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Chin T, Foxman EF, Watkins TA, Lipsitch M. Considerations for viral co-infection studies in human populations. mBio 2024; 15:e0065824. [PMID: 38847531 PMCID: PMC11253623 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00658-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/18/2024] Open
Abstract
When respiratory viruses co-circulate in a population, individuals may be infected with multiple pathogens and experience possible virus-virus interactions, where concurrent or recent prior infection with one virus affects the infection process of another virus. While experimental studies have provided convincing evidence for within-host mechanisms of virus-virus interactions, evaluating evidence for viral interference or potentiation using population-level data has proven more difficult. Recent studies have quantified the prevalence of co-detections using populations drawn from clinical settings. Here, we focus on selection bias issues associated with this study design. We provide a quantitative account of the conditions under which selection bias arises in these studies, review previous attempts to address this bias, and propose unbiased study designs with sample size estimates needed to ascertain viral interference. We show that selection bias is expected in cross-sectional co-detection prevalence studies conducted in clinical settings, except under a strict set of assumptions regarding the relative probabilities of being included in a study limited to individuals with clinical disease under different viral states. Population-wide studies that collect samples from participants irrespective of their clinical status would meanwhile require large sample sizes to be sufficiently powered to detect viral interference, suggesting that a study's timing, inclusion criteria, and the expected magnitude of interference are instrumental in determining feasibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor Chin
- Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ellen F. Foxman
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Timothy A. Watkins
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Marc Lipsitch
- Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Mochan E, Sego TJ. Mathematical Modeling of the Lethal Synergism of Coinfecting Pathogens in Respiratory Viral Infections: A Review. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2974. [PMID: 38138118 PMCID: PMC10745501 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11122974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) infections represent a substantial global health challenge and are often accompanied by coinfections involving secondary viruses or bacteria, resulting in increased morbidity and mortality. The clinical impact of coinfections remains poorly understood, with conflicting findings regarding fatality. Isolating the impact of each pathogen and mechanisms of pathogen synergy during coinfections is challenging and further complicated by host and pathogen variability and experimental conditions. Factors such as cytokine dysregulation, immune cell function alterations, mucociliary dysfunction, and changes to the respiratory tract epithelium have been identified as contributors to increased lethality. The relative significance of these factors depends on variables such as pathogen types, infection timing, sequence, and inoculum size. Mathematical biological modeling can play a pivotal role in shedding light on the mechanisms of coinfections. Mathematical modeling enables the quantification of aspects of the intra-host immune response that are difficult to assess experimentally. In this narrative review, we highlight important mechanisms of IAV coinfection with bacterial and viral pathogens and survey mathematical models of coinfection and the insights gained from them. We discuss current challenges and limitations facing coinfection modeling, as well as current trends and future directions toward a complete understanding of coinfection using mathematical modeling and computer simulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ericka Mochan
- Department of Computational and Chemical Sciences, Carlow University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - T. J. Sego
- Department of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA;
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Pinky L, DeAguero JR, Remien CH, Smith AM. How Interactions during Viral-Viral Coinfection Can Shape Infection Kinetics. Viruses 2023; 15:1303. [PMID: 37376603 PMCID: PMC10301061 DOI: 10.3390/v15061303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Respiratory viral infections are a leading global cause of disease with multiple viruses detected in 20-30% of cases, and several viruses simultaneously circulating. Some infections with unique viral copathogens result in reduced pathogenicity, while other viral pairings can worsen disease. The mechanisms driving these dichotomous outcomes are likely variable and have only begun to be examined in the laboratory and clinic. To better understand viral-viral coinfections and predict potential mechanisms that result in distinct disease outcomes, we first systematically fit mathematical models to viral load data from ferrets infected with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), followed by influenza A virus (IAV) after 3 days. The results suggest that IAV reduced the rate of RSV production, while RSV reduced the rate of IAV infected cell clearance. We then explored the realm of possible dynamics for scenarios that had not been examined experimentally, including a different infection order, coinfection timing, interaction mechanisms, and viral pairings. IAV coinfection with rhinovirus (RV) or SARS-CoV-2 (CoV2) was examined by using human viral load data from single infections together with murine weight-loss data from IAV-RV, RV-IAV, and IAV-CoV2 coinfections to guide the interpretation of the model results. Similar to the results with RSV-IAV coinfection, this analysis shows that the increased disease severity observed during murine IAV-RV or IAV-CoV2 coinfection was likely due to the slower clearance of IAV-infected cells by the other viruses. The improved outcome when IAV followed RV, on the other hand, could be replicated when the rate of RV infected cell clearance was reduced by IAV. Simulating viral-viral coinfections in this way provides new insights about how viral-viral interactions can regulate disease severity during coinfection and yields testable hypotheses ripe for experimental evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lubna Pinky
