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Rugulies R. Working hours and cardiovascular disease. Scand J Work Environ Health 2024; 50:129-133. [PMID: 38497842 PMCID: PMC10999260 DOI: 10.5271/sjweh.4156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Working hours, including the number and the arrangement thereof – such as shift work, night work, and quick returns – are classic topics in research on work environment and health. The struggle for working time reduction and the eight-hour work day is also one of the oldest fights of the labor movement, dating back to the 19th century (1). International Workers’ Day, celebrated annually on 1 May, has its origin in the Haymarket Affair, a rally in support of a strike for the eight-hour work day at the Haymarket Square in Chicago, USA, on 4 May 1886. At the rally, a riot broke out and a bomb exploded, killing several workers and police officers. In the aftermath, the State of Illinois prosecuted labor movement activists. Although the person who throw the bomb was never identified and the circumstances of the attack remained unclear, four labor movement activists, including August Spies, the editor of the German-American newspaper Arbeiter-Zeitung, were executed by hanging on 11 November 1887. A fifth activist died by suicide in prison (2).
When the International Labour Organization (ILO) was established as an agency of the newly created League of Nations (the predecessor of today’s United Nations) after World War I in 1919, one of its main aims was the regulation and reduction of working time (1). The demand for the 8-hour work day and 48-hour work week was even included in the peace treaty of Versailles (Part XIII, Section II, Article 427) that was signed on 28 June 1919 following World War I (3, 4).
Although working hours have been greatly reduced in many high-income countries since the 19th century, particularly in Europe, the discussion about working hours remains topical, as can be seen by the recent debate about a 4-day working week (5, 6). In South-East and East Asian countries, such as Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, where working hours >48 hours per week are still widely prevalent, health concerns of such long working hours are an important topic of discussion (7, 8). Notably, the Japanese language has coined two terms: karōshi for death due to overwork (usually of cardiovascular causes) and karōjisatsu for death by suicide due to overwork (9). At the Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, we regularly receive papers from researchers in Asia examining the health effects of long working hours (10–12). This issue includes a paper from a German research group on the association between night shift work and risk of cardiovascular disease (13). I use this opportunity to reflect briefly in this editorial on research on working hours and cardiovascular health. In the May issue (number 4) of the Journal, as part of our 50-year anniversary special publication series (14, 15), there will be a much more detailed account on what we have learned so far on working hours and health.
Long working hours and cardiovascular disease In 2015, Kivimäki et al (16) published a seminal paper on long working hours and cardiovascular disease for the Individual Participant Data Meta-Analysis of Working Population (IPD-Work) Consortium that showed an association of long working hours with an increased risk of both ischemic heart disease and stroke (16). The association was stronger for stroke than ischemic heart disease (pooled relative risks 1.33 versus 1.13). Furthermore, for stroke, but not ischemic heart disease, the analyses suggested an exposure–response pattern. Thus, the longer the working hours, the greater the risk of stroke.
From 2017 to 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO) and ILO conducted a project on the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-Related Burden of Disease and Injury (17, 18) that included systematic reviews on the association of long working hours and risk of ischemic heart disease (19) and stroke (20). Results were similar to those reported by the IPD-Work Consortium in 2015. Long working hours, defined as ≥55 hours per week, were associated with a small increased risk of ischemic heart disease (pooled risk ratio 1.17) (19) and a larger increased risk of stroke (pooled risk ratio 1.35) (20). Based on these risk estimates and estimates on the country-specific prevalence of long working hours, the WHO and ILO estimated that, in 2016, globally 745 194 deaths were attributable to long working hours, with the largest burden in South-East Asia (17, 18, 21). A summary of the WHO/ILO joint estimates project has been published as a discussion paper in our Journal (22), together with an editorial (23).
Obviously, the estimate of approximately 750 000 annual deaths due to long working hours is based on several assumptions, including that the epidemiological studies` estimates indicate a causal association between long working hours and cardiovascular outcomes and that data on the worldwide prevalence of long working hours are valid. Kivimäki and colleagues (24) expressed concerns about the interpretation that there is sufficient evidence for harmfulness of long working hours with regard to ischemic heart disease. Among other things, the authors were concerned about residual confounding (eg, by health-related behaviors, although it is debated whether they are mainly confounders, for which one should control, or mediators, for which one should not control (25)). They also presented analyses of data that suggested that socioeconomic position might be an important effect modifier and that the harmful effect of long working hours on risk of ischemic heart disease may be limited to workers of low socioeconomic position. As socioeconomic position is linked to the type of work the workers are doing, the possible effect modification by socioeconomic position could also mean that other, unmeasured working conditions may modify the association between long working hours and health. In other words, in addition to the length of the working hours, what happens during these working hours might also be important. In Denmark, Hannerz and colleagues (26, 27) attempted to replicate the analyses on long working hours and ischemic heart disease and stroke using large-scale register data. With regard to ischemic heart disease, they did not find an increased risk with long working hours [rate ratio (RR) 1.07, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.94–1.21 for >48 versus 32–40 hours] (26). When stratified by socioeconomic position, long working hours were not associated with an increased risk of ischemic heart disease among workers of high, medium and unknown socioeconomic position, but there was an increased risk among workers of low socioeconomic position that worked long hours (RR 1.27, 95% CI 1.05–1.53). Although the interaction `long working hours × socioeconomic position` was not statistically significant, this increased risk among workers of low socioeconomic position is in agreement with the analyses by Kivimäki et al (24). With regard to stroke, Hannerz et al (27) did not find an increased risk for all types of stroke combined among those with long working hours, however, they reported an association between long working hours and increased risk of hemorrhagic stroke. This result was recently replicated in an analysis of the French CONSTANCES study (28) where exposure to long working hours during the past ten years was, in the adjusted model, associated with an increased risk of hemorrhagic stroke but not ischemic stroke.
One can summarize that during the past ten years, several large-scale studies and meta-analyses on long working hours and cardiovascular outcomes have been published. Whereas the WHO has concluded that there is sufficient evidence for harmfulness for the association between long working hours and ischemic heart disease and stroke (19–21), other studies point to possible effect modification by socioeconomic position (24, 26) with regard to ischemic heart disease and the need to distinguish between ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke (27, 28).
