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Hashizume M, Takashima A, Iwasaki M. An mRNA-LNP-based Lassa virus vaccine induces protective immunity in mice. J Virol 2024; 98:e0057824. [PMID: 38767352 PMCID: PMC11237644 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00578-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The mammarenavirus Lassa virus (LASV) causes the life-threatening hemorrhagic fever disease, Lassa fever. The lack of licensed medical countermeasures against LASV underscores the urgent need for the development of novel LASV vaccines, which has been hampered by the requirement for a biosafety level 4 facility to handle live LASV. Here, we investigated the efficacy of mRNA-lipid nanoparticle (mRNA-LNP)-based vaccines expressing the LASV glycoprotein precursor (LASgpc) or nucleoprotein (LCMnp) of the prototypic mammarenavirus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), in mice. Two doses of LASgpc- or LCMnp-mRNA-LNP administered intravenously (i.v.) protected C57BL/6 mice from a lethal challenge with a recombinant (r) LCMV expressing a modified LASgpc (rLCMV/LASgpc2m) inoculated intracranially. Intramuscular (i.m.) immunization with two doses of LASgpc- or LCMnp-mRNA-LNP significantly reduced the viral load in C57BL/6 mice inoculated i.v. with rLCMV/LASgpc2m. High levels of viremia and lethality were observed in CBA mice inoculated i.v. with rLCMV/LASgpc2m, which were abrogated by i.m. immunization with two doses of LASgpc-mRNA-LNP. The protective efficacy of two i.m. doses of LCMnp-mRNA-LNP was confirmed in a lethal hemorrhagic disease model of FVB mice i.v. inoculated with wild-type rLCMV. In all conditions tested, negligible and high levels of LASgpc- and LCMnp-specific antibodies were detected in mRNA-LNP-immunized mice, respectively, but robust LASgpc- and LCMnp-specific CD8+ T cell responses were induced. Accordingly, plasma from LASgpc-mRNA-LNP-immunized mice did not exhibit neutralizing activity. Our findings and surrogate mouse models of LASV infection, which can be studied at a reduced biocontainment level, provide a critical foundation for the rapid development of mRNA-LNP-based LASV vaccines.IMPORTANCELassa virus (LASV) is a highly pathogenic mammarenavirus responsible for several hundred thousand infections annually in West African countries, causing a high number of lethal Lassa fever (LF) cases. Despite its significant impact on human health, clinically approved, safe, and effective medical countermeasures against LF are not available. The requirement of a biosafety level 4 facility to handle live LASV has been one of the main obstacles to the research and development of LASV countermeasures. Here, we report that two doses of mRNA-lipid nanoparticle-based vaccines expressing the LASV glycoprotein precursor (LASgpc) or nucleoprotein (LCMnp) of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), a mammarenavirus genetically closely related to LASV, conferred protection to recombinant LCMV-based surrogate mouse models of lethal LASV infection. Notably, robust LASgpc- and LCMnp-specific CD8+ T cell responses were detected in mRNA-LNP-immunized mice, whereas no virus-neutralizing activity was observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Hashizume
- Laboratory of Emerging Viral Diseases, International Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Ayako Takashima
- Laboratory of Emerging Viral Diseases, International Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masaharu Iwasaki
- Laboratory of Emerging Viral Diseases, International Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
- Center for Infectious Disease Education and Research, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
- Center for Advanced Modalities and Drug Delivery System, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
- RNA Frontier Science Division, Institute for Open and Transdisciplinary Research Initiatives, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
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Hackbart M, López CB. S RNA Intergenic Deletions Drive Viral Interference during Arenavirus Infections. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.10.31.564889. [PMID: 37961573 PMCID: PMC10635013 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.31.564889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Arenaviruses, a family of negative-sense RNA viruses spread by rodents, are a leading cause of severe hemorrhagic fever in humans. Due to a paucity of antivirals and vaccines for arenaviruses, there is a need to identify new mechanisms for interfering with arenavirus replication. In several negative-sense RNA viruses, natural viral interference results from the production of non-standard viral genomes (nsVGs) that activate the innate immune system and/or compete for essential viral products. Although it is well established that arenaviruses produce strong interfering activities, it is unknown if they produce interfering nsVGs. Here we show that arenaviruses produce deletions within the intergenic region of their Small (S) RNA genome, which prevents the production of viral mRNA and protein. These deletions are more abundant when arenaviruses are grown in high-interfering conditions and are associated with inhibited viral replication. Overall, we found that arenaviruses produce internal deletions within the S RNA intergenic region that are produced by arenaviruses and can block viral replication. These natural arenavirus interfering molecules provide a new target for the generation of antivirals as well as an alternative strategy for producing attenuated arenaviruses for vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Hackbart