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Joseph R. DeAguero
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Program, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
| | - Christopher H. Remien
- Department of Mathematics and Statistical Science, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
| | - Amber M. Smith
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
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Viral Coinfections. Viruses 2022; 14:v14122645. [PMID: 36560647 PMCID: PMC9784482 DOI: 10.3390/v14122645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In nature, viral coinfection is as widespread as viral infection alone. Viral coinfections often cause altered viral pathogenicity, disrupted host defense, and mixed-up clinical symptoms, all of which result in more difficult diagnosis and treatment of a disease. There are three major virus-virus interactions in coinfection cases: viral interference, viral synergy, and viral noninterference. We analyzed virus-virus interactions in both aspects of viruses and hosts and elucidated their possible mechanisms. Finally, we summarized the protocol of viral coinfection studies and key points in the process of virus separation and purification.
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Respiratory Syncytial Virus Protects Bystander Cells against Influenza A Virus Infection by Triggering Secretion of Type I and Type III Interferons. J Virol 2022; 96:e0134122. [DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01341-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) are common recurrent respiratory infectants that show a relatively high coincidence. We demonstrated that preinfection with RSV partitions the cell population into a subpopulation susceptible to subsequent infection with IAV and an IAV-proof subpopulation.
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Understanding Rhinovirus Circulation and Impact on Illness. Viruses 2022; 14:v14010141. [PMID: 35062345 PMCID: PMC8778310 DOI: 10.3390/v14010141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhinoviruses (RVs) have been reported as one of the main viral causes for severe respiratory illnesses that may require hospitalization, competing with the burden of other respiratory viruses such as influenza and RSV in terms of severity, economic cost, and resource utilization. With three species and 169 subtypes, RV presents the greatest diversity within the Enterovirus genus, and despite the efforts of the research community to identify clinically relevant subtypes to target therapeutic strategies, the role of species and subtype in the clinical outcomes of RV infection remains unclear. This review aims to collect and organize data relevant to RV illness in order to find patterns and links with species and/or subtype, with a specific focus on species and subtype diversity in clinical studies typing of respiratory samples.
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Fuse T, Ikuse T, Aizawa Y, Fuse M, Goto F, Okazaki M, Iwaya A, Saitoh A. Decline in pediatric admission on an isolated island in the COVID-19 pandemic. Pediatr Int 2022; 64:e15326. [PMID: 36331232 PMCID: PMC9538257 DOI: 10.1111/ped.15326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A decrease in pediatric hospitalizations during the COVID-19 pandemic has been reported worldwide; however, few studies have examined areas with a limited number of COVID-19 cases, where influenced by viral interference by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is minimum. METHODS We conducted an epidemiological study of pediatric hospitalizations on Sado, an isolated island in Niigata, Japan, that was unique environment with few COVID-19 cases and reliable pediatric admissions monitoring. We compared numbers of monthly hospitalizations and associated diagnoses for the periods April 2016 to March 2020 (pre-pandemic period) and April 2020 to March 2021 (pandemic period). RESULTS Data were analyzed for 1,144 and 128 patients in the pre-pandemic and pandemic periods, respectively. We observed only three adults and no pediatric COVID-19 cases during the pandemic period. The number of monthly admissions was significantly lower in the pandemic period (median [interquartile ranges (IQR)]: 11.0 [7.0-14.0]) than in the pre-pandemic period (23.0 [20.8-28.3]; P < 0.001). Similar decreases were observed for hospitalizations due to respiratory tract infection (P < 0.01), but not for asthma exacerbation (P = 0.15), and gastrointestinal tract infection (P = 0.33). CONCLUSIONS Pediatric hospitalizations during the pandemic significantly decreased on an isolated Japanese island where COVID-19 was not endemic and all pediatric admissions were ascertainable. This observation highlights the impact of decreased travel and increased awareness of infection control measures on pediatric hospitalizations due to infectious diseases, not by the SARS-CoV-2 viral interference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Fuse
- Department of Pediatrics, JA Niigata Kouseiren Sado General Hospital, Niigata, Japan
| | - Tatsuki Ikuse
- Department of Pediatrics, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
| | - Yuta Aizawa
- Department of Pediatrics, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
| | - Michiko Fuse
- Department of Pediatrics, JA Niigata Kouseiren Sado General Hospital, Niigata, Japan
| | - Fumihiro Goto
- Department of Pediatrics, JA Niigata Kouseiren Sado General Hospital, Niigata, Japan
| | - Minoru Okazaki
- Department of Pediatrics, JA Niigata Kouseiren Sado General Hospital, Niigata, Japan
| | - Atsushi Iwaya
- Department of Pediatrics, Ryotsu Hospital, Niigata, Japan
| | - Akihiko Saitoh
