Childhood and adolescence risk factors and development of depressive symptoms: the 32-year prospective Young Finns follow-up study

Polygenic risk for depression predicting temperament trajectories over 15 years - A general population study

BACKGROUND

A great number of case-control and population-based studies have shown that depression patients differ from healthy controls in their temperament traits. We investigated whether polygenic risk for depression predicts trajectories of temperament traits from early adulthood to middle age.

METHODS

Participants came from the population-based Young Finns Study (n = 2212). The calculation for Polygenic risk for depression (PRS) was based on the most recent genome-wide association study. Temperament traits of Harm Avoidance, Novelty Seeking, Reward Dependence, and Persistence were assessed with the Temperament and Character Inventory in 1997, 2001, 2007, and 2012 (participants being 24-50-year-olds). As covariates, we used depressive symptoms as assessed by a modified version of the Beck Depression Inventory, psychosocial family environment from parent-filled questionnaires, and socioeconomic factors from adulthood.

RESULTS

High PRS predicted higher Persistence from early adulthood to middle age (p = 0.003) when controlling for depressive symptoms, psychosocial family environment, and socioeconomic factors. PRS did not predict trajectories of Novelty Seeking (p = 0.063-0.416 in different models) or Reward Dependence (p = 0.531-0.736). The results remained unaffected when participants with diagnosed affective disorders were excluded. Additionally, we found an interaction between PRS and depressive symptoms when predicting the Harm Avoidance subscale Anticipatory Worry, indicating that the association of Anticipatory Worry with depressive symptoms is stronger in individuals with higher (vs. lower) PRS.

LIMITATIONS

There was some attrition due to the long follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

High polygenic risk for major depression may predict differences in temperament trajectories among those who have not developed any severe affective disorders.

Adverse Childhood Experiences and Depression among Homeless Young Adults: A Social Determinants of Health Perspective

Homelessness is a pervasive issue in the United States that presents significant challenges to public health. Homeless young adults (HYAs) are at particular risk for increased incidence and severity of depression. Using primary survey data (n = 205) collected in the Phoenix Metropolitan Area, Arizona, from June to August 2022, this study aims to examine the relationship between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and depression among HYAs. We adopted the ACEs 10-item scale to measure childhood traumatic experiences, whereas depression was measured by using a PHQ-4 depression scale and diagnosed depression. Regression models were conducted to test the relationships between ACEs and depression outcomes while controlling for the covariates at the individual, interpersonal, and socioeconomic/living environment levels. The average PHQ-4 score was 5.01 (SD = 3.59), and 59.69% of HYAs reported being diagnosed previously with depression. The mean ACEs score was 5.22 out of 10. Other things being equal, for every one unit increase in ACEs scores, the odds of being diagnosed with depression increased by 11.5%, yet it was not statistically significant, while the PHQ-4 score increased by 0.445 (p < 0.001). Overall, HYAs were disproportionately affected by depression. This study elucidates the complex relationship between ACEs and depression among HYAs.

Childhood family environment predicting psychotic disorders over a 37-year follow-up - A general population cohort study

BACKGROUND

Childhood adverse effects and traumatic experiences increase the risk for several psychiatric disorders. We now investigated whether prospectively assessed childhood family environment per se contributes to increased risk for psychotic disorders in adulthood, and whether these family patterns are also relevant in the development of affective disorders.

METHODS

We used the Young Finns Data (n = 3502). Childhood family environment was assessed in 1980/1983 with previously constructed risk scores: (1) disadvantageous emotional family atmosphere (parenting practices, parents' life satisfaction, parents' mental disorder, parents' alcohol intoxication), (2) adverse socioeconomic environment (overcrowded apartment, home income, parent's employment, occupational status, educational level), and (3) stress-prone life events (home movement, school change, parental divorce, death, or hospitalization, and child's hospitalization). Psychiatric diagnoses (ICD-10 classification) over the lifespan were collected up to 2017 from the national registry of hospital care. Non-affective psychotic disorder and affective disorder groups were formed.