Shift work, night shift work and cardiovascular disease In 2018, Torquati et al (29) published a systematic review and meta-analysis that showed an increased risk of cardiovascular disease among shift workers. For those working shifts for five years, each additional five-year period of shift work was associated with a 7% increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
Night shift work has been of particular interest for cancer research (30) but might also be relevant with regard to cardiovascular diseases. In their recent review and meta-analysis, Su et al (31) reported that night shift work was associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular mortality (pooled estimate 1.15, 95% CI 1.03–1.29). However, only four studies were included in this review. In 2022, a Swedish research group published two papers on night shift work from a large sample of healthcare workers in Stockholm, one on cerebrovascular disease and the other on ischemic heart disease. Bigert et al (32) reported that frequent night shifts and frequent consecutive night shifts were associated with an increased risk of cerebrovascular disease, including stroke. Kader et al (33) reported that permanent night shifts and frequent night shifts were associated with an increased risk of ischemic heart disease. In Denmark, Vestergaard et al (34)examined the association between night shift work and ischemic heart disease in a large-cohort of healthcare workers with day-to-day payroll information. The results were less clear than those of Kader et al (33): male, but not female, healthcare workers with night work had an increased risk of ischemic heart disease compared to day-time workers. The paper by Jankowiak et al (13) in the current issue of the Journal examined night shift work and risk of cardiovascular disease in a population-based cohort in the city of Mainz and Mainz-Bingen in Germany (13). The hazard ratios for low, middle, and high night shift work were 1.19, 1.32, and 1.14, respectively, compared to no night shift work, in the most-adjusted model. An important strength of the study is the comprehensive clinical examination of the participants, both at baseline and follow-up. An important limitation is the very low number of cases in the exposure groups during the five-year follow-up. Unsurprisingly, the CI of all estimates were wide and included unity and, thus, were far away from being statistically significant. The uncertainty of the estimates do not allow firm conclusions on the results. However, the estimates from this study can be included in meta-analyses, which then may provide us with more insight on the role of night shift work on risk of cardiovascular disease.
Important challenges for future research on working time and cardiovascular disease will include better use of electronic working time registration systems that will allow a more precise measurement of exposure to long working hours and the frequency and type of shift work and night shift work (35, 36). It will also be important to conceptually clarify whether health behaviors that are hazardous to cardiovascular health – such as certain dietary patterns, lack of leisure time physical activity, or smoking – are confounders or mediators, or both, for the association between working time and cardiovascular disease. This clarification is key to correctly handling data on these health behaviors in the statistical models. Finally, examining the relations of the different working time arrangements with the contents of work conducted during these arrangements might be fruitful for a better understanding of the contribution of work to cardiovascular disease.
Conflict of interest statement Reiner Rugulies was involved in both the IPD-Work Consortium and the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury project. References 1. International Labour Organization (ILO). International Labour Standards on Working time [Website]. 2024. Available from: https://www.ilo.org/global/standards/subjects-covered-by-international-labour-standards/working-time/lang--en/index.htm. (Accessed: 26 Februar 2024). 2. Chicago Historical Society and the Trustees of Northwestern University. The dramas of Haymarket [Website]. 2000. Available from: https://www.chicagohistoryresources.org/dramas/. (Accessed: 26 February 2024). 3. Yale Law School. The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomay. The Versailles Treaty June 28, 1919: Part XIII [Website]. 2008. Available from: https://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/partxiii.asp. (Accessed: 2 March 2024). 4. International Labour Office. Official Bulletin, Volume I, April 1919 - August 1920. Chapter VI: Part XIII of the Treaty of Peace of Versailles. Geneva ILO; 1923. Available from: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---jur/documents/genericdocument/wcms_441862.pdf. (Accessed: 2 March 2024). 5. Ashton JR. The public health case for the four-day working week. J R Soc Med. 2019;112(2):81-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076819826782 6. Spencer DA. A four-day working week: its role in a politics of work. Polit Q. 2022;93(3):401-407. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.13173 7. Tsai M-C, Nitta M, Kim S-W, Wang W. Working overtime in East Asia: convergence or divergence? J Contemp Asia. 2016;46(4):700-722. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2016.1144778 8. Cheng Y, Park J, Kim Y, Kawakami N. The recognition of occupational diseases attributed to heavy workloads: experiences in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2012;85(7):791-799. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-011-0722-8 9. Hiyama T, Yoshihara M. New occupational threats to Japanese physicians: karoshi (death due to overwork) and karojisatsu (suicide due to overwork). Occup Environ Med. 2008;65(6):428-429. https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.2007.037473 10. Huang Y, Xiang Y, Zhou W, Li G, Zhao C, Zhang D, et al. Long working hours and all-cause mortality in China: A 26-year follow-up study. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2023;49(8):539-548. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.4115 11. Lee DW, Choi J, Kim HR, Myong JP, Kang MY. Differential impact of working hours on unmet medical needs by income level: a longitudinal study of Korean workers. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2022;48(2):109-117. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.3999 12. Lee W, Kang SK, Choi WJ. Effect of long work hours and shift work on high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels among Korean workers. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2021;47(3):200-207. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.3933 13. Jankowiak S, Rossnagel K, Bauer J, Schulz A, Liebers F, Latza U, et al. Night shift work and cardiovascular diseases among employees in Germany: five-year follow-up of the Gutenberg Health Study. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2024;50(3):142–151. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.4139 14. Rugulies R, Burdorf A. The achievements and challenges of occupational health research: Looking back and ahead. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2024;50(1):1-2. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.4136 15. Burdorf A, Rugulies R. Fifty years of research in the Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2024;50(1):3-10. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.4135 16. Kivimäki M, Jokela M, Nyberg ST, Singh-Manoux A, Fransson EI, Alfredsson L, et al. Long working hours and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis of published and unpublished data for 603,838 individuals. Lancet. 2015;386(10005):1739-1746. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60295-1 17. World Health Organization and International Labour Organization (WHO/ILO). Joint estimates of the work-related burden of disease and injury, 2000-2016: global monitoring report. Geneva: WHO/ILO; 2021. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/rest/bitstreams/1370920/retrieve. (Accessed: 25 March 2022). 18. World Health Organization and International Labour Organization (WHO/ILO). Joint estimates of the work-related burden of disease and injury, 2000-2016: technical report with data sources and methods. Geneva: WHO/ILO; 2021. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/rest/bitstreams/1370904/retrieve. (Accessed: 25 March 2022). 19. Li J, Pega F, Ujita Y, Brisson C, Clays E, Descatha A, et al. The effect of exposure to long working hours on ischaemic heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis from the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury. Environ Int. 2020;142:105739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105739 20. Descatha A, Sembajwe G, Pega F, Ujita Y, Baer M, Boccuni F, et al. The effect of exposure to long working hours on stroke: A systematic review and meta-analysis from the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury. Environ Int. 2020;142:105746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105746 21. Pega F, Náfrádi B, Momen NC, Ujita Y, Streicher KN, Prüss-Üstün AM, et al. Global, regional, and national burdens of ischemic heart disease and stroke attributable to exposure to long working hours for 194 countries, 2000-2016: A systematic analysis from the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury. Environ Int. 2021;154:106595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2021.106595 22. Pega F, Hamzaoui H, Nafradi B, Momen NC. Global, regional and national burden of disease attributable to 19 selected occupational risk factors for 183 countries, 2000-2016: A systematic analysis from the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2022;48(2):158-168. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.4001 23. Coggon D. Estimating population burdens of occupational disease. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2022;48(2):83-85. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.4007 24. Kivimäki M, Virtanen M, Nyberg ST, Batty GD. The WHO/ILO report on long working hours and ischaemic heart disease - Conclusions are not supported by the evidence. Environ Int. 2020;144:106048. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106048 25. Li J, Rugulies R, Morgan RL, Woodruff T, Siegrist J, WHO/ILO Working Group of Individual Experts on Long Working Hours on Ischaemic Heart Disease. Systematic review and meta-analysis on exposure to long working hours and risk of ischaemic heart disease - Conclusions are supported by the evidence. Environ Int. 2020;144:106118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106118 26. Hannerz H, Larsen AD, Garde AH. Long weekly working hours and ischaemic heart disease: a follow-up study among 145 861 randomly selected workers in Denmark. BMJ Open. 2018;8(6):e019807. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019807 27. Hannerz H, Albertsen K, Burr H, Nielsen ML, Garde AH, Larsen AD, et al. Long working hours and stroke among employees in the general workforce of Denmark. Scand J Public Health. 2018;46(3):368-374. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494817748264 28. Fadel M, Sembajwe G, Li J, Leclerc A, Pico F, Schnitzler A, et al. Association between prolonged exposure to long working hours and stroke subtypes in the CONSTANCES cohort. Occup Environ Med. 2023;80(4):196-201. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2022-108656 29. Torquati L, Mielke GI, Brown WJ, Kolbe-Alexander T. Shift work and the risk of cardiovascular disease. A systematic review and meta-analysis including dose-response relationship. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2018;44(3):229-238. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.3700 30. IARC Working Group on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans. Night shift work. Lyon, France: IARC; 2020. Available from: https://publications.iarc.fr/_publications/media/download/6397/c965a667eda3a390d9797cbcde59765fef9dcb7a.pdf. (Accessed: 29 February 2024). 31. Su F, Huang D, Wang H, Yang Z. Associations of shift work and night work with risk of all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Sleep Med. 2021;86:90-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2021.08.017 32. Bigert C, Kader M, Andersson T, Selander J, Bodin T, Gustavsson P, et al. Night and shift work and incidence of cerebrovascular disease - a prospective cohort study of healthcare employees in Stockholm. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2022;48(1):31-40. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.3986 33. Kader M, Selander J, Andersson T, Albin M, Bodin T, Harma M, et al. Night and shift work characteristics and incident ischemic heart disease and atrial fibrillation among healthcare employees - a prospective cohort study. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2022;48(7):520-529. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.4045 34. Vestergaard JM, Dalboge A, Bonde JPE, Garde AH, Hansen J, Hansen AM, et al. Night shift work characteristics and risk of incident coronary heart disease among health care workers: national cohort study. Int J Epidemiol. 2023;52(6):1853-1861. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyad126 35. Larsen AD, Nielsen HB, Kirschheiner-Rasmussen J, Hansen J, Hansen ÅM, Kolstad HA, et al. Night and evening shifts and risk of calling in sick within the next two days - a case-crossover study design based on day-to-day payroll data. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2023;49(2):117-125.https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.4074 36. Vestergaard JM, Haug JND, Dalbøge A, Bonde JPE, Garde AH, Hansen J, et al. Validity of self-reported night shift work among women with and without breast cancer. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2024;50(3):152–157. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.4142
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Affiliation(s)
- Reiner Rugulies
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment (NFA) and Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Skogstad M, Aass HCD, Sirnes PA, Mamen A, Skare Ø, Matre D, Hammer SE, Goffeng E, Lunde LK. Influence of Shift Work on Arterial Stiffness and Systemic Inflammation: A 3-Year Follow-up Study in Industry. J Occup Environ Med 2023; 65:284-291. [PMID: 36576877 PMCID: PMC10090345 DOI: 10.1097/jom.0000000000002779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess changes in cardiovascular disease risk factors during a 3-year follow-up among 57 rotating shift workers and 29 day workers in industry. METHODS We collected demographics by questionnaire, examined blood pressure, heart rate, pulse wave velocity, carotid media thickness, and maximal oxygen uptake. We assessed blood samples for determination of lipids, glycosylated hemoglobin, C-reactive protein, markers of inflammation, and particle concentrations/respirable dust. Baseline comparisons were analyzed using logistic regression (plaque) and linear regression for all other outcomes. We applied mixed models to assess differences in change in health outcomes between the shift workers and the day workers. RESULTS At baseline, the adhesion molecules soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 and soluble P-selectin were elevated among the shift workers compared with that of the day workers. There was a significant difference in change in pulse wave velocity between shift workers (1.29-m/s increase) and day workers (0.11-m/s increase) over the 3-year follow-up. Respirable dust levels were below the Norwegian occupational exposure limit. CONCLUSIONS Shift work in industry is associated with arterial stiffening reflecting increased risk for future cardiovascular disease. More uncertainly, we found some support for systemic inflammation.