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Center for Women Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. MO
| | - Carolina B. López
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Center for Women Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. MO
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Saito T, Reyna RA, Taniguchi S, Littlefield K, Paessler S, Maruyama J. Vaccine Candidates against Arenavirus Infections. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:635. [PMID: 36992218 PMCID: PMC10057967 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11030635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The viral family Arenaviridae contains several members that cause severe, and often lethal, diseases in humans. Several highly pathogenic arenaviruses are classified as Risk Group 4 agents and must be handled in the highest biological containment facility, biosafety level-4 (BSL-4). Vaccines and treatments are very limited for these pathogens. The development of vaccines is crucial for the establishment of countermeasures against highly pathogenic arenavirus infections. While several vaccine candidates have been investigated, there are currently no approved vaccines for arenavirus infection except for Candid#1, a live-attenuated Junin virus vaccine only licensed in Argentina. Current platforms under investigation for use include live-attenuated vaccines, recombinant virus-based vaccines, and recombinant proteins. We summarize here the recent updates of vaccine candidates against arenavirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Saito
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Rachel A. Reyna
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Satoshi Taniguchi
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Kirsten Littlefield
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Slobodan Paessler
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Junki Maruyama
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
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Gurjar P, Karuvantevida N, Rzhepakovsky IV, Khan AA, Khandia R. A Synthetic Biology Approach for Vaccine Candidate Design against Delta Strain of SARS-CoV-2 Revealed Disruption of Favored Codon Pair as a Better Strategy over Using Rare Codons. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:vaccines11020487. [PMID: 36851364 PMCID: PMC9967482 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11020487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 delta variant (B.1.617.2) appeared for the first time in December 2020 and later spread worldwide. Currently available vaccines are not so efficacious in curbing the viral pathogenesis of the delta strain of COVID; therefore, the development of a safe and effective vaccine is required. In the present study, we envisaged molecular patterns in the structural genes' spike, nucleoprotein, membrane, and envelope of the SARS-CoV-2 delta variant. The study was based on determining compositional features, dinucleotide odds ratio, synonymous codon usage, positive and negative codon contexts, rare codons, and insight into relatedness between the human host isoacceptor tRNA and preferred codons from the structural genes. We found specific patterns, including a significant abundance of T nucleotide over all other three nucleotides. The underrepresentation of GpA, GpG, CpC, and CpG dinucleotides and the overrepresentation of TpT, ApA, CpT, and TpG were observed. A preference towards ACT- (Thr), AAT- (Asn), TTT- (Phe), and TTG- (Leu) initiated codons and aversion towards CGG (Arg), CCG (Pro), and CAC (His) was present in the structural genes of the delta strain. The interaction between the host tRNA pool and preferred codons of the envisaged structural genes revealed that the virus preferred the codons for those suboptimal numbers of isoacceptor tRNA were present. We see this as a strategy adapted by the virus to keep the translation rate low to facilitate the correct folding of viral proteins. The information generated in the study helps design the attenuated vaccine candidate against the SARS-CoV-2 delta variant using a synthetic biology approach. Three strategies were tested: changing TpT to TpA, introducing rare codons, and disrupting favored codons. It found that disrupting favored codons is a better approach to reducing virus fitness and attenuating SARS-CoV-2 delta strain using structural genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pankaj Gurjar
- Department of Science and Engineering, Novel Global Community Educational Foundation, Hebersham, NSW 2770, Australia
| | - Noushad Karuvantevida
- College of Medicine, Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dubai P.O. Box 505055, United Arab Emirates
| | | | - Azmat Ali Khan
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence: (A.A.K.); or (R.K.)
| | - Rekha Khandia
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, Barkatullah Universty, Bhopal 462026, India
- Correspondence: (A.A.K.); or (R.K.)