RESULTS

Frequent stress-prone life events predicted higher likelihood of non-affective psychotic disorders (OR = 2.401, p = 0.001). Adverse socioeconomic environment or emotional family atmosphere did not predict psychotic disorders. Only disadvantageous emotional family atmosphere predicted modestly higher likelihood of affective disorders (OR = 1.583, p = 0.013).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that childhood family environment and atmosphere patterns as such contribute to the risk for developing adulthood mental disorders with relative disorder specificity. The results emphasize the importance of both individual and public health preventive initiatives, including family support interventions.

Cumulative Neighborhood Risk and Subsequent Internalizing Behavior among Asian American Adolescents

Neighborhood disadvantage is a developmental context that may contribute to Asian American adolescent internalizing problems, yet there is a dearth of longitudinal studies as well as examination of cultural protective factors. Co-ethnic density, or the proportion of individuals of the same racial/ethnic background in the neighborhood that is often cited as a protective factor for racial/ethnic minority groups, has not been adequately examined in Asian American youth. This study examined the longitudinal association between cumulative neighborhood risk and internalizing behavior, and the moderating role of sex and co-ethnic density using an Asian American subsample (N = 177; 45.2% female; ages 10-12, 14-15; Cambodian, Chinese, Filipino, Hmong, Japanese, Korean, Laotian, Samoan, Vietnamese, and other ethnic backgrounds) of a longitudinal panel study over a span of 6 years. Cumulative neighborhood risk during early adolescence (ages 10-14) was significantly associated with internalizing behavior at mid-adolescence (age 15) controlling for prior levels of internalizing behavior. There was no evidence of moderation by co-ethnic density or sex, indicating that reducing neighborhood disadvantage may be a promising preventive measure to address mental health problems for both sexes of Asian American adolescents.

Vitamin D level in relation to depression symptoms during adolescence

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to investigate the association between 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) and depression symptoms among adolescents in Kuwait, a country with a high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency.

METHODS

A school based cross-sectional study was conducted on randomly selected 704 adolescents in middle schools. Data on depression symptoms were collected using the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI). Data on covariates were collected from the parents by self-administered questionnaire and from adolescents by face-to-face interview. Blood samples were analyzed in an accredited laboratory; and 25(OH)D was measured using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Of 704 adolescents, 94 (13.35%; 95%CI:10.35-17.06%) had depression symptom (a score of 19 or more on the CDI). There was no significant difference in the median CDI score between different vitamin D status (p = 0.366). There was also no significant correlation between serum 25(OH)D concentration and CDI score (Spearman's rank correlation = 0.01; p = 0.825).There was no significant association between 25(OH)D and depression symptoms whether 25(OH)D was fitted as a continuous variable (crude odds ratio (OR) 0 .99 [95%CI: 0.98, 1.01], p = 0.458 and adjusted OR 1.01 [95%CI: 0.99, 1.02], p = 0.233), categorical variable as per acceptable cut-of points (crude analysis p = 0.376 and adjusted analysis p = 0.736), or categorical variable as quartiles (crude analysis p = 0.760 and adjusted analysis p = 0.549).

CONCLUSION

Vitamin D status does not seem to be associated with depression symptoms among adolescents in our setting. Nevertheless, it is important to have sufficient vitamin D levels during adolescence for several other health benefits.

Risk factors for development of long-term mood and anxiety disorder after pediatric traumatic brain injury: a population-based, birth cohort analysis

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to identify characteristics associated with an increased risk of anxiety and mood disorder prior to 25 years of age, in children who sustained a traumatic brain injury (TBI) prior to age 10.

METHODS

This population-based study identified 562 TBI cases from a 1976-1982 birth cohort in Olmsted County, Minnesota. TBI cases were manually confirmed and classified by injury severity. Separate Cox proportional hazards regression models were fit to estimate the association of TBI and secondary non-TBI related characteristics with the risk of a subsequent clinically determined anxiety or mood disorder. Multivariable-adjusted population attributable risk (PAR) estimates were calculated for TBI characteristics.

