role in cytoplasmic envelopment. We earlier described the isolation of a virion-associated cytoplasmic membrane fraction from HSV-infected cells. Biochemical and ultrastructural analyses showed that the organelles in this buoyant fraction contain enveloped infectious HSV particles in their lumens and naked capsids docked to their cytoplasmic surfaces. These organelles can also recruit molecular motors and transport their cargo virions along microtubules in vitro. Here we examine the properties of these HSV-associated organelles in the absence of UL36p. We find that while capsid envelopment is clearly defective, a subpopulation of capsids nevertheless still associate with the cytoplasmic faces of these organelles. The existence of these capsid-membrane structures was confirmed by subcellular fractionation, immunocytochemistry, lipophilic dye fluorescence microscopy, thin-section electron microscopy, and correlative light and electron microscopy. We conclude that capsid-membrane binding can occur in the absence of UL36p and propose that this association may precede the events of UL36p-driven envelopment.

IMPORTANCE

Membrane association and envelopment of the HSV capsid are essential for the assembly of an infectious virion. Envelopment involves the complex interplay of a large number of viral and cellular proteins; however, the function of most of them is unknown. One example of this is the viral protein UL36p, which is clearly essential for envelopment but plays a poorly understood role. Here we demonstrate that organelles utilized for HSV capsid envelopment still accumulate surface-bound capsids in the absence of UL36p. We propose that UL36p-independent binding of capsids to organelles occurs prior to the function of UL36p in capsid envelopment.

Blocking ESCRT-mediated envelopment inhibits microtubule-dependent trafficking of alphaherpesviruses in vitro

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) and, as reported here, pseudorabies virus (PRV) utilize the ESCRT apparatus to drive cytoplasmic envelopment of their capsids. Here, we demonstrate that blocking ESCRT-mediated envelopment using the dominant-negative inhibitor Vps4A-EQ (Vps4A in which glutamate [E] at position 228 in the ATPase active site is replaced by a glutamine [Q]) reduced the ability of HSV and PRV particles to subsequently traffic along microtubules in vitro. HSV and PRV capsid-associated particles with bound green fluorescent protein (GFP)-labeled Vps4A-EQ were readily detected by fluorescence microscopy in cytoplasmic extracts of infected cells. These Vps4A-EQ-associated capsid-containing particles bound to microtubules in vitro but were unable to traffic along them. Using a PRV strain expressing a fluorescent capsid and a fluorescently tagged form of the envelope protein gD, we found that similar numbers of gD-positive and gD-negative capsid-associated particles accumulated in cytoplasmic extracts under our conditions. Both classes of PRV particle bound to microtubules in vitro with comparable efficiency, and similar results were obtained for HSV using anti-gD immunostaining. The gD-positive and gD-negative PRV capsids were both capable of trafficking along microtubules in vitro; however, motile gD-positive particles were less numerous and their trafficking was more sensitive to the inhibitory effects of Vps4A-EQ. We discuss our data in the context of microtubule-mediated trafficking of naked and enveloped alphaherpesvirus capsids.

IMPORTANCE

The alphaherpesviruses include several important human pathogens. These viruses utilize microtubule-mediated transport to travel through the cell cytoplasm; however, the molecular mechanisms of trafficking are not well understood. In this study, we have used a cell-free system to examine the requirements for microtubule trafficking and have attempted to distinguish between the movement of so-called "naked" and membrane-associated cytoplasmic alphaherpesvirus capsids.

Molecular features contributing to virus-independent intracellular localization and dynamic behavior of the herpesvirus transport protein US9