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Molecular Engineering of a Mammarenavirus with Unbreachable Attenuation. J Virol 2023; 97:e0138522. [PMID: 36533953 PMCID: PMC9888291 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01385-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Several mammarenaviruses cause severe hemorrhagic fever (HF) disease in humans and pose important public health problems in their regions of endemicity. There are no United States (US) Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved mammarenavirus vaccines, and current anti-mammarenavirus therapy is limited to an off-label use of ribavirin that has limited efficacy. Mammarenaviruses are enveloped viruses with a bi-segmented negative-strand RNA genome. Each genome segment contains two open reading frames (ORF) separated by a noncoding intergenic region (IGR). The large (L) segment encodes the RNA dependent RNA polymerase, L protein, and the Z matrix protein, whereas the small (S) segment encodes the surface glycoprotein precursor (GPC) and nucleoprotein (NP). In the present study, we document the generation of a recombinant form of the prototypic mammarenavirus lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) expressing a codon deoptimized (CD) GPC and containing the IGR of the S segment in both the S and L segments (rLCMV/IGR-CD). We show that rLCMV/IGR-CD is fully attenuated in C57BL/6 (B6) mice but able to provide complete protection upon a single administration against a lethal challenge with LCMV. Importantly, rLCMV/IGR-CD exhibited an unbreachable attenuation for its safe implementation as a live-attenuated vaccine (LAV). IMPORTANCE Several mammarenaviruses cause severe disease in humans and pose important public health problems in their regions of endemicity. Currently, no FDA-licensed mammarenavirus vaccines are available, and anti-mammarenaviral therapy is limited to an off-label use of ribavirin whose efficacy is controversial. Here, we describe the generation of recombinant version of the prototypic mammarenavirus lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (rLCMV) combining the features of a codon deoptimized (CD) GPC and the noncoding intergenic region (IGR) of the S segment in both S and L genome segments, called rLCMV/IGR-CD. We present evidence that rLCMV/IGR-CD has excellent safety and protective efficacy features as live-attenuated vaccine (LAV). Importantly, rLCMV/IGR-CD prevents, in coinfected mice, the generation of LCMV reassortants with increased virulence. Our findings document a well-defined molecular strategy for the generation of mammarenavirus LAV candidates able to trigger long-term protective immunity, upon a single immunization, while exhibiting unique enhanced safety features, including unbreachable attenuation.
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Aloke C, Obasi NA, Aja PM, Emelike CU, Egwu CO, Jeje O, Edeogu CO, Onisuru OO, Orji OU, Achilonu I. Combating Lassa Fever in West African Sub-Region: Progress, Challenges, and Future Perspectives. Viruses 2023; 15:146. [PMID: 36680186 PMCID: PMC9864412 DOI: 10.3390/v15010146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Lassa fever (LF) is a rodent-borne disease that threatens human health in the sub-region of West Africa where the zoonotic host of Lassa virus (LASV) is predominant. Currently, treatment options for LF are limited and since no preventive vaccine is approved for its infectivity, there is a high mortality rate in endemic areas. This narrative review explores the transmission, pathogenicity of LASV, advances, and challenges of different treatment options. Our findings indicate that genetic diversity among the different strains of LASV and their ability to circumvent the immune system poses a critical challenge to the development of LASV vaccines/therapeutics. Thus, understanding the biochemistry, physiology and genetic polymorphism of LASV, mechanism of evading host immunity are essential for development of effective LASV vaccines/therapeutics to combat this lethal viral disease. The LASV nucleoprotein (NP) is a novel target for therapeutics as it functions significantly in several aspects of the viral life cycle. Consequently, LASV NP inhibitors could be employed as effective therapeutics as they will potentially inhibit LASV replication. Effective preventive control measures, vaccine development, target validation, and repurposing of existing drugs, such as ribavirin, using activity or in silico-based and computational bioinformatics, would aid in the development of novel drugs for LF management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chinyere Aloke
- Protein Structure-Function and Research Unit, School of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Braamfontein, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Abakaliki PMB 1010, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
| | - Nwogo Ajuka Obasi
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Abakaliki PMB 1010, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
| | - Patrick Maduabuchi Aja
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki PMB 053, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Mbarara University of Science and Technology (MUST), Mbarara P.O. Box 1410, Uganda
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Kampala International University, Bushenyi, Ishaka P.O. Box 71, Uganda
| | - Chinedum Uche Emelike
- Department of Physiology, Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Abakaliki PMB 1010, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
| | - Chinedu Ogbonnia Egwu
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Abakaliki PMB 1010, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
| | - Olamide Jeje
- Protein Structure-Function and Research Unit, School of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Braamfontein, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
| | - Chuks Oswald Edeogu
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki PMB 053, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
| | - Olalekan Olugbenga Onisuru
- Protein Structure-Function and Research Unit, School of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Braamfontein, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
| | - Obasi Uche Orji
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki PMB 053, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
| | - Ikechukwu Achilonu
- Protein Structure-Function and Research Unit, School of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Braamfontein, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