RESULTS

Older age at initial TBI and extracranial injury at time of initial TBI were significantly associated with an increased risk of anxiety (adjusted HR [95% CI]: 1.33 [1.16, 1.52] per 1-year increase and 2.41 [1.26, 4.59]), respectively. Older age at initial TBI was significantly associated with an increased risk of a mood disorder (adjusted HR 1.17 [1.08-1.27]).

CONCLUSION

In individuals sustaining a TBI prior to age 10, age at injury greater than 5 years old was the largest contributor to development of a mood or anxiety disorder.

Early childhood psychosocial family risks and cumulative dopaminergic sensitizing score: Links to behavior problems in U.S. 9-year-olds

BACKGROUND

We examined, (a) whether in early childhood exposure to risky family environment in different domains (socioeconomic, mental, parenting practices, health behavior, and child-related risks) and accumulatively across various domains (cumulative risk) is associated with child's problem behavior at age 9, and (b) whether the association is more pronounced in children carrying cumulative dopaminergic sensitizing genotype or living in low-income families.

METHODS

Participants were 2,860 9-year old children (48% females; 48% Black) and their mothers from the 'Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study', a probability birth cohort from large U.S. cities. Mothers responded to questions on child's problem behavior (CBCL). Children responded to questions about their vandalism and substance use.

RESULTS

Cumulative family risk was associated with higher internalizing and externalizing behavior and higher vandalism and substance use. All domain-specific risk clusters were associated with higher internalizing behavior and, with the exception of child-related risk, with higher externalizing behavior. Mental health risks, risky parenting practices, and risky health behavior were associated with higher vandalism. Risky parenting practices were associated with higher substance use. The associations were robust to adjustment for cumulative dopaminergic sensitizing genotype. No G x E interactions with dopaminergic genotype and family SES were observed.

LIMITATIONS

Sample size was relatively small for genetic analysis and polygenic risk scores were not available.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to cumulative psychosocial family risks from early childhood is associated with early indicators of problem behavior in adolescence.

Youth diet quality and hazard of mood disorder in adolescence and adulthood among an Australian cohort

BACKGROUND

Prospective studies on youth diet and mood disorders outcomes are limited. We examined if youth diet quality was associated with mood disorder onset over a 25-year follow-up period.

METHODS

In 1985, Australian participants (aged 10-15 years) completed a 24-hour food record. A validated 100-point Dietary Guidelines Index (DGI) assessed diet quality. In 2009-11, 1005 participants (aged 33-41 years) completed the lifetime Composite International Diagnostic Interview for age of first DSM-IV defined mood disorder (depression or dysthymia). Cox proportional hazards regression estimated hazard of mood disorder during the 25-year follow-up according to baseline DGI score. Sensitivity analyses censored the study at 5, 10, and 15 years after baseline and used log binomial regression to estimate relative risk (RR). Covariates included baseline negative affect, BMI, academic performance, smoking, breakfast eating, physical activity, and socioeconomic status.

RESULTS

The mean(SD) youth DGI score was 45.0(11.5). A 10-point higher DGI was not associated with hazard of mood disorder onset over the 25-year follow-up (Hazard Ratio (HR):1.00; 95% Confidence Interval (CI):0.89-1.13). The only indication that higher DGI might be associated with lower risk of mood disorder was within the first 5 years after baseline and this was not statistically significant (RR=0.85; 95% CI:0.60-1.18).

LIMITATIONS

Loss-to-follow-up. A single 24-hour food record may not represent usual diet.

CONCLUSION

Youth diet did not predict mood disorders in adulthood. The suggestions of a lower risk of mood disorder during late adolescence highlights that further prospective studies are needed.