Reaching the right destination is of vital importance for molecules, proteins, organelles, and cargoes. Thus, intracellular traffic is continuously controlled and regulated by several proteins taking part in the process. Viruses exploit this machinery, and viral proteins regulating intracellular transport have been identified as they represent valuable tools to understand and possibly direct molecules targeting and delivery. Deciphering the molecular features of viral proteins contributing to (or determining) this dynamic phenotype can eventually lead to a virus-independent approach to control cellular transport and delivery. From this virus-independent perspective we looked at US9, a virion component of Herpes Simplex Virus involved in anterograde transport of the virus inside neurons of the infected host. As the natural cargo of US9-related vesicles is the virus (or its parts), defining its autonomous, virus-independent role in vesicles transport represents a prerequisite to make US9 a valuable molecular tool to study and possibly direct cellular transport. To assess the extent of this autonomous role in vesicles transport, we analyzed US9 behavior in the absence of viral infection. Based on our studies, Us9 behavior appears similar in different cell types; however, as expected, the data we obtained in neurons best represent the virus-independent properties of US9. In these primary cells, transfected US9 mostly recapitulates the behavior of US9 expressed from the viral genome. Additionally, ablation of two major phosphorylation sites (i.e. Y32Y33 and S34ES36) have no effect on protein incorporation on vesicles and on its localization on both proximal and distal regions of the cells. These results support the idea that, while US9 post-translational modification may be important to regulate cargo loading and, consequently, virion export and delivery, no additional viral functions are required for US9 role in intracellular transport.

Complexity of Interferon-γ Interactions with HSV-1

The intricacies involving the role of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) in herpesvirus infection and persistence are complex. Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) uses a variety of receptors to enter cells and is transported to and from the host cell nucleus over the microtubule railroad via retrograde and anterograde transport. IFN-γ exerts dual but conflicting effects on microtubule organization. IFN-γ stimulates production of suppressors of cytokine signaling 1 and 3 (SOCS1 and SOCS3), which are involved in microtubule stability and are negative regulators of IFN-γ signaling when overexpressed. IFN-γ also interferes with the correct assembly of microtubules causing them to undergo severe bundling, contributing to its anti-viral effect. Factors leading to the decision for a replicative virus lytic cycle or latency in the trigeminal ganglion (TG) occur on histone 3 (H3), involve IFN-γ produced by natural killer cells and non-cytolytic CD8⁺T cells, SOCS1, SOCS3, and M2 anti-inflammatory microglia/macrophages maintained by inhibitory interleukin 10 (IL-10). Both M2 microglia and CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺ Treg cells produce IL-10. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are epigenetic regulators maintaining chromatin in an inactive state necessary for transcription of IFN-γ-activated genes and their anti-viral effect. Following inhibition of HDACs by stressors such as ultraviolet light, SOCS1 and SOCS3 are acetylated, and chromatin is relaxed and available for virus replication. SOCS1 prevents expression of MHC class 1 molecules on neuronal cells and SOCS3 attenuates cytokine-induced inflammation in the area. A model is presented to unify the effects of IFN-γ, SOCS1, SOCS3, and HSV-1 on H3 and chromatin structure in virus latency or reactivation. HSV-1 latency in the TG is viewed as an active ongoing process involving maintenance of microglia in an M2 anti-inflammatory state by IL-10. IL-10 is produced in an autocrine manner by the M2 microglia/macrophages and by virus-specific CD4⁺Foxp3⁺ Treg cells interacting with virus-specific non-cytolytic CD8⁺ T cells.

A precipitation-based assay to analyze interactions of viral particles with cytosolic host factors

Since viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, viral particles, subviral structures, and viral proteins enlist the support of host proteins to foster intracellular transport, viral gene expression, replication, and evasion from antiviral host responses. We have devised a biochemical in vitro method to analyze specific interactions of cytosolic factors with capsids of herpes simplex virus and to characterize host proteins that specifically coprecipitate with different types of viral particles by immunoblotting, mass spectrometry, and immunoelectron microscopy. Our method bridges the gap between assays such as co-immunoprecipitation and yeast-two-hybrid approaches that determine direct binding between individual subunits of protein complexes and microscopy methods that analyze the dynamic interplay between intact viral particles and host factor complexes in intact cells. Our protocol can be extended to functional analyses of herpesvirus capsids and other viral structures with more complex host structures such as microtubule transport, genome uncoating at nuclear pores, or capsid envelopment at host membranes.