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7
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Murphy H, Ly H. Understanding Immune Responses to Lassa Virus Infection and to Its Candidate Vaccines. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:1668. [PMID: 36298533 PMCID: PMC9612042 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10101668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Lassa fever (LF) is a deadly viral hemorrhagic fever disease that is endemic in several countries in West Africa. It is caused by Lassa virus (LASV), which has been estimated to be responsible for approximately 300,000 infections and 5000 deaths annually. LASV is a highly pathogenic human pathogen without effective therapeutics or FDA-approved vaccines. Here, we aim to provide a literature review of the current understanding of the basic mechanism of immune responses to LASV infection in animal models and patients, as well as to several of its candidate vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hinh Ly
- Comparative & Molecular Biosciences Graduate Program, Department of Veterinary & Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, St Paul, MN 55108, USA
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Isaac AB, Karolina W, Temitope AA, Anuska R, Joanne E, Deborah A, Bianca OC, Filip T, Zofia P, Oluwasegun OI, Oluwaferanmi O, Grace BT. PROSPECTS OF LASSA FEVER CANDIDATE VACCINES. Afr J Infect Dis 2022; 16:46-58. [PMID: 36124324 PMCID: PMC9480887 DOI: 10.21010/ajid.v16i2s.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Lassa fever is an acute viral haemorrhagic disease caused by the Lassa virus (LASV). It is endemic in West Africa and infects about 300,000 people each year, leading to approximately 5000 deaths annually. The development of the LASV vaccine has been listed as a priority by the World Health Organization since 2018. Considering the accelerated development and availability of vaccines against COVID-19, we set out to assess the prospects of LASV vaccines and the progress made so far. Materials and Methods We reviewed the progress made on twenty-six vaccine candidates listed by Salami et al. (2019) and searched for new vaccine candidates through Google Scholar, PubMed, and DOAJ from June to July 2021. We searched the articles published in English using keywords that included "vaccine" AND "Lassa fever" OR "Lassa virus" in the title/abstract. Results Thirty-four candidate vaccines were identified - 26 already listed in the review by Salami et al. and an additional 8, which were developed over the last seven years. 30 vaccines are still in the pre-clinical stage while 4 of them are currently undergoing clinical trials. The most promising candidates in 2019 were vesicular stomatitis virus-vectored vaccine and live-attenuated MV/LASV vaccine; both had progressed to clinical trials. Conclusions Despite the focus on COVID-19 vaccines since 2020, LASV vaccine is under development and continues to make impressive progress, hence more emphasis should be put into exploring further clinical studies related to the most promising types of vaccines identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ademusire Babatunde Isaac
- College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria,Polygeia (Global Health Student Think Tank), Ibadan Branch, Nigeria
| | - Wieczorek Karolina
- Polygeia (Global Health Student Think Tank), Ibadan Branch, Nigeria,Queen Mary University of London Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, United Kingdom,Corresponding author’s E-Mail:
| | - Alonge Aishat Temitope
- College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria,Polygeia (Global Health Student Think Tank), Ibadan Branch, Nigeria
| | - Rajen Anuska
- Polygeia (Global Health Student Think Tank), Ibadan Branch, Nigeria,Queen Mary University of London Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, United Kingdom
| | - Egbe Joanne
- College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria,Polygeia (Global Health Student Think Tank), Ibadan Branch, Nigeria
| | - Adebambo Deborah
- College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria,Polygeia (Global Health Student Think Tank), Ibadan Branch, Nigeria
| | - Offorbuike Chiamaka Bianca
- College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria,Polygeia (Global Health Student Think Tank), Ibadan Branch, Nigeria
| | - Trojan Filip
- University College London, Medical School, London, United Kingdom
| | - Przypaśniak Zofia
- Queen Mary University of London Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, United Kingdom
| | - Oduguwa Ifeoluwa Oluwasegun
- College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria,Polygeia (Global Health Student Think Tank), Ibadan Branch, Nigeria
| | - Omitoyin Oluwaferanmi
- College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria,Polygeia (Global Health Student Think Tank), Ibadan Branch, Nigeria
| | - Balogun Toluwalogo Grace
- College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria,Polygeia (Global Health Student Think Tank), Ibadan Branch, Nigeria
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To A, Lai CY, Wong TAS, Namekar M, Lieberman MM, Lehrer AT. Adjuvants Differentially Modulate the Immunogenicity of Lassa Virus Glycoprotein Subunits in Mice. FRONTIERS IN TROPICAL DISEASES 2022; 3. [PMID: 37034031 PMCID: PMC10081732 DOI: 10.3389/fitd.2022.847598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Lassa Fever (LF) is an acute viral hemorrhagic fever caused by Lassa virus (LASV) that is primarily transmitted through contact with wild rodents in West Africa. Although several advanced vaccine candidates are progressing through clinical trials, some effective vaccines are virally vectored and thus require a stringent cold-chain, making distribution to rural and resource-poor areas difficult. Recombinant subunit vaccines are advantageous in this aspect as they can be thermostabilized and deployed with minimal storage and transportation requirements. However, antigen dose and adjuvant formulation must be carefully selected to ensure both the appropriate humoral and cell-mediated immune responses are elicited. In this study, we examine the immunogenicity of a two-step immunoaffinity-purified recombinant LASV glycoprotein (GP) with five clinical- and preclinical-grade adjuvants. Swiss Webster mice immunized intramuscularly with 2 or 3 doses of each vaccine formulation showed complete seroconversion and maximal GP-specific antibody response after two immunizations. Formulations with GPI-0100, LiteVax, Montanide™ ISA 51, and Montanide™ ISA 720 induced both IgG1 and IgG2 antibodies suggesting a balanced Th1/Th2 response, whereas formulation of LASV GP with Alhydrogel elicited a IgG1-dominant response. Splenocytes secreting both Th1 and Th2 cytokines i.e., IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-4 and IL-5, were observed from mice receiving both antigen doses formulated with ISA 720, LiteVax and GPI-0100. However, robust, multifunctional T-cells were only detected in mice receiving a higher dose of LASV GP formulated with GPI-0100. Our results emphasize the importance of careful adjuvant selection and lay the immunological basis for a recombinant subunit protein LF vaccine formulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert To