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Ferguson JM, Bradshaw PT, Eisen EA, Rehkopf D, Cullen MR, Costello S. Distribution of working hour characteristics by race, age, gender, and shift schedule among U.S. manufacturing workers. Chronobiol Int 2023; 40:310-323. [PMID: 36691907 DOI: 10.1080/07420528.2023.2168200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Shift work is a common occupational exposure, however, few studies have examined aspects of shift work beyond night work and long hours, such as rotational patterns or weekend work, which may contribute to poor health through disruption of the body's circadian rhythms. In this manuscript, we calculated the prevalence of working hour characteristics using algorithms for type (e.g., day), duration, intensity, rotational direction, and social aspects (e.g., weekend work) in a nationwide cohort of American manufacturing workers (N = 23,044) between 2003 and 2014. Distributions of working hour characteristics were examined by schedules (e.g., permanent day, day/night) and demographics, and were cross-classified in a matrix to examine co-occurrence. Approximately 55% of shifts may cause circadian rhythm disruption as they were non-day shifts or day shifts with a quick return or rotation, or were 13 h or longer. Older workers, female workers, and White workers worked permanent day shifts most often, while workers of color worked more day/night schedules. Night and evening shifts had more frequent shift rotations, quick returns, and longer hours than day shifts. Yet, day shifts, which are presumed to have little negative circadian impact, may cause circadian rhythm disruption as long hours, quick returns and rotations also occurred within day shifts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline M Ferguson
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA.,Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Patrick T Bradshaw
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Ellen A Eisen
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - David Rehkopf
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Mark R Cullen
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Sadie Costello
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
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K R, S J, F L, A S, P W, N A, A S, J H, K RS, S L, M RW, M N, M BE, N P, K L, T M, A P, U L. Long working hours and risk of cardiovascular outcomes and diabetes type II: five-year follow-up of the Gutenberg Health Study (GHS). Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2022; 95:303-312. [PMID: 34767077 PMCID: PMC8755657 DOI: 10.1007/s00420-021-01786-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The aims of this study were to determine if there was an increased risk of incident cardiovascular disease (CVD) and diabetes and an increase in arterial stiffness in participants who reported working 41-54 h per week and more than 55 h compared to those who worked 40 h or less over a time interval of 5 years. METHODS In a subsample of the population-based prospective Gutenberg Health Study (GHS) study, we examined working participants younger than 65 years at baseline (n = 7241) and after 5 years. To test the association of working time at baseline and incident cardiovascular events and diabetes type II, we estimated hazard ratios (HR) using competing risks models. For a change in the arterial stiffness index (SI) based on assessment using a Pulse Trace PCA2 device, we used multivariate linear regression models. RESULTS The SI increased in those working more than 55 h per week (beta coefficiant = 0.32 m/s (95% CI 0.07-0.58) compared to those working 40 h and less after adjustment for sex, age and SES. Due to small numbers there was no significant association of working hours and clinically manifest cardiovascular events and diabetes type II in the 5-year follow-up time. CONCLUSIONS Further studies are needed to confirm the results on working hours and arterial stiffness. Analyses of the 10-year follow-up with more events may clarify the results for incident cardiovascular events and metabolic outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossnagel K
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), Nöldnerstr. 40-42, 10317, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Jankowiak S
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), Nöldnerstr. 40-42, 10317, Berlin, Germany
| | - Liebers F
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), Nöldnerstr. 40-42, 10317, Berlin, Germany
| | - Schulz A
- University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Wild P
- University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Arnold N
- University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Seidler A
- Institute and Polyclinic of Occupational and Social Medicine (IPAS), Carl Gustav Carus Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Hegewald J
- Institute and Polyclinic of Occupational and Social Medicine (IPAS), Carl Gustav Carus Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- Institute of Sociology, Faculty of Behavioral and Social Sciences, TU Chemnitz, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Romero Starke K
- Institute and Polyclinic of Occupational and Social Medicine (IPAS), Carl Gustav Carus Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- Institute of Sociology, Faculty of Behavioral and Social Sciences, TU Chemnitz, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Letzel S
- Institute of Occupational, Social, and Environmental Medicine, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Riechmann-Wolf M
- Institute of Occupational, Social, and Environmental Medicine, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Nübling M
- FFAW: The Freiburg Research Centre for Occupational Sciences, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Beut-El M
- University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Pfeiffer N
- University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Lackner K
- University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Münzel T
- University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Poplawski A
- University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Latza U
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), Nöldnerstr. 40-42, 10317, Berlin, Germany
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Ervasti J, Pentti J, Nyberg ST, Shipley MJ, Leineweber C, Sørensen JK, Alfredsson L, Bjorner JB, Borritz M, Burr H, Knutsson A, Madsen IE, Magnusson Hanson LL, Oksanen T, Pejtersen JH, Rugulies R, Suominen S, Theorell T, Westerlund H, Vahtera J, Virtanen M, Batty GD, Kivimäki M. Long working hours and risk of 50 health conditions and mortality outcomes: a multicohort study in four European countries. THE LANCET REGIONAL HEALTH. EUROPE 2021; 11:100212. [PMID: 34917998 PMCID: PMC8642716 DOI: 10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studies on the association between long working hours and health have captured only a narrow range of outcomes (mainly cardiometabolic diseases and depression) and no outcome-wide studies on this topic are available. To achieve wider scope of potential harm, we examined long working hours as a risk factor for a wide range of disease and mortality endpoints. METHODS The data of this multicohort study were from two population cohorts from Finland (primary analysis, n=59 599) and nine cohorts (replication analysis, n=44 262) from Sweden, Denmark, and the UK, all part of the Individual-participant Meta-analysis in Working Populations (IPD-Work) consortium. Baseline-assessed long working hours (≥55 hours per week) were compared to standard working hours (35-40 h). Outcome measures with follow-up until age 65 years were 46 diseases that required hospital treatment or continuous pharmacotherapy, all-cause, and three cause-specific mortality endpoints, ascertained via linkage to national health and mortality registers. FINDINGS 2747 (4·6%) participants in the primary cohorts and 3027 (6·8%) in the replication cohorts worked long hours. After adjustment for age, sex, and socioeconomic status, working long hours was associated with increased risk of cardiovascular death (hazard ratio 1·68; 95% confidence interval 1·08-2·61 in primary analysis and 1·52; 0·90-2·58 in replication analysis), infections (1·37; 1·13-1·67 and 1·45; 1·13-1·87), diabetes (1·18; 1·01-1·38 and 1·41; 0·98-2·02), injuries (1·22; 1·00-1·50 and 1·18; 0·98-1·18) and musculoskeletal disorders (1·15; 1·06-1·26 and 1·13; 1·00-1·27). Working long hours was not associated with all-cause mortality. INTERPRETATION Follow-up of 50 health outcomes in four European countries suggests that working long hours is associated with an elevated risk of early cardiovascular death and hospital-treated infections before age 65. Associations, albeit weak, were also observed with diabetes, musculoskeletal disorders and injuries. In these data working long hours was not related to elevated overall mortality. FUNDING NordForsk, the Medical Research Council, the National Institute on Aging, the Wellcome Trust, Academy of Finland, and Finnish Work Environment Fund.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenni Ervasti