Reconstitution of microtubule-dependent organelle transport

Microtubule (MT)-based motor proteins transport many cellular factors to their functionally relevant locations within cells, and defects in transport are linked to human disease. Understanding the mechanism and regulation of this transport process in living cells is difficult because of the complex in vivo environment and limited means to manipulate the system. On the other hand, in vitro motility assays using purified motors attached to beads does not recapitulate the full complexity of cargo transport in vivo. Assaying motility of organelles in cell extracts is therefore attractive, as natural cargoes are being examined, but in an environment that is more amenable to manipulation. Here, we describe the purification and in vitro MT-based motility of phagosomes from Dictyostelium and lipid droplets from rat liver. These assays have the potential to address diverse questions related to endosome/phagosome maturation, fatty acid regulation, and could also serve as a starting point for reconstituting the motility of other types of organelles.

Direct evidence for intracellular anterograde co-transport of M-PMV Gag and Env on microtubules

The intracellular transport of Mason-Pfizer monkey virus (M-PMV) assembled capsids from the pericentriolar region to the plasma membrane (PM) requires trafficking of envelope glycoprotein (Env) to the assembly site via the recycling endosome. However, it is unclear if Env-containing vesicles play a direct role in trafficking capsids to the PM. Using live cell microscopy, we demonstrate, for the first time, anterograde co-transport of Gag and Env. Nocodazole disruption of microtubules had differential effects on Gag and Env trafficking, with pulse-chase assays showing a delayed release of Env-deficient virions. Particle tracking demonstrated an initial loss of linear movement of GFP-tagged capsids and mCherry-tagged Env, followed by renewed movement of Gag but not Env at 4h post-treatment. Thus, while delayed capsid trafficking can occur in the absence of microtubules, efficient anterograde transport of capsids appears to be mediated by microtubule-associated Env-containing vesicles.

Plus-end tracking proteins, CLASPs, and a viral Akt mimic regulate herpesvirus-induced stable microtubule formation and virus spread

Although microtubules (MTs) frequently form highly dynamic networks, subsets of MTs become stabilized in response to environmental cues and function as specialized tracks for vesicle and macromolecular trafficking. MT stabilization is controlled by specialized plus-end tracking proteins (+TIPs) whose accumulation at the MT ends is facilitated by the end-binding protein, EB1, and regulated by various signaling pathways. As cargoes themselves, viruses are dependent on MTs for their intracellular movement. Although many viruses affect MT organization, the potential contribution of MT stabilization by +TIPs to infection remains unknown. Here we show that early in infection of primary human fibroblasts, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) disrupts the centrosome, the primary MT organizing center in many cell types. As infection progresses HSV-1 induces the formation of stable MT subsets through inactivation of glycogen synthase kinase 3beta by the viral Ser/Thr kinase, Us3. Stable MT formation is reduced in cells infected with Us3 mutants and those stable MTs that form cluster around the trans-Golgi network. Downstream of glycogen synthase kinase 3beta, cytoplasmic linker-associated proteins (CLASPs), specialized host +TIPs that control MT formation at the trans-Golgi network and cortical capture, are specifically required for virus-induced MT stabilization and HSV-1 spread. Our findings demonstrate the biological importance of +TIPs to viral infection and suggest that HSV-1 has evolved to exploit the trans-Golgi network as an alternate MT organizing center to facilitate virus spread.

Teamwork in microtubule motors

Diverse cellular processes are driven by the collective force from multiple motor proteins. Disease-causing mutations cause aberrant function of motors, but the impact is observed at a cellular level and beyond, therefore necessitating an understanding of cell mechanics at the level of motor molecules. One way to do this is by measuring the force generated by ensembles of motors in vivo at single-motor resolution. This has been possible for microtubule motor teams that transport intracellular organelles, revealing unexpected differences between collective and single-molecule function. Here we review how the biophysical properties of single motors, and differences therein, may translate into collective motor function during organelle transport and perhaps in other processes outside transport.