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology, and Pharmacology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, The University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
| | - Chih-Yun Lai
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology, and Pharmacology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, The University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
- Pacific Center for Emerging Infectious Disease Research, John A. Burns School of Medicine, The University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
| | - Teri Ann S. Wong
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology, and Pharmacology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, The University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
| | - Madhuri Namekar
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology, and Pharmacology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, The University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
- Pacific Center for Emerging Infectious Disease Research, John A. Burns School of Medicine, The University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
| | - Michael M. Lieberman
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology, and Pharmacology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, The University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
| | - Axel T. Lehrer
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology, and Pharmacology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, The University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
- Pacific Center for Emerging Infectious Disease Research, John A. Burns School of Medicine, The University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
- Correspondence: Axel T. Lehrer,
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10
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Hashizume M, Takashima A, Iwasaki M. A small stem-loop-forming region within the 3'-UTR of a non-polyadenylated LCMV mRNA promotes translation. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:101576. [PMID: 35026225 PMCID: PMC8888456 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.101576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian arenavirus (mammarenavirus) mRNAs are characterized by 5′-capped and 3′-nonpolyadenylated untranslated regions (UTRs). We previously reported that the nonpolyadenylated 3′-UTR of viral mRNA (vmRNA), which is derived from the noncoding intergenic region (IGR), regulates viral protein levels at the posttranscriptional level. This finding provided the basis for the development of novel live-attenuated vaccines (LAVs) against human pathogenic mammarenaviruses. Detailed information about the roles of specific vmRNA 3′-UTR sequences in controlling translation efficiency will help in understanding the mechanism underlying attenuation by IGR manipulations. Here, we characterize the roles of cis-acting mRNA regulatory sequences of a prototypic mammarenavirus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), in modulating translational efficiency. Using in vitro transcribed RNA mimics encoding a reporter gene, we demonstrate that the 3′-UTR of nucleoprotein (NP) mRNA without a poly(A) tail promotes translation in a poly(A)-binding protein-independent manner. Comparison with the 3′-UTR of glycoprotein precursor mRNA, which is translated less efficiently, revealed that a 10-nucleotide sequence proximal to the NP open reading frame is essential for promoting translation. Modification of this 10-nucleotide sequence also impacted reporter gene expression in recombinant LCMV. Our findings will enable rational design of the 10-nucleotide sequence to further improve our mammarenavirus LAV candidates and to develop a novel LCMV vector capable of controlling foreign gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Hashizume
- Laboratory of Emerging Viral Diseases, International Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, 3-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Ayako Takashima
- Laboratory of Emerging Viral Diseases, International Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, 3-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Masaharu Iwasaki
- Laboratory of Emerging Viral Diseases, International Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, 3-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Center for Infectious Disease Education and Research (CiDER), Osaka University, 2-8 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
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11
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Iwasaki M. [Molecular basis for the multiplication of negative-strand RNA viruses: basic research and potential applications in vaccine development]. Uirusu 2022; 72:67-78. [PMID: 37899232 DOI: 10.2222/jsv.72.67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2023]
Abstract
Viruses achieve their efficient reproduction by utilizing their limited components (nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins) and host cell machineries. A detailed understanding of virus-virus and virus-host interactions will lead to the elucidation of mechanisms underlying viral pathogenesis and the development of novel medical countermeasures. We elucidated the details of several such interactions and their roles in the multiplication of negative-strand RNA viruses, measles virus, and Lassa virus. These discoveries were harnessed to develop a novel genetic approach for the generation of live-attenuated vaccine candidates with a well-defined molecular mechanism of attenuation. This article describes our findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaharu Iwasaki
- Laboratory of Emerging Viral Diseases, International Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
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12