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jaana Pentti
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
- Clinicum, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Public Health, University of Turku, and Population Research Centre, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Solja T. Nyberg
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
- Clinicum, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Martin J. Shipley
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Constanze Leineweber
- Stress Research Institute at the Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jeppe K. Sørensen
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lars Alfredsson
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Centre for Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Region Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jakob B. Bjorner
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Hermann Burr
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anders Knutsson
- Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall, Sweden
| | - Ida E.H. Madsen
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Tuula Oksanen
- Institute of Public Health and Clinical Nutrition, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Jan H. Pejtersen
- VIVE–The Danish Center for Social Science Research, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Reiner Rugulies
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Psychology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sakari Suominen
- Department of Public Health, University of Turku, and Population Research Centre, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
- University of Skövde, School of Health and Education, Skövde, Sweden
| | - Töres Theorell
- Stress Research Institute at the Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hugo Westerlund
- Stress Research Institute at the Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jussi Vahtera
- Department of Public Health, University of Turku, and Population Research Centre, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Marianna Virtanen
- School of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland
- Division of Insurance Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - G. David Batty
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Mika Kivimäki
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
- Clinicum, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London, London, UK
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Hannerz H, Albertsen K, Nielsen ML, Garde AH. Long working hours and psychiatric treatment: A Danish follow-up study. Scand J Work Environ Health 2020; 47:191-199. [PMID: 33200794 PMCID: PMC8126440 DOI: 10.5271/sjweh.3936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: This study aimed to estimate prospective associations between long working hours and (i) redeemed prescriptions for psychotropic drugs and (ii) psychiatric hospital treatment due to mood, anxiety or stress-related disease, among full-time employees in Denmark. Methods: Full-time employees who participated in the Danish Labor Force Survey sometime in the period 2000–2013 (N=131 321] were followed for up to five years in national registers for redeemed prescriptions for psychotropic drugs and psychiatric hospital treatment due to mood, anxiety or stress-related disease. Rate ratios (RR) were estimated for 41–48 versus 32–40 and >48 versus 32–40 working hours a week. The analyses were controlled for sex, age, night shift work, calendar time of the interview and socioeconomic status (SES). Prevalent cases were excluded in primary analyses. Results: The RR for psychotropic drugs were estimated at 0.94 [99% confidence interval (CI) 0.88–1.01] for 41–48 versus 32–40 working hours a week and 1.08 (99% CI 0.99–1.18) for >48 versus 32–40 working hours a week. The corresponding RR for psychiatric hospital treatments were estimated at 0.90 (95% CI 0.75–1.08) and 0.96 (95% CI 0.76–1.21). We did not find any statistically significant interaction between weekly working hours and age, sex, SES or night shift work. Conclusion: Long working hours as they occur in in the general working population of Denmark are not an important predictor of mental ill health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harald Hannerz
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lersø Parkallé 105, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Kivimäki M, Virtanen M, Nyberg ST, Batty GD. The WHO/ILO report on long working hours and ischaemic heart disease - Conclusions are not supported by the evidence. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 144:106048. [PMID: 33051042 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Working hours is a ubiquitous exposure given that most adults are employed, and one that is modifiable via legislative change if not always through individual-level choice. According to a recent report from the World Health Organization (WHO) and International Labour Organization (ILO), there is currently sufficient evidence to conclude that long working hours (i.e., ≥55 h per week) elevate the risk of fatal and non-fatal ischaemic heart disease to a clinically meaningful extent. After assessing the data used by the ILO/WHO, we feel that the expert group has not correctly applied their own framework for assessing the strength of the evidence. In the meta-analysis of observational studies in the report, the association between long working hours and incident heart disease appeared stronger in lower quality cohort studies with a high risk of bias (minimally-adjusted hazard ratio 1.20, 95% CI 1.01-1.41, compared to standard 35-40 weekly hours) than in the superior-quality studies with a lower risk of bias for which the estimate was not significantly different from the null (1.08, 95% CI 0.93-1.25). There was also marked effect modification, such that there was no increase in ischaemic heart disease for those working long hours in high socioeconomic status occupations, a finding also reported in analyses of a recent census-based cohort study which was not included in the report. Our meta-analysis of all these studies confirm that the findings are not consistent but differ between subgroups and that the summary age- and sex-adjusted hazard ratio for long working hours in high socioeconomic status occupations does not support excess risk: 0.85, 95% CI 0.63-1.13 (Pinteraction = 0.005, total N = 451,982). For these and other reasons detailed in this commentary, we advance a more cautious interpretation of the existing evidence. The conclusions should be restricted to low socioeconomic status occupations only and more research is still needed to confirm or refute harmfulness and determine clinical relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mika Kivimäki
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London, 1-19 Torrington Place, WC1E 6BT London, UK; Clinicum, Faculty of Medicine, Tukholmankatu 8 B 22, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Marianna Virtanen
- School of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonkatu 7, 80101 Joensuu, Finland
| | - Solja T Nyberg
- Clinicum, Faculty of Medicine, Tukholmankatu 8 B 22, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - G David Batty
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London, 1-19 Torrington Place, WC1E 6BT London, UK
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Li J, Pega F, Ujita Y, Brisson C, Clays E, Descatha A, Ferrario MM, Godderis L, Iavicoli S, Landsbergis PA, Metzendorf MI, Morgan RL, Pachito DV, Pikhart H, Richter B, Roncaioli M, Rugulies R, Schnall PL, Sembajwe G, Trudel X, Tsutsumi A, Woodruff TJ, Siegrist J. The effect of exposure to long working hours on ischaemic heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis from the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 142:105739. [PMID: 32505014 PMCID: PMC7339147 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Labour Organization (ILO) are developing Joint Estimates of the work-related burden of disease and injury (WHO/ILO Joint Estimates), with contributions from a large network of experts. Evidence from mechanistic data suggests that exposure to long working hours may cause ischaemic heart disease (IHD). In this paper, we present a systematic review and meta-analysis of parameters for estimating the number of deaths and disability-adjusted life years from IHD that are attributable to exposure to long working hours, for the development of the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates. OBJECTIVES We aimed to systematically review and meta-analyse estimates of the effect of exposure to long working hours (three categories: 41-48, 49-54 and ≥55 h/week), compared with exposure to standard working hours (35-40 h/week), on IHD (three outcomes: prevalence, incidence and mortality). DATA SOURCES We developed and published a protocol, applying the Navigation Guide as an organizing systematic review framework where feasible. We searched electronic databases for potentially relevant records from published and unpublished studies, including MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, CISDOC, PsycINFO, and