Analysis of the early steps of herpes simplex virus 1 capsid tegumentation

Herpes simplex virus type 1 particles are multilayered structures with a DNA genome surrounded by a capsid, tegument, and envelope. While the protein content of mature virions is known, the sequence of addition of the tegument and the intracellular compartments where this occurs are intensely debated. To probe this process during the initial stages of egress, we used two approaches: an in vitro nuclear egress assay, which reconstitutes the exit of nuclear capsids to the cytoplasm, and a classical nuclear capsid sedimentation assay. As anticipated, in vitro cytoplasmic capsids did not harbor UL34, UL31, or viral glycoproteins but contained US3. In agreement with previous findings, both nuclear and in vitro capsids were positive for ICP0 and ICP4. Unexpectedly, nuclear C capsids and cytoplasmic capsids produced in vitro without any cytosolic viral proteins also scored positive for UL36 and UL37. Immunoelectron microscopy confirmed that these tegument proteins were closely associated with nuclear capsids. When cytosolic viral proteins were present in the in vitro assay, no additional tegument proteins were detected on the capsids. As previously reported, the tegument was sensitive to high-salt extraction but, surprisingly, was stabilized by exogenous proteins. Finally, some tegument proteins seemed partially lost during egress, while others possibly were added at multiple steps or modified along the way. Overall, an emerging picture hints at the early coating of capsids with up to 5 tegument proteins at the nuclear stage, the shedding of some viral proteins during nuclear egress, and the acquisition of others tegument proteins during reenvelopment.

Directional spread of alphaherpesviruses in the nervous system

Alphaherpesviruses are pathogens that invade the nervous systems of their mammalian hosts. Directional spread of infection in the nervous system is a key component of the viral lifecycle and is critical for the onset of alphaherpesvirus-related diseases. Many alphaherpesvirus infections originate at peripheral sites, such as epithelial tissues, and then enter neurons of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), where lifelong latency is established. Following reactivation from latency and assembly of new viral particles, the infection typically spreads back out towards the periphery. These spread events result in the characteristic lesions (cold sores) commonly associated with herpes simplex virus (HSV) and herpes zoster (shingles) associated with varicella zoster virus (VZV). Occasionally, the infection spreads transsynaptically from the PNS into higher order neurons of the central nervous system (CNS). Spread of infection into the CNS, while rarer in natural hosts, often results in severe consequences, including death. In this review, we discuss the viral and cellular mechanisms that govern directional spread of infection in the nervous system. We focus on the molecular events that mediate long distance directional transport of viral particles in neurons during entry and egress.

Delivery of herpes simplex virus to retinal ganglion cell axon is dependent on viral protein Us9

PURPOSE

How herpes simplex virus (HSV) is transported from the infected neuron cell body to the axon terminal is poorly understood. Several viral proteins are candidates for regulating the process, but the evidence is controversial. We compared the results of Us9 deletions in two HSV strains (F and NS) using a novel quantitative assay to test the hypothesis that the viral protein Us9 regulates the delivery of viral DNA to the distal axon of retinal ganglion cells in vivo. We also deleted a nine-amino acid motif in the Us9 protein of F strain (Us9-30) to define the role of this domain in DNA delivery.

METHODS

The vitreous chambers of murine eyes were infected with equivalent amounts of F or NS strains of HSV. At 3, 4, or 5 days post infection (dpi), both optic tracts (OT) were dissected and viral genome was quantified by qPCR.

RESULTS

At 3 dpi, the F strain Us9- and Us9-30 mutants delivered less than 10% and 1%, respectively, of the viral DNA delivered after infection with the Us9R (control) strain. By 4 and 5 dpi, delivery of viral DNA had only partially recovered. Deletion of Us9 in NS-infected mice has a less obvious effect on delivery of new viral DNA to the distal OT. By 3 dpi the NS Us9-strain delivered 22% of the DNA that was delivered by the NS wt, and by 4 and 5 dpi the amount of Us9-viral DNA was 96% and 81%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

A highly conserved acidic cluster within the Us9 protein plays a critical role for genome transport to the distal axon. The transport is less dependent on Us9 expression in the NS than in the F strain virus. This assay can be used to compare transport efficiency in other neurotropic viral strains.