The Contribution of Neighborhood Socioeconomic Disadvantage to Depressive Symptoms Over the Course of Adult Life: A 32-Year Prospective Cohort Study

The association between socioeconomic disadvantage and increased risk of depressive symptoms in adulthood is well established. We tested 1) the contribution of early exposure to neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage to later depressive symptoms throughout life, 2) the persistence of the potential association between early exposure and depressive symptoms, and 3) the contributions of other known risk factors to the association. Data were collected from the Young Finns Study, a prospective, population-based 32-year follow-up study that included participants aged 3-18 years at baseline in 1980. Participants were followed up with repeated measurements of depressive symptoms between 1992 and 2012 (n = 2,788) and linked to national grid data on neighborhood disadvantage via residential addresses. We examined the associations in mixed models separately for the 5-, 10-, 15-, and 20-year follow-ups. Living in a disadvantaged neighborhood during childhood and adolescence was associated with a higher level of depressive symptoms in adulthood during all follow-up periods (β = 0.07, P = 0.001) than living in a nondisadvantaged area. Individual adulthood socioeconomic status mediated the associations. These findings suggest that living in a socioeconomically disadvantaged area during childhood and adolescence has a long-lasting negative association with mental health irrespective of family-related risks, partially due to socioeconomic adversity later in life.

Influences of childhood family factors on depressive symptoms in adolescence and early adulthood: A Danish longitudinal study

Aims: The study examined the timing of family socio-economic factors during early (aged 0-8 years) and late (aged 9-14 years) childhood, as well as psychosocial variables in relation to depressive symptoms at the ages of 15, 18 and 21. Methods: This prospective cohort study included 3014 young people from western Denmark. Exposure variables were equivalised household income (income), mother's educational level and mother's labour market participation (LMP), derived from registers and self-reported variables family functioning, subjective social status and negative life events. The outcome variable was depressive symptoms. Associations were analysed using logistic regression, adjusted for other exposure variables and sex. Results: In early childhood, mother's low LMP was associated with higher risk of depressive symptoms at the age of 15, whereas mother's low educational level and lower income was associated with higher risk of depressive symptoms at the age of 21. In late childhood, lower income, mother's low educational level and mother's low LMP was associated with higher risk of depressive symptoms at the ages of 15 and 21. Poorer family functioning was associated with depressive symptoms at the age of 15-21, with estimates ranging from 1.8 to 2.6. Reporting two or more negative life events were associated with depressive symptoms at the ages of 15 and 18. Conclusions: Timing of low income, mother's low educational level and mother's low LMP during childhood in relation to future depressive symptoms in the offspring appears to be of some importance in this Danish youth cohort. Family functioning and negative life events were the most stable risk factors for depressive symptoms. Results should, however, be interpreted with caution due to the risk of reverse causality.

Association Between Parental Income During Childhood and Risk of Schizophrenia Later in Life

IMPORTANCE

Evidence linking parental socioeconomic position and offspring's schizophrenia risk has been inconsistent, and how risk is associated with parental socioeconomic mobility has not been investigated.

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the association between parental income level and income mobility during childhood and subsequent schizophrenia risk.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

National cohort study of all persons born in Denmark from January 1, 1980, to December 31, 2000, who were followed up from their 15th birthday until schizophrenia diagnosis, emigration, death, or December 31, 2016, whichever came first. Data analyses were from March 2018 to June 2019.

EXPOSURE

Parental income, measured at birth year and at child ages 5, 10, and 15 years.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Hazard ratios (HRs) for schizophrenia were estimated using Cox proportional hazard regression. Cumulative incidence values (absolute risks) were also calculated.