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Ren F, Shen S, Wang Q, Wei G, Huang C, Wang H, Ning YJ, Zhang DY, Deng F. Recent Advances in Bunyavirus Reverse Genetics Research: Systems Development, Applications, and Future Perspectives. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:771934. [PMID: 34950119 PMCID: PMC8689132 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.771934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Bunyaviruses are members of the Bunyavirales order, which is the largest group of RNA viruses, comprising 12 families, including a large group of emerging and re-emerging viruses. These viruses can infect a wide variety of species worldwide, such as arthropods, protozoans, plants, animals, and humans, and pose substantial threats to the public. In view of the fact that a better understanding of the life cycle of a highly pathogenic virus is often a precondition for developing vaccines and antivirals, it is urgent to develop powerful tools to unravel the molecular basis of the pathogenesis. However, biosafety level −3 or even −4 containment laboratory is considered as a necessary condition for working with a number of bunyaviruses, which has hampered various studies. Reverse genetics systems, including minigenome (MG), infectious virus-like particle (iVLP), and infectious full-length clone (IFLC) systems, are capable of recapitulating some or all steps of the viral replication cycle; among these, the MG and iVLP systems have been very convenient and effective tools, allowing researchers to manipulate the genome segments of pathogenic viruses at lower biocontainment to investigate the viral genome transcription, replication, virus entry, and budding. The IFLC system is generally developed based on the MG or iVLP systems, which have facilitated the generation of recombinant infectious viruses. The MG, iVLP, and IFLC systems have been successfully developed for some important bunyaviruses and have been widely employed as powerful tools to investigate the viral replication cycle, virus–host interactions, virus pathogenesis, and virus evolutionary process. The majority of bunyaviruses is generally enveloped negative-strand RNA viruses with two to six genome segments, of which the viruses with bipartite and tripartite genome segments have mostly been characterized. This review aimed to summarize current knowledge on reverse genetic studies of representative bunyaviruses causing severe diseases in humans and animals, which will contribute to the better understanding of the bunyavirus replication cycle and provide some hints for developing designed antivirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuli Ren
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital, Wuhan, China.,State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,National Virus Resource Center, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Shu Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,National Virus Resource Center, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Qiongya Wang
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital, Wuhan, China
| | - Gang Wei
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital, Wuhan, China
| | - Chaolin Huang
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital, Wuhan, China
| | - Hualin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,National Virus Resource Center, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Yun-Jia Ning
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,National Virus Resource Center, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Ding-Yu Zhang
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital, Wuhan, China
| | - Fei Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,National Virus Resource Center, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
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13
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Wang N, Yang L, Li G, Zhang X, Shao J, Ma J, Chen S, Liu Q. Molecular detection and genetic characterization of Wenzhou virus in rodents in Guangzhou, China. BMC Vet Res 2021; 17:301. [PMID: 34496846 PMCID: PMC8424800 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-021-03009-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Wenzhou virus (WENV), a newly discovered mammarenavirus in rodents, is associated with fever and respiratory symptoms in humans. This study was aimed to detect and characterize the emerging virus in rodents in Guangzhou, China. Results A total of 100 small mammals, including 70 Rattus norvegicus, 22 Suncus murinus, 4 Bandicota indica, 3 Rattus flavipectus, and 1 Rattus losea, were captured in Guangzhou, and their brain tissues were collected and pooled for metagenomic analysis, which generated several contigs targeting the genome of WENV. Two R. norvegicus (2.9%) were further confirmed to be infected with WENV by RT-PCR. The complete genome (RnGZ37-2018 and RnGZ40-2018) shared 85.1–88.9% nt and 83.2–96.3% aa sequence identities to the Cambodian strains that have been shown to be associated with human disease. Phylogenetic analysis showed that all identified WENV could be grouped into four different lineages, and the two Guangzhou strains formed an independent clade. We also analyzed the potential recombinant events occurring in WENV strains. Conclusions Our study showed a high genetic diversity of WENV strains in China, emphasizing the relevance of surveillance of this emerging mammarenavirus in both natural reservoirs and humans. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12917-021-03009-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Wang
- School of Life Sciences and Engineering, Foshan University, 440605, Foshan, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Lichao Yang
- School of Life Sciences and Engineering, Foshan University, 440605, Foshan, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Guohui Li
- School of Life Sciences and Engineering, Foshan University, 440605, Foshan, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Xu Zhang
- School of Life Sciences and Engineering, Foshan University, 440605, Foshan, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jianwei Shao
- School of Life Sciences and Engineering, Foshan University, 440605, Foshan, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jun Ma
- School of Life Sciences and Engineering, Foshan University, 440605, Foshan, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Shouyi Chen
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 510440, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.