WHO ICTRP. We also searched grey literature databases, Internet search engines and organizational websites; hand-searched reference lists of previous systematic reviews; and consulted additional experts. STUDY ELIGIBILITY AND CRITERIA We included working-age (≥15 years) workers in the formal and informal economy in any WHO and/or ILO Member State but excluded children (aged < 15 years) and unpaid domestic workers. We included randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, case-control studies and other non-randomized intervention studies which contained an estimate of the effect of exposure to long working hours (41-48, 49-54 and ≥55 h/week), compared with exposure to standard working hours (35-40 h/week), on IHD (prevalence, incidence or mortality). STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS At least two review authors independently screened titles and abstracts against the eligibility criteria at a first stage and full texts of potentially eligible records at a second stage, followed by extraction of data from qualifying studies. Missing data were requested from principal study authors. We combined relative risks using random-effect meta-analysis. Two or more review authors assessed the risk of bias, quality of evidence and strength of evidence, using Navigation Guide and GRADE tools and approaches adapted to this project. RESULTS Thirty-seven studies (26 prospective cohort studies and 11 case-control studies) met the inclusion criteria, comprising a total of 768,751 participants (310,954 females) in 13 countries in three WHO regions (Americas, Europe and Western Pacific). The exposure was measured using self-reports in all studies, and the outcome was assessed with administrative health records (30 studies) or self-reported physician diagnosis (7 studies). The outcome was defined as incident non-fatal IHD event in 19 studies (8 cohort studies, 11 case-control studies), incident fatal IHD event in two studies (both cohort studies), and incident non-fatal or fatal ("mixed") event in 16 studies (all cohort studies). Because we judged cohort studies to have a relatively lower risk of bias, we prioritized evidence from these studies and treated evidence from case-control studies as supporting evidence. For the bodies of evidence for both outcomes with any eligible studies (i.e. IHD incidence and mortality), we did not have serious concerns for risk of bias (at least for the cohort studies). No eligible study was found on the effect of long working hours on IHD prevalence. Compared with working 35-40 h/week, we are uncertain about the effect on acquiring (or incidence of) IHD of working 41-48 h/week (relative risk (RR) 0.98, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.91 to 1.07, 20 studies, 312,209 participants, I2 0%, low quality of evidence) and 49-54 h/week (RR 1.05, 95% CI 0.94 to 1.17, 18 studies, 308,405 participants, I2 0%, low quality of evidence). Compared with working 35-40 h/week, working ≥55 h/week may have led to a moderately, clinically meaningful increase in the risk of acquiring IHD, when followed up between one year and 20 years (RR 1.13, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.26, 22 studies, 339,680 participants, I2 5%, moderate quality of evidence). Compared with working 35-40 h/week, we are very uncertain about the effect on dying (mortality) from IHD of working 41-48 h/week (RR 0.99, 95% CI 0.88 to 1.12, 13 studies, 288,278 participants, I2 8%, low quality of evidence) and 49-54 h/week (RR 1.01, 95% CI 0.82 to 1.25, 11 studies, 284,474 participants, I2 13%, low quality of evidence). Compared with working 35-40 h/week, working ≥55 h/week may have led to a moderate, clinically meaningful increase in the risk of dying from IHD when followed up between eight and 30 years (RR 1.17, 95% CI 1.05 to 1.31, 16 studies, 726,803 participants, I2 0%, moderate quality of evidence). Subgroup analyses found no evidence for differences by WHO region and sex, but RRs were higher among persons with lower SES. Sensitivity analyses found no differences by outcome definition (exclusively non-fatal or fatal versus "mixed"), outcome measurement (health records versus self-reports) and risk of bias ("high"/"probably high" ratings in any domain versus "low"/"probably low" in all domains). CONCLUSIONS We judged the existing bodies of evidence for human evidence as "inadequate evidence for harmfulness" for the exposure categories 41-48 and 49-54 h/week for IHD prevalence, incidence and mortality, and for the exposure category ≥55 h/week for IHD prevalence. Evidence on exposure to working ≥55 h/week was judged as "sufficient evidence of harmfulness" for IHD incidence and mortality. Producing estimates for the burden of IHD attributable to exposure to working ≥55 h/week appears evidence-based, and the pooled effect estimates presented in this systematic review could be used as input data for the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Li
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Fielding School of Public Health, School of Nursing, University of California, Los Angeles, United States.
| | - Frank Pega
- Environment, Climate Change and Health Department, World Health Organization, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland.
| | - Yuka Ujita
- Labour Administration, Labour Inspection and Occupational Safety and Health Branch, International Labour Organization, Route des Morillons 4, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Chantal Brisson
- Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, 1050 Chemin Ste-Foy, Quebec City G1S 4L8, Quebec, Canada.
| | - Els Clays
- Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Ghent University, Campus University Hospital Ghent (4K3 - entrance 42), 4K3, Corneel Heymanslaan 10, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Alexis Descatha
- AP-HP (Paris Hospital), Occupational Health Unit, Poincaré University Hospital, Garches, France; Inserm Versailles St-Quentin Univ - Paris Saclay Univ (UVSQ), UMS 011, UMR-S 1168, Villejuif, France; Univ Angers, CHU Angers, Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail) - UMR_S 1085, F-49000 Angers, France.
| | - Marco M Ferrario
- Research Centre EPIMED, University of Insubria, Via O Rossi 9, 21100 Varese, Italy.
| | - Lode Godderis
- Centre for Environment and Health, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; KIR Department (Knowledge, Information & Research), IDEWE, External Service for Prevention and Protection at Work, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Sergio Iavicoli
- Inail, Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Epidemiology and Hygiene, Via Fontana Candida 1, 00078 Monte Porzio Catone (Rome), Italy.
| | - Paul A Landsbergis
- SUNY-Downstate Health Sciences University, School of Public Health, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, NY 11238, United States.
| | - Maria-Inti Metzendorf
- Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group, Institute of General Practice, Medical Faculty of the Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Rebecca L Morgan
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence, and Impact, McMaster University, Health Sciences Centre, Hamilton, Canada.
| | - Daniela V Pachito
- Hospital Sírio-Libanês and Disciplina de Economia e Gestão em Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, 412 Barata Ribeiro, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Hynek Pikhart
- Institute of Epidemiology and Health Care, University College London, 1-19 Torrington Place, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom.
| | - Bernd Richter
- Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group, Institute of General Practice, Medical Faculty of the Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Mattia Roncaioli
- Research Centre EPIMED, University of Insubria, Via O Rossi 9, 21100 Varese, Italy.
| | - Reiner Rugulies
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lersø Parkallé 105, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5, DK-1014 Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Psychology, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 2A, DK-1353 Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Peter L Schnall
- Center for Occupational and Environmental Health, University of California-Irvine, 100 Theory Way, Irvine, CA, United States.
| | - Grace Sembajwe
- Department of Occupational Medicine, Epidemiology and Prevention (OMEP), Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra University, 175 Community Drive, NY 11021, United States; Department of Environmental, Occupational, and Geospatial Health Sciences, CUNY Graduate School of Public Health and Health Policy, 55 W 125th Street, New York, NY 10027, United States.
| | - Xavier Trudel
- Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, 1050 Chemin Ste-Foy, Quebec City G1S 4L8, Quebec, Canada.
| | - Akizumi Tsutsumi
- Department of Public Health, School of Medicine, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami, Sagamihara 252-0374, Japan.
| | - Tracey J Woodruff
- Program on Reproductive Health and the Environment, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.