RESULTS

The cohort included 1 051 033 participants, of whom 51.3% were male. Of the cohort members, 7544 (4124 [54.7%] male) were diagnosed with schizophrenia during 11.6 million person-years of follow-up. There was an inverse association between parental income level and subsequent schizophrenia risk, with children from lower income families having especially elevated risk. Estimates were attenuated, but risk gradients remained after adjustment for urbanization, parental mental disorders, parental educational levels, and number of changes in child-parent separation status. A dose-response association was observed with increasing amount of time spent in low-income conditions being linked with higher schizophrenia risk. Regardless of parental income level at birth, upward income mobility was associated with lower schizophrenia risk compared with downward mobility. For example, children who were born and remained in the lowest income quintile at age 15 years had a 4.12 (95% CI, 3.71-4.58) elevated risk compared with the reference group, those who were born in and remained in the most affluent quintile, but even a rise from the lowest income quintile at birth to second lowest at age 15 years appeared to lessen the risk elevation (HR, 2.80; 95% CI, 2.46-3.17). On the contrary, for those born in the most affluent quintile, downward income mobility between birth and age 15 years was associated with increased risks of developing schizophrenia.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This study's findings suggest that parental income level and income mobility during childhood may be linked with schizophrenia risk. Although both causation and selection mechanisms could be involved, enabling upward income mobility could influence schizophrenia incidence at the population level.

Exploring the relationship between welfare participation in childhood and depression in adulthood in the United States

OBJECTIVE

Depression is a serious mental health disorder, and untangling its causal agents is a major public health priority in the United States. This study examines the relationship between participating in welfare programs during childhood and experiencing depression during young adulthood.

METHOD

This study used wave I and IV data from the Add Health (N = 15,701). Multiple imputation is used to deal with missing data. Propensity score matching is used to reduce the selection bias, and then multiple regressions were used to examine the welfare participation and depression relationships.

RESULTS

Overall, young adults from welfare-recipient families reported significantly higher depression scores, rather than the clinical diagnosis of depression. Subgroup analyses showed only the poor group had significantly higher depression scores, whereas only the near-poor group had a significantly diagnosed depression outcome. Additionally, significantly higher depression scores were found for female youth from welfare-recipient families. However, no significant differences were found between the gender groups regarding diagnosed depression.

DISCUSSION

Using welfare participation as an economic marker, the subgroup analyses help to identify target populations for future intervention. Implications of this study will be of interest to policy makers and have value for informing policy decisions.

A network approach to the analysis of psychosocial risk factors and their association with health

We modeled early psychosocial risks as a network of interconnected variables to study their associations with later depressive symptoms and cardiometabolic outcomes. The participants were a nationally representative sample of 2580 men and women aged 3-18 years in 1980. Their parents reported the psychosocial risks in 1980, including the following: (1) child-specific life events, (2) parental health behavior, (3) parental socioeconomic status, and (4) parental psychological problems. Adulthood depressive symptoms and cardiometabolic outcomes were measured in 2007-2012. The most central risks (most number of connections to other risks) were socioeconomic risks that also predicted health outcomes more consistently than others.

Predictors of new-onset depressive disorders - Results from the longitudinal Finnish Health 2011 Study

BACKGROUND

Identifying risk factors for depression is important for understanding etiological mechanisms and targeting preventive efforts. No prior studies have compared risk factors of dysthymia and major depressive disorder (MDD) in a longitudinal setting.

METHODS

Predictors of new-onset MDD and dysthymia were examined in a longitudinal general population study (Health 2000 and 2011 Surveys, BRIF8901). 4057 persons free of depressive disorders at baseline were followed up for 11 years. DSM-IV MDD and dysthymia were diagnosed with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview.

RESULTS

126 persons (4.4%, 95%CI 3.6-5.2) were diagnosed with MDD or dysthymia at follow-up. Predictors of new-onset depressive disorders were younger age (adjusted OR 0.97, 95%CI 0.95-0.99 per year), female gender (aOR 1.46, 95%CI 1.01-2.12), multiple childhood adversities (aOR 1.76, 95%CI 1.10-2.83), low trust dimension of social capital (aOR 0.58, 95%CI 0.36-0.96 for high trust), baseline anxiety disorder (aOR 2.75, 95%CI 1.36-5.56), and baseline depressive symptoms (aOR 1.65, 95%CI 1.04-2.61 for moderate and aOR 2.49, 95%CI 1.20-5.17 for severe symptoms). Risk factors for MDD were younger age, female gender, anxiety disorder and depressive symptoms, whereas younger age, multiple childhood adversities, low trust, and having 1-2 somatic diseases predicted dysthymia.