| | - Quan Liu
- School of Life Sciences and Engineering, Foshan University, 440605, Foshan, Guangdong Province, China.
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Popova OD, Zubkova OV, Ozharovskaia TA, Zrelkin DI, Voronina DV, Dolzhikova IV, Shcheblyakov DV, Naroditsky BS, Logunov DY, Gintsburg AL. [Review of candidate vaccines for the prevention of Lassa fever]. Vopr Virusol 2021; 66:91-102. [PMID: 33993679 DOI: 10.36233/0507-4088-33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The Lassa virus one of the main etiological agent of hemorrhagic fevers in the world: according to WHO estimates, it affects 100,000 to 300,000 people annually, which results in up to 10,000 deaths [1]. Although expansion of Lassa fever caused by this pathogen is mostly limited to the West African countries: Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea and Nigeria, imported cases have been historically documented in Europe, the United States of America (USA), Canada, Japan, and Israel [2]. In 2017, WHO included the Lassa virus in the list of priority pathogens in need of accelerated research, development of vaccines, therapeutic agents and diagnostic tools regarding infections they cause [3]. This review describes main technological platforms used for the development of vaccines for the prevention of Lassa fever.
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Affiliation(s)
- O D Popova
- FSBI «National Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology named after Honorary Academician N.F. Gamaleya» of the Ministry of Health of Russia
| | - O V Zubkova
- FSBI «National Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology named after Honorary Academician N.F. Gamaleya» of the Ministry of Health of Russia
| | - T A Ozharovskaia
- FSBI «National Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology named after Honorary Academician N.F. Gamaleya» of the Ministry of Health of Russia
| | - D I Zrelkin
- FSBI «National Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology named after Honorary Academician N.F. Gamaleya» of the Ministry of Health of Russia
| | - D V Voronina
- FSBI «National Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology named after Honorary Academician N.F. Gamaleya» of the Ministry of Health of Russia
| | - I V Dolzhikova
- FSBI «National Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology named after Honorary Academician N.F. Gamaleya» of the Ministry of Health of Russia
| | - D V Shcheblyakov
- FSBI «National Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology named after Honorary Academician N.F. Gamaleya» of the Ministry of Health of Russia
| | - B S Naroditsky
- FSBI «National Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology named after Honorary Academician N.F. Gamaleya» of the Ministry of Health of Russia
| | - D Yu Logunov
- FSBI «National Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology named after Honorary Academician N.F. Gamaleya» of the Ministry of Health of Russia
| | - A L Gintsburg
- FSBI «National Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology named after Honorary Academician N.F. Gamaleya» of the Ministry of Health of Russia
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Foscaldi S, Loureiro ME, Sepúlveda C, Palacios C, Forlenza MB, López N. Development of a Reverse Genetic System to Generate Recombinant Chimeric Tacaribe Virus that Expresses Junín Virus Glycoproteins. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9110948. [PMID: 33203040 PMCID: PMC7696886 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9110948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mammarenaviruses are enveloped and segmented negative-stranded RNA viruses that comprise several pathogenic members associated with severe human hemorrhagic fevers. Tacaribe virus (TCRV) is the prototype for the New World group of mammarenaviruses and is not only naturally attenuated but also phylogenetically and antigenically related to all South American pathogenic mammarenaviruses, particularly the Junín virus (JUNV), which is the etiological agent of Argentinian hemorrhagic fever (AHF). Moreover, since TCRV protects guinea pigs and non-human primates from lethal challenges with pathogenic strains of JUNV, it has already been considered as a potential live-attenuated virus vaccine candidate against AHF. Here, we report the development of a reverse genetic system that relies on T7 polymerase-driven intracellular expression of the complementary copy (antigenome) of both viral S and L RNA segments. Using this approach, we successfully recovered recombinant TCRV (rTCRV) that displayed growth properties resembling those of authentic TCRV. We also generated a chimeric recombinant TCRV expressing the JUNV glycoproteins, which propagated similarly to wild-type rTCRV. Moreover, a controlled modification within the S RNA 5′ non-coding terminal sequence diminished rTCRV propagation in a cell-type dependent manner, giving rise to new perspectives where the incorporation of additional attenuation markers could contribute to develop safe rTCRV-based vaccines against pathogenic mammarenaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Foscaldi
- Centro de Virología Animal (CEVAN), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1428EGA, Argentina; (S.F.); (M.E.L.); (M.B.F.)