Proteomic and functional analyses of protein-DNA complexes during gene transfer

One of the barriers to successful nonviral gene delivery is the crowded cytoplasm, which plasmids need to actively traverse for gene expression. Relatively little is known about how this process occurs, but our lab and others have shown that the microtubule network and motors are required for plasmid movement to the nucleus. To further investigate how plasmids exploit normal physiological processes to transfect cells, we have taken a proteomics approach to identify the proteins that comprise the plasmid-trafficking complex. We have developed a live cell DNA-protein pull-down assay to isolate complexes at certain time points post-transfection (15 minutes to 4 hours) for analysis by mass spectrometry (MS). Plasmids containing promoter sequences bound hundreds of unique proteins as early as 15 minutes post-electroporation, while a plasmid lacking any eukaryotic sequences failed to bind many of the proteins. Specific proteins included microtubule-based motor proteins (e.g., kinesin and dynein), proteins involved in protein nuclear import (e.g., importin 1, 2, 4, and 7, Crm1, RAN, and several RAN-binding proteins), a number of heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP)- and mRNA-binding proteins, and transcription factors. The significance of several of the proteins involved in protein nuclear localization and plasmid trafficking was determined by monitoring movement of microinjected fluorescently labeled plasmids via live cell particle tracking in cells following protein knockdown by small-interfering RNA (siRNA) or through the use of specific inhibitors. While importin β1 was required for plasmid trafficking and subsequent nuclear import, importin α1 played no role in microtubule trafficking but was required for optimal plasmid nuclear import. Surprisingly, the nuclear export protein Crm1 also was found to complex with the transfected plasmids and was necessary for plasmid trafficking along microtubules and nuclear import. Our results show that various proteins involved in nuclear import and export influence intracellular trafficking of plasmids and subsequent nuclear accumulation.

Endocytic tubules regulated by Rab GTPases 5 and 11 are used for envelopment of herpes simplex virus

Enveloped viruses employ diverse and complex strategies for wrapping at cellular membranes, many of which are poorly understood. Here, an ultrastructural study of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV1)-infected cells revealed envelopment in tubular membranes. These tubules were labelled by the fluid phase marker horseradish peroxidase (HRP), and were observed to wrap capsids as early as 2 min after HRP addition, indicating that the envelope had recently cycled from the cell surface. Consistent with this, capsids did not colocalise with either the trans-Golgi network marker TGN46 or late endosomal markers, but showed coincidence with the transferrin receptor. Virus glycoproteins were retrieved from the plasma membrane (PM) to label wrapping capsids, a process that was dependent on both dynamin and Rab5. Combined depletion of Rab5 and Rab11 reduced virus yield to <1%, resulting in aberrant localisation of capsids. These results suggest that endocytosis from the PM into endocytic tubules provides the main source of membrane for HSV1, and reveal a new mechanism for virus exploitation of the endocytic pathway.

HSV, axonal transport and Alzheimer's disease: in vitro and in vivo evidence for causal relationships

HSV, a neurotropic virus, travels within neuronal processes by fast axonal transport. During neuronal infection HSV travels retrograde from the sensory nerve terminus to the neuronal cell body, where it replicates or enters latency. During replication HSV travels anterograde from the cell body to the nerve terminus. Postmortem studies find a high frequency of HSV DNA in the trigeminal ganglia as well as the brain. Studies correlating HSV with Alzheimer's disease (AD) have been controversial. Here we review clinical evidence supporting such a link. Furthermore, the author describes experimental data showing physical interactions between nascent HSV particles and host transport machinery implicated in AD. The author concludes that the complexity of this relationship has been insufficiently explored, although the relative ease and nontoxicity of a potential anti-HSV treatment for AD demands further study.