| | - Johannes Siegrist
- Life Science Centre, University of Düsseldorf, Merowingerplatz 1a, Düsseldorf 40225, Germany.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ronald O Rieder
- Columbia College of Physician and Surgeons Icahn School of Medicine of Mount Sinai New York NY
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10
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Hannerz H, Albertsen K, Nielsen ML, Garde AH. Prospective Associations Between Working Time Arrangements and Psychiatric Treatment in Denmark: Protocol for a Cohort Study. JMIR Res Protoc 2020; 9:e18236. [PMID: 32442158 PMCID: PMC7351261 DOI: 10.2196/18236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The burden of mental ill health in working-age populations has prompted research on possible links between work-related factors and mental ill health. Long working hours and night shift work are some of the factors that have been studied in relation to the risk of developing mental ill health. Yet, previous studies have not generated conclusive evidence, and further studies of high quality are needed. OBJECTIVE This study aims to investigate the prospective association between working time arrangements and mental health in terms of psychotropic drug usage or psychiatric hospital treatment in the general working population of Denmark. METHODS Data on total weekly working hours in any job and night shift work from the Danish Labor Force Survey 2000-2013 will be linked to data from the Psychiatric Central Research Register (expected 2400 cases during 700,000 person years at risk) and National Prescription Registry (expected 17,400 cases during 600,000 person years at risk). Participants will be followed for up to 5 years. We will use Poisson regression to separately analyze incidence rates of redeemed prescriptions for psychotropic medicine and incidence rates of psychiatric hospital treatment due to mood disorders, anxiety disorders, or stress-related disorders as a function of weekly working hours and night shift work. The analyses will be controlled for sex, age, calendar time of the interview, and socioeconomic status. RESULTS This is a study protocol. Power calculations indicate that the study has sufficient statistical power to detect relatively small differences in risks and minor interactions (eg, ~90% power to detect a rate ratio of 1.1 for psychoactive medication use). We expect the analyses to be completed by the end of 2020 and the results to be published in 2021. CONCLUSIONS In this study protocol, all hypotheses and statistical models of the project have been completely defined before we link the exposure data to the outcome data. The results of the project will indicate to what extent and in what direction the national burden of mental ill health in Denmark has been influenced by long working hours and night shift work. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID) DERR1-10.2196/18236.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harald Hannerz
- The National Research Center for the Working Environment, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | | | - Anne Helene Garde
- The National Research Center for the Working Environment, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Fadel M, Li J, Sembajwe G, Gagliardi D, Pico F, Ozguler A, Evanoff BA, Baer M, Tsutsumi A, Iavicoli S, Leclerc A, Roquelaure Y, Siegrist J, Descatha A. Cumulative Exposure to Long Working Hours and Occurrence of Ischemic Heart Disease: Evidence From the CONSTANCES Cohort at Inception. J Am Heart Assoc 2020; 9:e015753. [PMID: 32476603 PMCID: PMC7429044 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.119.015753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Background Long‐working hours (LWH) are a probable risk factor for ischemic heart diseases (IHD); however, no previous study has considered duration of exposure to LWH when addressing this topic. We aimed to determine the association between cumulative exposure to LWH and IHD while accounting for relevant confounders. Methods and Results In this retrospective study, we included all baseline participants from the French population‐based cohort CONSTANCES. Part‐time employees and those who reported a cardiac event in the 5 years before LWH exposure were excluded. From self‐administered questionnaires and clinical examinations, we obtained participants’ age, sex, body mass index, occupational status, smoking habits, high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, familial history of cardiovascular disease, dyslipidemia, exposure to LWH, and its duration. We defined LWH as working for >10 hours daily for at least 50 days per year. The main outcome was reported history of IHD, ie, myocardial infarction or angina pectoris, during a clinical examination. Of 137 854 included participants, 69 774 were men. There were 1875 cases (1.36%) of IHD, and exposure to LWH was reported by 42 462 subjects (30.8%) among whom 14 474 (10.50%) reported exposure for at least 10 years. Overall, exposure to LWH for ≥10 years was associated with an increased risk of IHD, adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 1.24 (1.08–1.43), P=0.0021. In stratified analyses, this effect was not observed in women, but was significant amongst men, aOR 1.28 (1.11–1.48), P=0.0008. Conclusions This large population‐based study supports an association between cumulative exposure to LWH and IHD in men. Future research should consider relevant strategies for reducing LWH exposure and duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Fadel
- INSERM UMS 011 UMR-S 1168 Villejuif France.,AP-HP UVSQ OHU EM92 (Samu92) CHU Poincaré Garches France
| | - Jian Li
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences Fielding School of Public Health School of Nursing University of California Los Angeles CA
| | - Grace Sembajwe
- Department of Occupational Medicine, Epidemiology and Prevention Northwell Health New York NY
| | - Diana Gagliardi
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Epidemiology and Hygiene Inail Rome Italy
| | - Fernando Pico
- Neurology and Stroke Unit Versailles Mignot Hospital Le Chesnay France.,Versailles Saint Quentin en Yvelines/Paris Saclay Univ Versailles France
| | - Anna Ozguler
- INSERM UMS 011 UMR-S 1168 Villejuif France.,AP-HP UVSQ OHU EM92 (Samu92) CHU Poincaré Garches France
| | | | - Michel Baer
- AP-HP UVSQ OHU EM92 (Samu92) CHU Poincaré Garches France
| | | | - Sergio Iavicoli
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Epidemiology and Hygiene Inail Rome Italy
| | | | - Yves Roquelaure
- UMR_S 1085 Irset EHESP, INSERM Univ Rennes CHU Angers Univ Angers France
| | - Johannes Siegrist
- Senior Professorship on Work Stress Research Centre for Health and Society Faculty of Medicine University of Düsseldorf Germany
| | - Alexis Descatha
- INSERM UMS 011 UMR-S 1168 Villejuif France.,UMR_S 1085 Irset EHESP, INSERM Univ Rennes CHU Angers Univ Angers France.,AP-HP UVSQ OHU EM92 (Samu92) CHU Poincaré Garches France
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12
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Alicandro G, Bertuccio P, Sebastiani G, La Vecchia C, Frova L. Long working hours and cardiovascular mortality: a census-based cohort study. Int J Public Health 2020; 65:257-266. [PMID: 32303771 DOI: 10.1007/s00038-020-01361-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Long working hours have been associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality. However, results are inconsistent and large cohort studies are needed to confirm these findings. METHODS We conducted a census-based cohort study including 11,903,540 Italian workers aged 20-64 years, registered in the 2011 census, with a 5-year follow-up (2012-2016). We estimated cause-specific hazard ratios (cHRs) through Cox regression models to quantify the association between long working hours and CVD mortality. RESULTS Over 5 years of follow-up, 17,206 individuals died from CVD (15,262 men and 1944 women). Men working 55 or more hours per week had a cHR of 0.95 (95% confidence interval, CI 0.89-1.02) for all CVDs, while women showed a cHR of 1.19 (95% CI 0.95-1.49). Professional women working more than 55 h per week had a cHR of 1.98 (95% CI 0.87-4.52). CONCLUSIONS This study does not support an association between long working hours and CVD mortality among active Italian men, while it suggests a possible excess risk among women, although based on limited number of events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianfranco Alicandro
- Directorate for Social Statistics and Population Census, National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT), Viale Liegi 13, 00198, Rome, Italy.