- Department of Pediatrics, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
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Cox G, Gonzalez AJ, Ijezie EC, Rodriguez A, Miller CR, Van Leuven JT, Miura TA. Priming With Rhinovirus Protects Mice Against a Lethal Pulmonary Coronavirus Infection. Front Immunol 2022; 13:886611. [PMID: 35711419 PMCID: PMC9196734 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.886611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhinoviruses (RV) have been shown to inhibit subsequent infection by heterologous respiratory viruses, including influenza viruses and severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). To better understand the mechanisms whereby RV protects against pulmonary coronavirus infection, we used a native murine virus, mouse hepatitis virus strain 1 (MHV-1), that causes severe disease in the lungs of infected mice. We found that priming of the respiratory tract with RV completely prevented mortality and reduced morbidity of a lethal MHV-1 infection. Replication of MHV-1 was reduced in RV-primed mouse lungs although expression of antiviral type I interferon, IFN-β, was more robust in mice infected with MHV-1 alone. We further showed that signaling through the type I interferon receptor was required for survival of mice given a non-lethal dose of MHV-1. RV-primed mice had reduced pulmonary inflammation and hemorrhage and influx of leukocytes, especially neutrophils, in the airways upon MHV-1 infection. Although MHV-1 replication was reduced in RV-primed mice, RV did not inhibit MHV-1 replication in coinfected lung epithelial cells in vitro. In summary, RV-mediated priming in the respiratory tract reduces viral replication, inflammation, and tissue damage, and prevents mortality of a pulmonary coronavirus infection in mice. These results contribute to our understanding of how distinct respiratory viruses interact with the host to affect disease pathogenesis, which is a critical step in understanding how respiratory viral coinfections impact human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrison Cox
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, United States
| | - Andres J. Gonzalez
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, United States
- Institute for Modeling Collaboration and Innovation, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, United States
| | - Emmanuel C. Ijezie
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, United States
| | - Andres Rodriguez
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, United States
| | - Craig R. Miller
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, United States
- Institute for Modeling Collaboration and Innovation, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, United States
| | - James T. Van Leuven
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, United States
- Institute for Modeling Collaboration and Innovation, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, United States
| | - Tanya A. Miura
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, United States
- Institute for Modeling Collaboration and Innovation, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, United States
- *Correspondence: Tanya A. Miura,
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Tao KP, Chong MK, Chan KY, Pun JC, Tsun JG, Chow SM, Ng CS, Wang MH, Chan PK, Li AM, Chan RW. Suppression of influenza virus infection by rhinovirus interference – at the population, individual and cellular levels. CURRENT RESEARCH IN MICROBIAL SCIENCES 2022; 3:100147. [PMID: 35909608 PMCID: PMC9325905 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmicr.2022.100147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kin P. Tao
- Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- CUHK-UMCU Joint Research Laboratory of Respiratory Virus & Immunobiology, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Hong Kong Hub of Paediatric Excellence, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Laboratory for Paediatric Respiratory Research, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Marc K.C. Chong
- Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Kathy Y.Y. Chan
- Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jason C.S. Pun
- Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- CUHK-UMCU Joint Research Laboratory of Respiratory Virus & Immunobiology, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Hong Kong Hub of Paediatric Excellence, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Laboratory for Paediatric Respiratory Research, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Joseph G.S. Tsun
- Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- CUHK-UMCU Joint Research Laboratory of Respiratory Virus & Immunobiology, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Hong Kong Hub of Paediatric Excellence, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Laboratory for Paediatric Respiratory Research, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Samuel M.W. Chow
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Calvin S.H. Ng
- Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Maggie H.T. Wang
- Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Paul K.S. Chan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Albert M. Li
- Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- CUHK-UMCU Joint Research Laboratory of Respiratory Virus & Immunobiology, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Hong Kong Hub of Paediatric Excellence, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Laboratory for Paediatric Respiratory Research, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Renee W.Y. Chan
- Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- CUHK-UMCU Joint Research Laboratory of Respiratory Virus & Immunobiology, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Hong Kong Hub of Paediatric Excellence, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Laboratory for Paediatric Respiratory Research, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Corresponding author at: Department of Paediatrics, 6/F, Lui Chee Woo Clinical Sciences Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China.