Intracellular trafficking of cationic liposome-DNA complexes in living cells

Three-dimensional single-particle tracking (SPT) was used to calculate the mean square displacement (MSD) and the diffusion coefficients of multicomponent cationic liposome-DNA complexes (lipoplexes) in CHO-K1 living cells. In untreated (NT) control cells, we found that the intracellular lipoplex motion was either directed or Brownian with active transportation being definitely more frequent (more than 70%) than Brownian diffusion. The MSD analysis was supported by the calculation of the three-dimensional asphericity, A₃, which was close to unity, denoting the preponderant occurrence of movement along a direction. To elucidate the role of the cytoskeleton structure in the lipoplex trafficking, cells were treated with cytoskeleton (actin microfilaments and microtubules) polymerization inhibitors (latrunculin B and nocodazole, respectively). When cells were treated with inhibitors, the lipoplex movement tended towards a random walk at the expense of directed motion. The disassembly of microtubules had a stronger effect on the reduction of directional movement than that of actin microfilaments. Relevance of the results for enhanced gene delivery is discussed.

Herpesvirus transport to the nervous system and back again

Herpes simplex virus, varicella zoster virus, and pseudorabies virus are neurotropic pathogens of the Alphaherpesvirinae subfamily of the Herpesviridae. These viruses efficiently invade the peripheral nervous system and establish lifelong latency in neurons resident in peripheral ganglia. Primary and recurrent infections cycle virus particles between neurons and the peripheral tissues they innervate. This remarkable cycle of infection is the topic of this review. In addition, some of the distinguishing hallmarks of the infections caused by these viruses are evaluated in terms of their underlying similarities.

Deciphering novel host-herpesvirus interactions by virion proteomics

Over the years, a vast array of information concerning the interactions of viruses with their hosts has been collected. However, recent advances in proteomics and other system biology techniques suggest these interactions are far more complex than anticipated. One particularly interesting and novel aspect is the analysis of cellular proteins incorporated into mature virions. Though sometimes considered purification contaminants in the past, their repeated detection by different laboratories suggests that a number of these proteins are bona fide viral components, some of which likely contribute to the viral life cycles. The present mini review focuses on cellular proteins detected in herpesviruses. It highlights the common cellular functions of these proteins, their potential implications for host–pathogen interactions, discusses technical limitations, the need for complementing methods and probes potential future research avenues.

Direct interaction of baculovirus capsid proteins VP39 and EXON0 with kinesin-1 in insect cells determined by fluorescence resonance energy transfer-fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy

Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) replicates in the nucleus of insect cells to produce nucleocapsids, which are transported from the nucleus to the plasma membrane for budding through GP64-enriched areas to form budded viruses. However, little is known about the anterograde trafficking of baculovirus nucleocapsids in insect cells. Preliminary confocal scanning laser microscopy studies showed that enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-tagged nucleocapsids and capsid proteins aligned and colocalized with the peripheral microtubules of virus-infected insect cells. A colchicine inhibition assay of virus-infected insect cells showed a significant reduction in budded virus production, providing further evidence for the involvement of microtubules and suggesting a possible role of kinesin in baculovirus anterograde trafficking. We investigated the interaction between AcMNPV nucleocapsids and kinesin-1 with fluorescence resonance energy transfer-fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FRET-FLIM) and show for the first time that AcMNPV capsid proteins VP39 and EXON0, but not Orf1629, interact with the tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) domain of kinesin. The excited-state fluorescence lifetime of EGFP fused to VP39 or EXON0 was quenched from 2.4 ± 1 ns to 2.1 ± 1 ns by monomeric fluorescent protein (mDsRed) fused to TPR (mDsRed-TPR). However, the excited-state fluorescence lifetime of an EGFP fusion of Orf1629 remained unquenched by mDsRed-TPR. These data indicate that kinesin-1 plays an important role in the anterograde trafficking of baculovirus in insect cells.

Coupling viruses to dynein and kinesin-1

It is now clear that transport on microtubules by dynein and kinesin family motors has an important if not critical role in the replication and spread of many different viruses. Understanding how viruses hijack dynein and kinesin motors using a limited repertoire of proteins offers a great opportunity to determine the molecular basis of motor recruitment. In this review, we discuss the interactions of dynein and kinesin-1 with adenovirus, the α herpes viruses: herpes simplex virus (HSV1) and pseudorabies virus (PrV), human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and vaccinia virus. We highlight where the molecular links to these opposite polarity motors have been defined and discuss the difficulties associated with identifying viral binding partners where the basis of motor recruitment remains to be established. Ultimately, studying microtubule-based motility of viruses promises to answer fundamental questions as to how the activity and recruitment of the dynein and kinesin-1 motors are coordinated and regulated during bi-directional transport.