| | - María Eugenia Loureiro
- Centro de Virología Animal (CEVAN), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1428EGA, Argentina; (S.F.); (M.E.L.); (M.B.F.)
| | - Claudia Sepúlveda
- Laboratorio de Virología, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires C1428EGA, Argentina;
- Instituto de Química Biológica de la Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (IQUIBICEN), CONICET- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1428EGA, Argentina
| | - Carlos Palacios
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Dr. César Milstein (CONICET-Fundación Pablo Cassará), Buenos Aires C1440FFX, Argentina;
| | - María Belén Forlenza
- Centro de Virología Animal (CEVAN), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1428EGA, Argentina; (S.F.); (M.E.L.); (M.B.F.)
| | - Nora López
- Centro de Virología Animal (CEVAN), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1428EGA, Argentina; (S.F.); (M.E.L.); (M.B.F.)
- Correspondence:
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Ye C, de la Torre JC, Martinez-Sobrido L. Reverse genetics approaches for the development of mammarenavirus live-attenuated vaccines. Curr Opin Virol 2020; 44:66-72. [PMID: 32721864 PMCID: PMC7755828 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2020.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Several mammarenaviruses can cause severe hemorrhagic fever disease with a very high case fatality rate, representing important threats to human health within the viruses' endemic regions. To date, there are no United States (US) Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-licensed vaccines available to combat mammarenavirus infections in humans, and current anti-mammarenavirus therapy is limited to off-label use of the guanosine analog ribavirin, which has limited efficacy and has been associated with significant side effects. Vaccination is one of the most effective ways to prevent viral diseases, and live-attenuated vaccines (LAVs) have been shown to often provide long-term protection against a subsequent natural infection by the corresponding virulent form of the virus. The development of mammarenavirus reverse genetics systems has provided investigators with a powerful approach for the investigation of the molecular and cell biology of mammarenaviruses and also for the generation of recombinant viruses containing predetermined mutations in their genome for their implementation as LAVs for the treatment of mammarenavirus infections. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the mammarenavirus molecular and cell biology, and the use of reverse genetic approaches for the generation of recombinant mammarenaviruses. Moreover, we briefly discus some novel LAV approaches for the treatment of mammarenavirus infections based on the use of reverse genetics approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengjin Ye
- Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA.
| | - Juan C de la Torre
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Calvo-Pinilla E, Marín-López A, Utrilla-Trigo S, Jiménez-Cabello L, Ortego J. Reverse genetics approaches: a novel strategy for African horse sickness virus vaccine design. Curr Opin Virol 2020; 44:49-56. [PMID: 32659516 PMCID: PMC7351391 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2020.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
African horse sickness (AHS) is a devastating disease caused by African horse sickness virus (AHSV) and transmitted by arthropods between its equine hosts. AHSV is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, where polyvalent live attenuated vaccine is in use even though it is associated with safety risks. This review article summarizes and compares new strategies to generate safe and effective AHSV vaccines based on protein, virus like particles, viral vectors and reverse genetics technology. Manipulating the AHSV genome to generate synthetic viruses by means of reverse genetic systems has led to the generation of potential safe vaccine candidates that are under investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Calvo-Pinilla
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA), Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alejandro Marín-López
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Sergio Utrilla-Trigo
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA), Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Luís Jiménez-Cabello
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA), Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Ortego
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA), Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain.
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