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Le Roux M, Ollivier A, Kervoaze G, Beke T, Gillet L, Pichavant M, Gosset P. IL-20 Cytokines Are Involved in Epithelial Lesions Associated with Virus-Induced COPD Exacerbation in Mice. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9121838. [PMID: 34944654 PMCID: PMC8699027 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9121838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: viral infections are a frequent cause of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations, which are responsible for disease progression and mortality. Previous reports showed that IL-20 cytokines facilitate bacterial lung infection, but their production and their role in COPD and viral infection has not yet been investigated. (2) Methods: C57BL/6 WT and IL-20 Rb KO mice were chronically exposed to air or cigarette smoke (CS) to mimic COPD. Cytokine production, antiviral response, inflammation and tissue damages were analyzed after PVM infection. (3) Results: CS exposure was associated with an increase in viral burden and antiviral response. PVM infection in CS mice enhanced IFN-γ, inflammation and tissue damage compared to Air mice. PVM infection and CS exposure induced, in an additive manner, IL-20 cytokines expression and the deletion of IL-20 Rb subunit decreased the expression of interferon-stimulated genes and the production of IFN-λ2/3, without an impact on PVM replication. Epithelial cell damages and inflammation were also reduced in IL-20 Rb-/- mice, and this was associated with reduced lung permeability and the maintenance of intercellular junctions. (4) Conclusions: PVM infection and CS exposure additively upregulates the IL-20 pathway, leading to the promotion of epithelial damages. Our data in our model of viral exacerbation of COPD identify IL-20 cytokine as a potential therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélina Le Roux
- CIIL-Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, CHRU Lille, Institute Pasteur de Lille, University Lille, CNRS UMR9017, Inserm U1019, 59000 Lille, France; (M.L.R.); (A.O.); (G.K.); (T.B.); (M.P.)
| | - Anaïs Ollivier
- CIIL-Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, CHRU Lille, Institute Pasteur de Lille, University Lille, CNRS UMR9017, Inserm U1019, 59000 Lille, France; (M.L.R.); (A.O.); (G.K.); (T.B.); (M.P.)
| | - Gwenola Kervoaze
- CIIL-Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, CHRU Lille, Institute Pasteur de Lille, University Lille, CNRS UMR9017, Inserm U1019, 59000 Lille, France; (M.L.R.); (A.O.); (G.K.); (T.B.); (M.P.)
| | - Timothé Beke
- CIIL-Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, CHRU Lille, Institute Pasteur de Lille, University Lille, CNRS UMR9017, Inserm U1019, 59000 Lille, France; (M.L.R.); (A.O.); (G.K.); (T.B.); (M.P.)
| | - Laurent Gillet
- Immunology-Vaccinology Laboratory, Department of Infection and Parasitic Diseases, FARAH, University of Liege, 4000 Liege, Belgium;
| | - Muriel Pichavant
- CIIL-Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, CHRU Lille, Institute Pasteur de Lille, University Lille, CNRS UMR9017, Inserm U1019, 59000 Lille, France; (M.L.R.); (A.O.); (G.K.); (T.B.); (M.P.)
| | - Philippe Gosset
- CIIL-Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, CHRU Lille, Institute Pasteur de Lille, University Lille, CNRS UMR9017, Inserm U1019, 59000 Lille, France; (M.L.R.); (A.O.); (G.K.); (T.B.); (M.P.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-320-877-965
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