The association of viral proteins with host cell dynein components during virus infection

After fusion with the cellular plasma membrane or endosomal membranes, viral particles are generally too large to diffuse freely within the crowded cytoplasm environment. Thus, they will never reach the cell nucleus or the perinuclear areas where replication or reverse transcription usually takes place. It has been proposed that many unrelated viruses are transported along microtubules in a retrograde manner using the cellular dynein machinery or, at least, some dynein components. A putative employment of the dynein motor in a dynein‐mediated transport has been suggested from experiments in which viral capsid proteins were used as bait in yeast two‐hybrid screens using libraries composed of cellular proteins and dynein‐associated chains were retrieved as virus‐interacting proteins. In most cases DYNLL1, DYNLT1 or DYNLRB1 were identified as the dynein chains that interact with viral proteins. The importance of these dynein–virus interactions has been supported, in principle, by the observation that in some cases the dynein‐interacting motifs of viral proteins altered by site‐directed mutagenesis result in non‐infective virions. Furthermore, overexpression of p50 dynamitin, which blocks the dynein–dynactin interaction, or incubation of infected cells with peptides that compete with viral polypeptides for dynein binding have been shown to alter the viral retrograde transport. Still, it remains to be proved that dynein light chains can bind simultaneously to incoming virions and to the dynein motor for retrograde transport to take place. In this review, we will analyse the association of viral proteins with dynein polypeptides and its implications for viral infection.

In vitro nuclear egress of herpes simplex virus type 1 capsids

During their life cycles, viruses typically undergo many transport events throughout the cell. These events depend on a variety of both viral and host proteins and are often not fully understood. Such studies are often complicated by asynchronous infections and the concurrent presence of various viral intermediates in the cells, making it difficult to molecularly define each step. In the case of the herpes simplex virus type 1, the etiological agent of cold sores and many other illnesses, the viral particles undergo an intricate series of transport steps during its life cycle. Upon entry by fusion with a cellular membrane, they travel to the host cell nucleus where the virus replicates and assembles new viral particles. These particles then travel across the two nuclear envelopes and transit through the trans-Golgi network before finally being transported to and released at the cell surface. Though viral components and some host proteins modulating these numerous transport events have been identified, the details of these processes remain to be elucidated. To specifically address how the virus escapes the nucleus, we set up an in vitro model that reproduces the unconventional route used by herpes simplex type 1 virus to leave nuclei. This has not only allowed us to clarify the route of capsid egress of the virus but is now useful to define it at the molecular level.

Transcription factor plasmid binding modulates microtubule interactions and intracellular trafficking during gene transfer

For non-viral gene delivery to be successful, plasmids must move through the cytoplasm to the nucleus in order to be transcribed. While the cytoskeletal meshwork acts as a barrier to plasmid DNA movement in the cytoplasm, the microtubule network is required for directed plasmid trafficking to the nucleus. We have shown previously that plasmid-microtubule interactions require cytoplasmic adapter proteins such as molecular motors, transcription factors (TFs) and importins. However, not all plasmid sequences support these interactions to allow movement to the nucleus. We now demonstrate that microtubule-DNA interactions can show sequence specificity with promoters containing binding sites for cyclic AMP response-element binding protein (CREB), including the cytomegalovirus immediate early promoter (CMV(iep)). Plasmids containing CREB-binding sites showed stringent interactions in an in vitro microtubule-binding assay. Using microinjection and real-time particle tracking, we show that the inclusion of TF binding sites within plasmids permits cytoplasmic trafficking of plasmids during gene transfer. We found that CREB-binding sites are bound by CREB in the cytoplasm during transfection, and allow for enhanced rates of movement and subsequent nuclear accumulation. Moreover, small interfering RNA knockdown of CREB prevented this enhanced trafficking. Therefore, TF binding sites within plasmids are necessary for interactions with microtubules and enhance movement to the nucleus.