LIMITATIONS

We only had one follow-up point at eleven years, and did not collect information on the subjects' health during the follow-up period.

CONCLUSIONS

Persons with subclinical depressive symptoms, anxiety disorders, low trust, and multiple childhood adversities have a higher risk of depressive disorders. Predictors of MDD and dysthymia appear to differ. This information can be used to target preventive efforts and guide social policies.

Association between aircraft, road and railway traffic noise and depression in a large case-control study based on secondary data

BACKGROUND

Few studies have examined the relationship between traffic noise and depression providing inconclusive results. This large case-control study is the first to assess and directly compare depression risks by aircraft, road traffic and railway noise.

METHODS

The study population included individuals aged ≥40 years that were insured by three large statutory health insurance funds and were living in the region of Frankfurt international airport. Address-specific exposure to aircraft, road and railway traffic noise in 2005 was estimated. Based on insurance claims and prescription data, 77,295 cases with a new clinical depression diagnosis between 2006 and 2010 were compared with 578,246 control subjects.

RESULTS

For road traffic noise, a linear exposure-risk relationship was found with an odds ratio (OR) of 1.17 (95% CI=1.10-1.25) for 24-h continuous sound levels ≥70dB. For aircraft noise, the risk estimates reached a maximum OR of 1.23 (95% CI=1.19-1.28) at 50-55dB and decreased at higher exposure categories. For railway noise, risk estimates peaked at 60-65dB (OR=1.15, 95% CI=1.08-1.22). The highest OR of 1.42 (95% CI=1.33-1.52) was found for a combined exposure to noise above 50dB from all three sources.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates that traffic noise exposure might lead to depression. As a potential explanation for the decreasing risks at high traffic noise levels, vulnerable people might actively cope with noise (e.g. insulate or move away).

Childhood Psychosocial Cumulative Risks and Carotid Intima-Media Thickness in Adulthood: The Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study

OBJECTIVE

Adverse experiences in childhood may influence cardiovascular risk in adulthood. We examined the prospective associations between types of psychosocial adversity and having multiple adversities (e.g., cumulative risk) with carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) and its progression among young adults. Higher cumulative risk score in childhood was expected to be associated with higher IMT and its progression.

METHODS

Participants were 2265 men and women (age range, 24-39 years in 2001) from the ongoing Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns study whose carotid IMTs were measured in 2001 and 2007. A cumulative psychosocial risk score, assessed at the study baseline in 1980, was derived from four separate aspects of the childhood environment that may impose risk (childhood stressful life events, parental health behavior family, socioeconomic status, and childhood emotional environment).

RESULTS

The cumulative risk score was associated with higher IMT in 2007 (b = 0.004, standard error [SE] = 0.001, p < .001) and increased IMT progression from 2001 to 2007 (b = 0.003, SE = 0.001, p = .001). The associations were robust to adjustment for conventional cardiovascular risk factors in childhood and adulthood, including adulthood health behavior, adulthood socioeconomic status, and depressive symptoms. Among the individual childhood psychosocial risk categories, having more stressful life events was associated with higher IMT in 2001 (b = 0.007, SE = 0.003, p = .016) and poorer parental health behavior predicted higher IMT in 2007 (b = 0.004, SE = 0.002, p = .031) after adjustment for age, sex, and childhood cardiovascular risk factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Early life psychosocial environment influences cardiovascular risk later in life, and considering cumulative childhood risk factors may be more informative than individual factors in predicting progression of preclinical atherosclerosis in adulthood.