| | - Paola Bertuccio
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences L.Sacco, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Gabriella Sebastiani
- Directorate for Social Statistics and Population Census, National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT), Viale Liegi 13, 00198, Rome, Italy
| | - Carlo La Vecchia
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Luisa Frova
- Directorate for Social Statistics and Population Census, National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT), Viale Liegi 13, 00198, Rome, Italy
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13
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Garde AH, Harris A, Vedaa Ø, Bjorvatn B, Hansen J, Hansen ÅM, Kolstad HA, Koskinen A, Pallesen S, Ropponen A, Härmä MI. Working hour characteristics and schedules among nurses in three Nordic countries - a comparative study using payroll data. BMC Nurs 2019; 18:12. [PMID: 30962763 PMCID: PMC6438001 DOI: 10.1186/s12912-019-0332-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Organisation of working hour schedules in the Northern European countries are rather similar. EU countries are obliged to adopt national legislation regarding duration of weekly working hours and rest periods. Yet, working hour characteristics and schedules are likely to differ with respect to starting times and duration depending e.g. on culture and tradition. Yet, very little is known about potential differences between shifts and schedules across countries among nursing personel. This knowledge is relevant, since the potential differences in working hour characteristics may influence and possibly explain some of the differences observed in studies of health and safety.The aim of the study was to compare characteristics of working hours and work schedules among nursing personel in three Nordic countries: Denmark, Finland and Norway. Methods The study populations included nursing personnel holding a ≥ 50% position at public hospitals in Denmark (n = 63,678), Finland (n = 18,257) or Norway (n = 1538) in 2013. Objective payroll based registry data with information on daily starting and ending times were used to compare working hour characteristics e.g. starting time, duration of shift, and quick returns (< 11 h between two shifts), as well as work schedules e.g. permanent or 3-shift work between the three countries. Results Night shifts generally started earlier and lasted longer in Finland (10-11 h starting at 20:00-22:59) than in Norway (10 h starting at 21:00-21:59) and in Denmark (8 h starting at 23:00-23:59). Very long shifts (≥12 h) were more common in Denmark (12%) compared to Finland (8%) and Norway (3%). More employees had many (> 13/year) quick returns in Norway (64%) and Finland (47%) compared to Denmark (16%). The frequency of 3-shift rotation workers was highest in Norway (41%) and lower in Denmark (22%) and Finland (22%). There were few differences across the countries in terms of early morning shifts and (very) long weekly working hours. Conclusion Despite similar distribution of operational hours among nurses in the three countries, there were differences in working hour characteristics and the use of different types of work schedules. The observed differences may affect health and safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Helene Garde
- The National Research Center for the Working Environment, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.,2Department of Public Health, Copenhagen University, DK-1014 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anette Harris
- 3Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, N-5020 Bergen, Norway
| | - Øystein Vedaa
- 3Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, N-5020 Bergen, Norway
| | - Bjørn Bjorvatn
- 4Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, N-5018 Bergen, Norway
| | - Johnni Hansen
- 5Danish Cancer Society Research Center, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Åse Marie Hansen
- The National Research Center for the Working Environment, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.,2Department of Public Health, Copenhagen University, DK-1014 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Henrik A Kolstad
- 6Danish Ramazzini Centre, Department of Occupational Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, DK-8200 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Aki Koskinen
- Finnish Institute of Occupation Health, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ståle Pallesen
- 3Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, N-5020 Bergen, Norway
| | - Annina Ropponen
- Finnish Institute of Occupation Health, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mikko I Härmä
- Finnish Institute of Occupation Health, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland
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14
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Takahashi M. Sociomedical problems of overwork-related deaths and disorders in Japan. J Occup Health 2019; 61:269-277. [PMID: 30977205 PMCID: PMC6620752 DOI: 10.1002/1348-9585.12016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2018] [Revised: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases (CCVDs) and mental disorders, including suicide, are prevalent among overworked individuals in Japan. The 2014 legislation regarding the prevention of overwork‐related deaths and disorders has accelerated the research in this field and ultimately the implementation of preventive actions. Methods To understand the current problematic situations, the Research Center for Overwork‐Related Disorders of the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Japan, conducted analyses of compensated claims for overwork‐related CCVDs and mental disorders that were recognized from January 2010 to March 2015. Results The majority of CCVD cases were the men in their 50s. Transport and postal activities was the highest risk industry. Cerebrovascular cases were higher than cardiovascular ones. Long working hours was the principal factor for CCVDs. The mental disorder cases comprised approximately 70% men and affected younger age groups (peak in the third decade) with various industries at risk. In men, there was an almost equal number of F3 (Mood [affective] disorders) and F4 (Neurotic, stress‐related, and somatoform disorders) diagnoses according to the 10th revision of the International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. A larger number of women were diagnosed to have F4. The mental disorder cases were associated not only with long working hours, but also with injuries and disasters as well as interpersonal conflict at work. Conclusions Multiple, simultaneous actions need to be made by employees, employers, researchers, and the authorities to achieve the goal of reducing the number of workers suffering from the overwork‐related CCVDs and mental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaya Takahashi
- National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, Japan
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15
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Abstract
Purpose of Review To summarize the evidence on the relationship between long working hours and cardiovascular disease, such as coronary heart disease and stroke. Recent Findings Large-scale meta-analyses with published and individual participant observational data on more than 740,000 men and women free of cardiovascular disease report a link between long working hours (≥ 55 h a week) and the onset of cardiovascular events. Our meta-analytic update of summary evidence suggests a 1.12-fold (95% CI 1.03–1.21) increased risk associated with coronary heart disease and a 1.21-fold (95% CI 1.01–1.45) increased risk of stroke, although the evidence is somewhat inconsistent and the possibility of residual confounding and bias cannot be ruled out. Few studies have examined the mechanisms which may be stress-related, behavioral, or biological. The recent pooled analyses suggest that increased cardiac electric instability and hypercoagulability might play a role. Summary The evidence that long working hours are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease is accumulating and suggests a small risk. Studies on the effects of long working hours in high-risk populations and those with pre-existing cardiovascular disease, mechanistic research, and intervention studies are needed to advance this research field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianna Virtanen
- Department of Public Health and Caring Sciences, Uppsala University, Box 564, 751 22, Uppsala, Sweden. .,Stress Research Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Mika Kivimäki
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London, 1-19 Torrington Place, London, WC1E 7 HB, UK.,Department of Public Health, Clinicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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